Farmers Choices and Factors Affecting the Adoption of Climate Change Adaptation

Strategies: A case study in Nishikhola Rural Municipality, Nepal

1.Introcution:
1.1 Background:
Climate change is a serious environmental and social challenges to mankind
that has posed a threat to sustainable development (Human Development Report 2020, 2020).
Drought, floods, and excessive rainfall are the various climatic risks, while crop/livestock
pests and illnesses are the two major indirect effects of climate change (Aryal et al., 2021).
Climate change is a significant and growing threat to the global agricultural system,
particularly for smallholder farmers who depend on rain-fed systems (Musafiri et al., 2021).
The agricultural sector is increasingly vulnerable to extreme weather events, including
droughts, floods, and heatwaves, which significantly disrupt crop yields, threaten food
security, and impact rural livelihoods (Jha & Gupta, 2021). The world will face severe
climate impacts even with 1.5 degrees of warming, and the consequences of a 2 °C warmer
world will be far greater than that of a 1.5 °C warmer world (e.g., the average global crop
yield loss by 3% will increase to 7%; the decline in global GDP by 3% will increase to 5%)
(IPCC,2018).
Adaptation to climate change involves any activity designed to reduce vulnerability
and increase system resilience (vogel and meyer, 2018). And thus, the actual impacts of
climate change rely heavily on adaptive capacity, which is mostly location-specific, and its
effectiveness is dependent on local institutions and socioeconomic settings (vermeulen et al.,
2012; Morton, 2007). As climate change impacts on the environment worsen, adaptation is
seen as the best remedy (Shaffril et al., 2017; Shaffril et al., 2018). In response to these
challenges, farmers across the world are adopting various climate change adaptation
strategies, including crop diversification, improved irrigation systems, the use of climate-
resilient crop varieties, agroforestry, and soil conservation practices (Owen, 2020). However,
the adoption of these strategies is influenced by several factors such as access to financial
resources, education, land tenure, government policies, and the availability of information. In
many regions, the lack of institutional support and economic resources hinders the ability of
farmers to effectively adapt to changing climatic conditions (Mastrorillo et al., 2016;
Deininger & Feder, 2009; Kassie et al., 2015; Elahi et al., 2022).
Nepal, being a least developed mountainous country geographically located in the lap of the
Himalayas, is one of the most vulnerable nations in terms of climate change (IPCC report
2022). Nepal has a poverty rate of 15.1%, with the majority of the population residing in rural
regions and being particularly exposed to the effects of climate change, such as drought,
floods, and excessive rainfall (Ministry of Finance, 2023; Aryal et al., 2021). These
sensitivities are exacerbated by the country's socioeconomic position, which is marked by
poverty, illiteracy, social inequity, and a strong reliance on natural resources (Goodrich et al.,
2021). These challenges are particularly acute in Nepal’s mountainous and hilly regions,
where the majority of the population depends on agriculture for their livelihoods. Agriculture
in Nepal is predominantly smallholder-based, with over 65% of the population involved in
farming activities (Kathmandu Post, 2023; FAO, 2021). Yet, despite these challenges, there
has been limited scientific assessment have been carried out in rural area of Nepal.
1.2 Problem statement/Rationale of the study:
Existing literature emphasizes the importance of socio-economic and institutional contexts in
shaping adaptation strategies. Studies show that rural communities in Nepal have developed
various coping mechanisms, such as bioengineering structures and diverse agricultural
practices, to respond to climate variability (Dhungana et al., 2020). However, there is a lack
of localized studies that specifically explore how these broader factors interact with cultural
norms and gender roles at the community level in Nishikhola Rural Municipality.
The influence of cultural practices and gender dynamics on adaptation decisions remains
under-researched. For instance, while women play crucial roles in agricultural production and
resource management, their experiences and challenges are often overlooked (World Food
Program, 2023). Understanding how gender affects access to resources and decision-making
processes is essential for designing effective adaptation strategies.
Indigenous knowledge systems and local practices are critical for enhancing climate
resilience but have received limited attention in current research. Studies indicate that
traditional practices can significantly contribute to adaptation efforts by providing context-
specific solutions (Rijal et al., 2021). So, there is a need for more research that integrates
these local knowledge systems into formal adaptation frameworks.
This study aims to fill these gaps by focusing on the unique socio-economic, institutional,
cultural, and environmental factors influencing the adoption of climate change adaptation
strategies in Nishikhola Rural Municipality.

1.3 Objectives:
General objective of this research is to examine farmers’ choices and the factors affecting
the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies in Nishikhola Rural Municipality, Nepal.
1.3.1 Specific Objectives:
1. To identify the climate change adaptation strategies used by farmers in Nishikhola
Rural Municipality.
2. To analyze socio-economic, cultural, and institutional factors influencing the adoption
of adaptation strategies.
3. To assess the barriers hindering the adoption of climate adaptation strategies among
farmers.
4. To provide policy recommendations for enhancing the adoption of climate-resilient
practices in Nishikhola.
1.4 Research Questions/Hypothesis:
1. What are the most common climate change adaptation strategies used by farmers in
Nishikhola Rural Municipality?
2. What socio-economic factors (e.g., education, income, land ownership) influence
farmers' adoption of these strategies?
3. How do cultural practices and local knowledge systems affect farmers' adaptation
choices?
4. What institutional support mechanisms (e.g., government programs, NGOs) exist for
climate change adaptation in Nishikhola, and how effective are they?
 5. What are the major barriers preventing farmers from adopting climate change
adaptation strategies?
1.5 Literature review:
Climate Change and Agriculture
Climate change has emerged as a critical challenge affecting global agriculture, with
significant implications for food security and rural livelihoods. The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC, 2014) highlights, that rising temperatures, shifting precipitation
patterns, and increasing frequency of extreme weather events are adversely impacting
agricultural productivity across various regions. Developing countries, particularly in Africa
and Asia, face heightened vulnerability due to their reliance on rain-fed agriculture and
limited adaptive capacity (Adger et al., 2003).
Global Context of Climate Change in Agriculture
In sub-Saharan Africa, studies have documented how farmers are adopting diverse climate
adaptation strategies to cope with the impacts of climate change. These strategies include
crop diversification, soil conservation techniques, and the use of drought-tolerant crop
varieties (Deressa et al., 2009). For instance, in South Asia, erratic monsoon patterns have led
to reduced agricultural yields and increased occurrences of droughts and floods (Khatri-
Chhetri et al., 2017). Adaptation measures in this region often involve altering sowing dates,
implementing water-efficient irrigation methods, and integrating agroforestry systems to
enhance resilience. Despite the recognition of climate impacts on agriculture, the adoption of
climate-resilient practices remains low in many developing countries. A study by Bryan et al.
(2013) in Ethiopia identified key factors influencing farmers' adoption of adaptation
strategies, including access to information, availability of credit, and land tenure security.
These findings are supported by other research indicating that enabling access to resources
and knowledge is essential for enhancing farmers’ adaptive capacities.
Climate Change and Agriculture in Nepal
Nepal is particularly vulnerable to climate change due to its fragile mountainous topography
and heavy dependence on agriculture for livelihoods. The National Adaptation Plan (NAP) of
Nepal indicates that the country is experiencing changes in temperature and precipitation
patterns, leading to more intense and irregular monsoons, increased landslides, and prolonged
dry spells (GoN, 2019). These climatic changes adversely affect agriculture, especially in
rural areas where smallholder farmers predominantly rely on traditional practices. Research
conducted by Manandhar et al. (2011) highlights that unpredictable monsoon patterns and
increased flooding have significantly reduced crop yields, contributing to food insecurity and
economic vulnerability among rural communities. To cope with these challenges, farmers in
Nepal have adopted various adaptation measures such as shifting planting dates, practicing
terrace farming, and diversifying crops (Paudel et al., 2014). However, socio-economic
factors such as limited access to credit, agricultural extension services, and technology
remain significant barriers to wider adoption (Maharjan et al., 2011). Furthermore,
inadequate infrastructure and poor market access in remote areas further hinder farmers’
ability to invest in climate-resilient practices (Regmi & Bhandari, 2012).
Adaptation Strategies in Agriculture
Numerous studies have identified a range of adaptation strategies employed by farmers to
mitigate the effects of climate change. Common practices include planting drought-tolerant
crop varieties, adjusting planting dates, diversifying crops, and improving irrigation systems
(Khanal et al., 2018; Manandhar et al., 2011). For instance, a study conducted in Kenya
highlighted that farmer adopted various strategies such as crop diversification and income
diversification to enhance their resilience against climate impacts (Kabubo-Mariara &
Karanja, 2007). Similarly, research in Chitwan, Nepal, indicated that smallholder rice
producers utilized improved irrigation practices and integrated pest management as key
adaptation measures (Piya et al., 2013).
Factors Influencing Adoption
Several factors significantly influence farmers' choices regarding the adoption of climate
change adaptation strategies:
1. Access to Resources: Access to financial resources, agricultural extension services,
and training opportunities has been shown to enhance the likelihood of adopting
multiple adaptation practices. Studies indicate that farmers with better access to
institutional resources are more likely to implement effective adaptation strategies
(Khanal et al., 2018; Piya et al., 2013).
2. Education and Knowledge: Higher education levels correlate with increased
awareness and adoption of adaptation practices. Farmers who receive training related
to climate change are more likely to implement innovative agricultural practices
(Kassie et al., 2015). Conversely, a lack of information and technical knowledge is
often cited as a barrier to adoption (Khanal et al., 2018).
3. Socioeconomic Factors: Gender, age, household size, and farm income significantly
impact farmers' decisions regarding adaptation strategies. For example, younger
farmers with larger household sizes tend to adopt more diverse strategies compared to
older counterparts (Mastrorillo et al., 2016). Similarly, access to credit has been
identified as a critical determinant influencing the adoption of specific practices such
as planting drought-resistant varieties (Aryal et al., 2020).
4. Perception of Climate Risks: Farmers' perceptions of climate risks also play a vital
role in their decision-making processes. Those who perceive higher risks associated
with climate change are more likely to adopt adaptive measures (Deressa et al., 2009).
5. Cultural Practices: Local cultural beliefs and traditional farming practices can either
facilitate or hinder the adoption of new strategies. In some cases, farmers may be
reluctant to abandon traditional methods in favor of new techniques that they perceive
as unproven or risky (Gbetibouo, 2009).
1.6 Research framework:
Literature review Identify gaps Design survey instruments pilot
test collect data through surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions
Analyze collected data using both qualitative and quantitative methods
Compile findings into a report and disseminate results to stakeholders, including local
government, NGOs and the farming community.
2. Methodology:
2.1. Study area:
Nishikhola Rural Municipality, located in the Baglung District of Gandaki Province, Nepal
(annex 1). The elevation ranges from 889 meters to 4,000 meters above sea level, covering a
total area of 244.37 square kilometers. The rural municipality has a population of 23,300
people, with a total of 4,893 households (Nepal Archives, 2024). The majority of the
population belongs to the Magar ethnic group, alongside other ethnicities such as Kami,
Chhetri, and Gurung. There were only 12,300 people fully literate in Nisikhola Rural
Municipality as of 2011 who were able to both read and write, while 745 people were able to
read but not write. The primary occupation of the people is agriculture, which serves as the
backbone of their livelihoods. The majority of households engage in smallholder farming,
relying on traditional practices and cultivating crops such as maize, millet, wheat, and barley.
Livestock farming also plays a significant role in the local economy, with many families
raising animals for both subsistence and income generation. The region is characterized by
smallholder farming practices where agriculture is predominantly rain-fed, making it
particularly vulnerable to climate variability.
2.2 Research design:
This study will employ a mixed-method research design, integrating both quantitative and
qualitative approaches. The quantitative component will be used to assess the key
determinants influencing farmers' adoption of climate change adaptation strategies in
Nishikhola Rural Municipality, Nepal, while the qualitative component will provide context,
insights, and deeper understanding of the socio-economic and environmental factors
involved.
2.3 Sampling design:
The multistage sampling procedure will be applied to identify the determinants of farmers
adoption of climate change adaptation mechanisms.
Stage 1: Selection of Wards - Nishikhola will be divided into different wards, and a sample
of wards will be selected based on their vulnerability to climate change impacts.
Stage 2: Random Sampling of Households - Within each selected ward, a random sampling
method will be applied to select households engaged in farming activities.
2.4. Data Collection Method:
1. Primary Data Collection:
 Household Survey: A semi-structured questionnaire will be designed to collect data
on farmers’ socio-economic characteristics, farm income, farm size, climate change
perceptions, and adoption of adaptation strategies. The questionnaire will include both
open- and close-ended questions (annex 2).
 In-depth Interviews: Key informants, including local agricultural officers,
community leaders, and extension service providers, will be interviewed to gain
insights into institutional and local support mechanisms for adaptation. Additionally,
gender-disaggregated focus groups will be conducted to understand the gender-
specific barriers to adopting adaptation strategies.
 Field Observations: Observations will be conducted to assess land use patterns, soil
and water conservation practices, and physical impacts of climate change on the local
landscape.
2. Secondary Data Collection: Secondary data sources will be also used include
governmental reports (e.g., reports from the Ministry of Agriculture, Climate Change Action
Plan), academic articles, NGO reports, and climate data from the Department of Hydrology
and Meteorology of Nepal. These data will complement primary data and help validate
farmers’ perceptions with actual climate trends in the area.
2.5 Data analysis:
The Multinomial and Binary logistic regression models with the help of the Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) (21th edition) will be used to analyze the data. The
multinomial logistic regression model will be used to estimate the influence of the
socioeconomic characteristics of sample households on the farmer's decision to choose
climate change adaptation strategies. In cases where the adoption of a specific adaptation
strategy (e.g., adoption or non-adoption of irrigation) is treated as a binary dependent
variable, a binary logistic regression model will be applied. This model will help to estimate
the likelihood that a farmer adopts a particular strategy based on the influence of key factors
like access to climate information, farm income, and market access. The qualitative data
collected from interviews and focus group discussions will be transcribed and analyzed
thematically.
3.Expected Outcomes:
1. Identification of the most commonly adopted climate adaptation strategies among
farmers in Nishikhola (e.g., crop diversification, agroforestry, terracing).
2. A comprehensive understanding of how factors such as income, education,
gender, and access to information affect the adoption of these strategies.
3. Insight into cultural norms and local knowledge that influence farmers' decisions
to adapt.
4. Identification of key institutional barriers (e.g., limited extension services, lack of
financial support) hindering adaptation.
5. Policy recommendations to improve farmer resilience and adaptation to climate
change, including potential government interventions, capacity-building
programs, and resource allocation.
4. Time frame:
Activity Mont Kartik Mansir Poush Magh Falgun Chaitra
h
Preparation and
Planning
Literature Review

Questioner testing
and Data collection
Data analysis

Draft writing

Finalization and
Submission

5. Budget:
 Activities Description Estimated Cost (NPR) Request from Gpast

Travel (to and from) 1. Preliminary field visit Rs. 26,000 Rs.26,000
(Rs.4,000)
2. Questioner testing
(2people*2days*Rs.3000
per day)
3. Final household survey
(2people*10 days*RS.500
per day)
Foods and 2 people*14days*1000 per day Rs.28,000 Rs.28,000
Accommodation
Questioner Printing cost approximately Rs.4,000 Rs.4,000
200*Rs.20
Print of final report 2 Reports X Rs.5000 Rs.10,000 Rs.10,000
(Color Print)
Communication and Rs.2,000 Rs.2,000
first aid kit
Miscellaneous Rs.5,000 Rs.5,000

Total Rs.75,000 Rs.75,000

6. References:

1. Abebe, T. (2022, May 9). Impacts of Climate Change on Rural Women Households
and their Adaptation Strategies: Halaba District, Ethiopia. International Journal of
Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources.
https://doi.org/10.19080/ijesnr.2022.30.556285
2. Adger, W. N., Huq, S., Brown, K., Conway, D., & Hulme, M. (2003). Adaptation to
climate change in the developing world. Progress in Development Studies, 3(3), 179-
195.

3. AR5 Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability — IPCC. (n.d.).
IPCC. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/
4. Aryal, J. P., Sapkota, T. B., Rahut, D. B., Marenya, P., & Stirling, C. M. (2021, May
18). Climate risks and adaptation strategies of farmers in East Africa and South Asia.
Scientific Reports. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-89391-1
5. Bhadwal, S., Sharma, G., Gorti, G., & Sen, S. (2019, September 1). Livelihoods,
gender and climate change in the Eastern himalayas. Environmental Development.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2019.04.008
6. Bryan, E., Deressa, T. T., Gbetibouo, G. A., & Ringler, C. (2013). Adaptation to
climate change in Ethiopia and South Africa: Options and constraints. Environmental
Science & Policy, 33, 90-100.
7. Change, N. I. P. O. C. (2023). Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and

Vulnerability. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009325844
8. Climate action: ‘Take steps to close the adaptation gap, now.’ (2023, November 2).
UN News. https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/11/1143102
9. Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. (n.d.). IPCC.

https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/

10. Deininger, K., & Feder, G. (2009). Land Institutions and Land Markets. In Handbook
on Land Policy in Africa.
11. Deressa, T. T., Hassan, R. M., Ringler, C., Alemu, T., & Yesuf, M. (2009).
Determinants of farmers' choice of adaptation methods to climate change in the Nile
Basin of Ethiopia. Global Environmental Change, 19(2), 248-255.
12. Dhungana, N., Silwal, N., Upadhaya, S., Khadka, C., Regmi, S. K., Joshi, D., &

Adhikari, S. (2020). Rural coping and adaptation strategies for climate change by

Himalayan communities in Nepal. Journal of Mountain Science, 17(6), 1462–1474.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-019-5616-3

13. Elahi, E., Khalid, Z., Tauni, M. Z., Zhang, H., & Lirong, X. (2022). Extreme weather

events risk to crop-production and the adaptation of innovative management strategies

to mitigate the risk: A retrospective survey of rural Punjab, Pakistan. Technovation,

117, 102255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2021.102255

14. FAO. (2021). Nepal at a glance | FAO in Nepal | Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/nepal/fao-in-nepal/nepal-at-

a-glance/en/

15. Goh, A. H. X. (2012). A Literature Review of the Gender-differentiated Impacts of

Climate Change on Women’s and Men’s Assets and Well-being in Developing
Countries, CAPRi Working Paper No. 106, USA. (n.d.).
https://www.sciepub.com/reference/223288
16. GoN (Government of Nepal). (2019). National Adaptation Plan: Nepal.

17. Goodrich, C., Gurung, D. D., & Bastola, A. (2021, December 16). The State of
Gender Equality and Climate Change in Nepal State of Gender Equality and Climate
Change in Nepal. ResearchGate.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357083521_The_State_of_Gender_Equality
_and_Climate_Change_in_Nepal_State_of_Gender_Equality_and_Climate_Change_i
n_Nepal
18. Human Development Report 2020. (2020, December 15). Human Development
Reports. https://hdr.undp.org/content/human-development-report-2020
19. IPCC, 2018. An IPCC Special Report on the Impacts of Global Warming of 1.5°C
above Pre-Industrial Levels and Related Global Greenhouse Gas Emission Pathways,
in the Context of Strengthening the Global Response to the Threat of Climate Change,
Sustainable Development, and Efforts to Eradicate Poverty, ed. V. Masson-Delmotte,
P. Zhai, H. O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-
Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J. B. R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M. I.
Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield.
20. IPCC. (2022). Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_
AR6_WGII_SummaryVolume.pdf.
21. Kassie, M., Zikhali, P., Manjur, K., & Erenstein, O. (2015). The Role of Education in
Climate Change Adaptation: Evidence from Smallholder Farmers in
Ethiopia. Climate Change, 133(1), 187-203.
22. Kathmandu Post. (2023, May 31). Opinion | Reviving Nepal’s agriculture.

https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2023/05/31/reviving-nepal-s-agriculture

23. Khatri-Chhetri, A., Aggarwal, P. K., & Joshi, P. K. (2017). Climate change impacts
on agriculture: A review of evidence from South Asia. Climate Policy, 17(2), 155-
167.
24. Maharjan, K. L., Joshi, N. P., & Thapa, G. B. (2011). Impact of Climate Change on
Agriculture: Evidence from Nepal’s Mid-Hills Region.
25. Manandhar, S., Bhandari, B., & Paudel, N. S. (2011). Climate Change Impacts on
Agriculture: Evidence from Nepal's Mid-Hills Region.
26. Mastrorillo, M., et al. (2016). The Role of Financial Resources in Climate Change
Adaptation: A Review of Evidence from Developing Countries. Environmental
Science & Policy, 66, 1-10.

27. Ministry Of Finance. (n.d.). https://mof.gov.np/site/publication-detail/3248

28. Morton, J. (2007). The impact of climate change on smallholder and subsistence

agriculture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of

America, 104(50), 19680–19685. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0701855104

29. Musafiri, C. M., Kiboi, M., Macharia, J., Ng’etich, O. K., Kosgei, D. K., Mulianga,

B., Okoti, M., & Ngetich, F. K. (2021b). Adoption of climate-smart agricultural

practices among smallholder farmers in Western Kenya: do socioeconomic,

institutional, and biophysical factors matter? Heliyon, 8(1), e08677.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08677
30. Nepal Archives. (2024). Nisikhola Rural Municipality Profile | Facts & Statistics.
Retrieved from https://www.nepalarchives.com/content/nisikhola-rural-municipality-
baglung-profile/

31. Owen, G. (2020). What makes climate change adaptation effective? A systematic

review of the literature. Global Environmental Change, 62, 102071.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102071

32. Paudel, N. S., & Thapa G.B. (2014). Farmers’ perception towards climate change: A
case study from Nepal’s Mid-Hills Region.
33. Rijal, S., Gentle, P., Khanal, U., Wilson, C., & Rimal, B. (2021). A systematic review

of Nepalese farmers’ climate change adaptation strategies. Climate Policy, 22(1),

132–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2021.1977600

34. Shaffril, H. a. M., Krauss, S. E., & Samsuddin, S. F. (2018). A systematic review on

Asian’s farmers’ adaptation practices towards climate change. The Science of the

Total Environment, 644, 683–695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.349

35. Shaffril, H. A., Samah, A. A., & D’Silva, J. (2017). Adapting towards climate change

impacts: strategies for small scale fishermen in Malaysia.

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Adapting-towards-climate-change-impacts

%3A-strategies-Shaffril-Samah/48a0aef0c2b0555c54eb2119b9fd8a20802db1d8

36. Vermeulen, S. J., Campbell, B. M., & Ingram, J. (2012). Climate change and food

systems. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 37(1), 195–222.

https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-020411-130608

37. Vogel, E., & Meyer, R. (2018, January 1). Climate Change, Climate Extremes, and
Global Food Production—Adaptation in the Agricultural Sector. Elsevier eBooks.
https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-811891-7.00003-7
38. WomenWatch: Women, Gender Equality and Climate Change. (n.d.).
https://www.un.org/womenwatch/feature/climate_change/
39. World Food Programme. (2023, October 15). Banking on apples: How women in

rural Nepal are tackling climate challenges | World Food Programme. UN World
 Food Programme (WFP). https://www.wfp.org/stories/banking-apples-how-women-

rural-nepal-are-tackling-climate-challenges

Annex 1: Study Area Map

Fig: Map showing Study area(Nishikhola Rural Municipality)

Annex 2 Household Survey Questioner

Section 1: Household Demographics

1. Gender:

o ☐ Male

o ☐ Female

o ☐ Other

2. Age:

o ☐ Below 25 years

o ☐ 25–40 years

o ☐ 41–60 years

o ☐ Above 60 years

3. Education Level:

o ☐ No formal education

o ☐ Primary education

o ☐ Secondary education

o ☐ Higher education

4. Household Size:
 o ☐ 1-3 members

o ☐ 4-6 members

o ☐ More than 6 members

5. Primary Occupation:

o ☐ Farming

o ☐ Non-farm income activities (business, labor, etc.)

o ☐ Mixed farming and other activities

Section 2: Socio-Economic Factors

1. What is the size of your agricultural land?

o ☐ Less than 1 acre

o ☐ 1-3 acres

o ☐ More than 3 acres

2. What is your household’s total annual income?

o ☐ Less than NPR 100,000

o ☐ NPR 100,000 – 300,000

o ☐ More than NPR 300,000

3. How much of your household’s income comes from farming?

o ☐ Less than 30%

o ☐ 30-60%

o ☐ More than 60%

4. Do you have access to financial services (e.g., credit, loans)?

o ☐ Yes

o ☐ No

Section 3: Climate Change Perceptions

1. Have you noticed changes in climate patterns in recent years (e.g., rainfall,
temperature, drought)?

o ☐ Yes
 o ☐ No

2. What climate-related challenges have you experienced? (Check all that apply)

o ☐ Drought

o ☐ Flooding

o ☐ Erratic rainfall

o ☐ Soil erosion

o ☐ Crop failure

3. How concerned are you about the impact of climate change on your farming?

o ☐ Very concerned

o ☐ Somewhat concerned

o ☐ Not concerned

Section 4: Adaptation Strategies

1. Which climate change adaptation strategies have you adopted on your farm?
(Check all that apply)

o ☐ Mixed cropping

o ☐ Drought-resistant crops

o ☐ Soil and water conservation techniques

o ☐ Irrigation

o ☐ Changing planting dates (early/late sowing)

o ☐ Shifting to non-farm income activities

2. Have you received any training on climate-resilient farming practices?

o ☐ Yes

o ☐ No

3. If yes, who provided the training?

o ☐ Government extension service

o ☐ NGOs

o ☐ Community-based organizations
 o ☐ Other: ____________________

Section 5: Institutional and Gender Dynamics

1. Do you have access to climate information (e.g., weather forecasts, early

warnings)?

o ☐ Yes

o ☐ No

2. How often do you interact with agricultural extension officers?

o ☐ Regularly

o ☐ Occasionally

o ☐ Never

3. Is market access a challenge for selling your agricultural products?

o ☐ Yes

o ☐ No

4. Is there any gender-based challenges you face in accessing resources (e.g., land,
credit, training)?

o ☐ Yes

o ☐ No

5. Who primarily makes farming-related decisions in your household?

o ☐ Male members

o ☐ Female members

o ☐ Both equally

6. Do women in your household have equal access to resources and opportunities

for climate adaptation?

o ☐ Yes

o ☐ No

Additional Comments:


