Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge

Vol 18(2), April 2019, pp. 376-382

Assessment of household perceptions to climate adaptation for resilient rural

development planning in India
Naveen P Singh*,+, Bhawna Anand & Mohd Arshad Khan
ICAR-National Institute of Agricultural Economics & Policy Research, New Delhi 110 012
E-mail: +naveenpsingh@gmail.com

Received 15 January 2019; revised 21 February 2019

Enhancing resilience of rural communities to climate change requires a clear understanding of micro-level perceptions and
adaptation issues and their integration with the rural developmental framework. We collected household level data to
understand grass-root perspectives on climate variability, impacts and barriers to adaptation in two different districts; Moga,
Punjab and Mahbubnagar, Telangana. Further the study uses meteorological data to validate farmers perceptions. The results
show that change in the quantum and distribution of rainfall, rising temperature, ground water depletion, lower farm income,
higher unemployment and rural migration are some of the major impacts of climate change. Moreover, farmers perceptions
on climate variability were consistent with the observed climate trend. Against climatic variations farmers were making shift
to crop varieties of suitable duration, curtailing expenditure, borrowing and participating in employment guarantee schemes.
However, farmers responses were constrained by barriers like lack of accessibility to weather information, limited
knowledge on the cost-benefit of adaptation, inaccessibility to climate smart technologies, inadequate financial resources
and unawareness on welfare schemes. The study concludes there is a need to reorient the developmental programmes at the
macro-level considering micro-level needs and constraints for climate resilient agriculture.

Keywords: Adaptation, Climate change, Development, Farmer, Perception

IPC Code: Int. Cl.19 : A61G 10/02, A61K 38/00, A61F 9/08

Changing contours of climatic conditions are posing adaptation. The approach aims to create an enabling
serious threat to the farm livelihood and adaptation to environment to increase the capacity of an ecosystem
climate change is imperative to minimize to external shocks. However, assessment of grass-root
vulnerability in short to medium run1-3. Changes in perceptive to climate change and obstacles to
temperature and rainfall not only influence crop yield, adaptation provides useful information to design
but also produces large scale socio-economic impacts policies for managing a variety of risks associated with
which aggravates poverty and inequality in the climate change in agriculture12-15. The present study
region4-6. Several studies have elaborated that attempts to examine farmers perceptions on the impacts
adaptation to climate change is not a one-size fit all of climate variability; risk coping mechanisms and
approach as it is driven by the potential climate barriers for adopting adaptation strategies in
impacts, agro-climatic and socio-economic factors, Mahbubnagar district of Telangana and Moga district
hence vary across regions7-9. Farm households employ of Punjab. Further, the study verifies farmers
a wide range of risk coping strategies to limit the perceptions with the meteorological data. Such an
losses and vulnerability from climate perturbations, understanding of needs and constraints will help in
which are largely based on farmers experiential designing region based plans and locally tailored
knowledge. In India climatic variability adds an strategies for reinforcing resilience to climate change.
additional burden to 85% of small and marginal land
holdings who are already hapless with insufficient Materials and methods
financial and technical resources10-11. This Study area
substantiates the need to integrate climate responses This study conducted a household survey to assess
within the broader framework of long-run sustainable farmers perceptions of climate variability, measures
development, focusing impacts and constraints to adopted to cope up against climate change and
————— barriers that prevents upscaling of adaptation
*Corresponding author strategies in two different districts; Moga, located in
 SINGH et al.: PERCEPTIONS TO CLIMATE ADAPTATION FOR RESILIENT DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 377

north-western state of Punjab and Mahbubnagar extract micro-level information in more detail and
situated in southern state of Telangana. Moga covers a depth. During the grass-root enquiry farmers were
geographical area of 2,242 sq. km. with 77% of its asked open-ended questions relating to the changes
population residing in rural areas which are perceived in the weather parameters and the
predominately engaged in agricultural activities for recurrence of extreme weather events (droughts and
their livelihoods. The district experiences tropical and floods), changes in crop production system, the socio-
dry sub-humid climate conditions with mean economic impacts, risk coping strategies/mechanism
maximum temperature of 40°C and mean minimum of adopted and various barriers faced in adaptation to
about 5°C. Moga receives a normal annual rainfall of climate change. The information collected was later
498 mm of which 78% occurs during the south-west quantified using frequency tables.
monsoon16. As a major rice producing area, Moga Further, farmers perceptions on climate change
is heavily extracting groundwater for irrigation, which were compared with climatic data (monthly series on
is exceeding the sustainable level of groundwater rainfall (from 1981-2014) and temperature (from
supply and is likely to produce serious consequences 1971-2013)) collected from Indian Metrological
for the farming community17. On the other hand, Department (IMD). For the analyses of annual rainfall
Mahbubnagar with an area of 18, 432 sq. km. is the variability, Cumulative Departure Index (CDI) was
largest district in Telangana. The district has a tropical calculated using the following
climate with mean temperature varying from 25°C to ோಲಲ ିோಿ
40.9°C and average annual rainfall of 692 mm. The CDI =
ఙ
region is characterized by recurrence of droughts and
severe groundwater depletion18. Moreover, where RAA is the actual annual rainfall, aggregated
Mahbubnagar is regarded as the most backward from the monthly series, RN is the mean annual
region in the state due to large proportion of the rainfall and ߪ is the standard deviation over the entire
population (85%) living in rural areas, higher time interval of the study.
incidence of poverty and low agriculture productivity. Variation in temperature was analyzed by taking
the difference between the actual annual temperature
Methods (aggregated from the monthly temperature series) and
The study is based on both primary and secondary average annual temperature. Finally trend was
level database. Multi-stage sampling was used for analyzed for both the rainfall and temperature series.
selecting the sample households. In the first stage,
Mahbubnagar district in Telangana and Moga district Results and discussion
in Punjab were purposely selected. Next, two blocks Farmers perceptions of climate change and socio-economic
from each district and two villages from each block impacts
were selected. Finally, simple random sampling Understanding farmers perception is a prelude for
technique was used in selecting 20 respondents from effective and informed adaptation planning at the
each of the villages. Thus a total sample of 160 farm level19. From the FGDs it was ascertained that
farmers with different social-economic and farmers perceived climate variability than long term
demographic attributes was selected for the study Table 1 — Characteristics of household in the selected districts
(Table 1). The average age and farming experience in
the study areas were nearly 47 years and 22 years Mahbubnagar, Moga,
respectively. More than 40% of the farmers had Variables Telangana Punjab
primary education, 30% with secondary education and (N=80) (N=80)
20% of the respondents were qualified up to higher Average family size (persons) 5.20 5.43
Average Age (years) 47.07 47.37
secondary or above. Compositions of the sample
Average agricultural workers 2.03 2.27
signify an educated and experienced group of farmers,
Average Farming
who were able to understand the dynamics of experience (in years)
22.63 22.40
changing climatic conditions and can make significant Average land holdings size (ha) 3.00 4.20
modification in farming practices and decisions. Education (%)
Further, informal interviews with the farmers and Primary education 41.25 46.25
focused group discussions (FGDs) with 15-20 Secondary education 36.25 33.75
stakeholders were organized in the selected villages to Higher secondary and above 22.50 20.00
378 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, APRIL 2019

climate change (Table 2). In both the districts, district to migrate to metropolitan cities. There were
majority of the farmers felt significant variations in rising concerns against escalating prices of necessary
the quantum of rainfall and continuous delay in the commodities, education and family health, and
arrival of monsoon over the years. They believed that erosion of village/ community social support system
rainfall have become more intense over fewer days, which were evident from growing water disputes in
leaving rest of the season dry. the region. Farmers also expressed reduction in
Earlier the shower used to begin in the first week of expenditures on marriage and festivals celebrations
July, but it now starts somewhere in August, affecting due to increased climatic uncertainty and risks.
kharif sowing. Moreover, there were growing
concerns over off-season rains which pose significant Farmers perceptions and climate data
damage to the crops. Farmers reported increasing The above perceptions of the farmers were in
stress on groundwater and increased erraticism in the consonance with the observed pattern in the climatic
distribution of rainfall. Increased temperatures and parameters (rainfall and temperature). Fig. 1, shows
irrigation have resulted in higher level of soil salinity, the Cumulative Departure Index calculated from the
which is making it difficult to grow/cultivate
traditional crops. Table 3 — Socio-economic impact of climate change
Climate related risks are expected to impact Mahbubnagar, Moga,
Socio-economic Impacts
livelihoods and socio-economic stability of rural Telangana Punjab
households20 (Table 3). Farmers expressed lower farm Declining farm income and 57 73
income and profitability with increased climatic profitability
variations. Financial hardship due to successive crop Rising level of farm unemployment 54 41
failure obligates farm households to sell or mortgage Increasing price of essential food 77 51
items
their productive assets for meeting the domestic
Reduction in domestic consumption 29 13
consumption needs. In addition failure of agriculture
Land and livestock mortgage 24 5
results in loss of employment for farming
Increasing incidence of farm 57 37
communities in rural and other areas. This along with indebtedness
low level of education and inadequate skill to serve Increasing rural migration 46 9
other sectors further adds to their vulnerability. Reduction in expenditure on 69 37
Farmers unanimously agreed that lesser employment festivals/marriages
opportunities are leading to increased indebtedness Reduction in expenditure on child 17 13
and subsequent default in repayment are leading to education
farmers’ suicides. Moreover, farmers opined income Rising inter-society water dispute 21 12
stress are forcing villager especially in Mahbubnagar Incidence of farmer’s suicide 13 5

Table 2 — Farmers perceptions of climate change

Mabubnagar, Moga,
Aspects Responses Telangana Punjab
Amount of rainfall Quantity of rainfall have changed over the years 83 45
Intensity of rainy day There is decline in the number of rainy days 69 59
Rainfall onset and cessation Shift in the arrival /onset of monsoon affecting sowing 59 73
Distribution of rainfall Rainfall distribution has become erratic, with increased variation 29 32
during early and late monsoon season
Temperature Increase in average temperature especially in Moga during winters 45 81
affecting wheat crops
Droughts / flood Increasing frequency of extreme weather events. Frequency of 33 25
droughts and long dry spells are rising in both the districts.
Major climate induced problems Decline in crop yield and production 79 21
identified in selected villages Declining level of ground water 77 67
Scarcity in surface water bodies 65 26
Decline in soil fertility/change in soil salinity 14 6
Proliferation of pest and disease infestation 54 18
Changing flowering period of different crops 42 50
 SINGH et al.: PERCEPTIONS TO CLIMATE ADAPTATION FOR RESILIENT DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 379

monthly rainfall data from 1981 to 2014 with a 3-year erraticism in the distribution of rainfall and rising
moving average, for Moga and Mahbubnagar district. frequency of dry spells/droughts. Fig. 2 shows
The results indicate significant oscillations in the variation in average annual maximum and minimum
hydrologic variable. Rainfall was recorded below- temperatures from 1971 to 2013. For Moga, an
average over much of the time interval in both the increasing trend is observed for both the maximum
districts. Infact, in Mahbubnagar 16 and in Moga 21 (0.01°C/year) and minimum temperatures
out of 34 years indicate lower than normal rainfall, (0.022°C/year) which is in line with the farmers
but the magnitude of departure was more intense in perception of rise in the surface temperatures in the
case of Mahbubnagar. Annual rainfall was below district. While in case of Mahbubnagar a clear upward
average in three out of five years from 2010 to 2014 trend is visible in the maximum temperature
in both Mahbubnagar and Moga. The trend in rainfall (0.02°C/year), not much variation is seen in minimum
verified the farmers perception of increasing temperature within the study period. This implies an
accelerated warming in Mahbubnagar district.
Adaptation strategies to climate change
Against the perceived climatic variations farmers
were shifting to drought/pest tolerant, short duration
crop varieties and making suitable adjustments in the
sowing and harvesting dates (Table 4). However, not
many reported on changing farming practices towards
mixed cropping/intercropping to reduce crop risk
exposure. Slow and gradual shift was observed
towards water efficient technologies like sprinklers
and drip irrigation in both the districts. Only a few
farmers expressed availing crop insurance owing to
lack of knowledge and lesser incentive especially
among small farmers as they have to pay premiums.
Large proportion of the respondents in Moga district
was rescheduling their loan payment, whereas farmers
in Mahbubnagar district resorted to higher borrowing
Fig. 1 — Rainfall variations and trend based on Cumulative
due to lower profitability. To cushion against the
Departure Index for Moga District, Punjab and Mahbubnagar
District, Telangana (1981-2014). Source: Authors own calculation increased uncertainty of rainfall and recurrence of
using IMD data, New Delhi extremes, farmers were diversifying to non-farm or

Fig. 2 — Variation and trend in Maximum and Minimum Temperature in Moga and Mabubnagar District (1971-2013) Source: Authors
own calculations using IMD data, New Delhi
380 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, APRIL 2019

off-farm activities such as dairy, small scale factors that impede effective implementation of
manufacturing, transportation, etc. Besides, there was climate adaptation practices (Fig. 3). There was
an increasing participation in social protection and consensus among the farmers that lack of information
employment schemes of the government and on shorter-duration crops and drought resilient
transitory migration. varieties, inaccessibility to timely weather
information, limited access to agricultural extension
Constraints to climate adaptation services and poorly defined property rights were the
To minimize risks to climate change, it is pertinent major deterrents to adaptation across both the regions.
to identify the constraints and interdependence Illiteracy, limited knowledge on social costs and
between them. There are large numbers of socio- benefits of adaptation, high cost of farm inputs and
economic, institutional, technological and financial limited access to agricultural markets render
Table 4 — Adaptation strategies at the farm level adaptation difficult. Farmers voiced that the most
Adaptation strategies Mahbubnagar Moga urgent need for adaptation to climatic change was to
(Telangana) (Punjab) develop and strengthen irrigation facilities. Poor
Shift towards improved crop varieties 73 51 accessibility to formal credit, saving facilities and
Adjustment in sowing and harvesting 63 67 other financial products has been cited as one of the
dates major constraints to adaptation by the farmers
Soil and moisture conservation 19 27 especially from Mahbubnagar district. Inefficient
techniques mechanism for continuous evaluation and
Crop diversification and mixed 26 19 implementation of policies, leakages and politics of
cropping system
distribution impedes adaptive capacity of rural
Diversification to non-farm activities 41 27
community. This was evident from the little awareness
Use of water harvesting and micro- 35 30
irrigation and information on various farmer centric welfare
Liquidation of land and livestock 20 10 initiatives of the government. Further, limited resources,
Higher financial borrowing 56 29 lack of awareness on the need for adapting to the
Delay or Reschedule of loan 23 49 changing climate, uncertainty on the success of climate
repayment adaptation strategies/technologies and limited farm size
Availing crop insurance products 12 19 were the other significant constraints as perceived by the
Greater participation in social 47 21 farmers especially in Mahbubnagar district.
protection schemes

Fig. 3 — Farmers Perceptions on Barriers to Climate Adaptation

 SINGH et al.: PERCEPTIONS TO CLIMATE ADAPTATION FOR RESILIENT DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 381

Strengthening grass-root resilience to climate change: Policy Natural resource management

perspective Encouraging adoption of in situ water harvesting and
The ability of the farm households and rural management technologies, promotion of micro-irrigation
communities to act and survive against the climatic (drip and sprinkler) and groundwater recharge
aberrations depends on their existing capacity, which techniques, drought proofing and development of
is influenced by the local environment, institutional infrastructure in PPP mode can help reduce risk
setup and natural resources management. Climate associated with variation in rainfall. It is estimated that
adaptation planning requires location specificity in India uses 2-4 times more water to produce one unit of
interventions which cannot be achieved without major crops than other major agricultural countries like
understanding grass-root imperatives and engagement China and Brazil21. To this effect schemes like Pradhan
of local village communities or their representatives. Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana, National Water
There is an urgent need to create a repository of Mission, National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
micro-level information and blending it with the and MGNREGA can help to achieve ‘per drop more
programmatic interventions relating to agriculture, crop’ agenda. Schemes like Soil Health Card, National
food security and livelihoods implemented across Project on Management of Soil Health and Fertility and
various departments and ministries of the government. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana of the Ministry of
This will not only improve the reliability and Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare are of great
acceptability of the top initiatives but more significance in ensuring increased application of
importantly enhance farmers capacity to cope with integrated nutrient management techniques. Degradation
changing climatic conditions. Policy options or of forest area causes ecological imbalances with
opportunities to incorporate adaptation have been profound implications for local communities. Expansion
broadly segregated into three categories of in forest and promotion of agro-forestry through
development and promotion of climate adaptation schemes like National afforestation programme,
knowledge and technologies, natural resource intensification of forest management scheme and Van
management and strengthening Institutions. Bandhu Kalyan Yojana could be a potential adaptation
cum mitigation measure for climate change.
Development and promotion of climate adaptation knowledge
and technologies Strengthening institutions
With a view of simultaneously advancing growth Easy access to formal credit will promote adoption
and development of Indian agriculture and the of progressive farming practices, high value inputs
objectives of climate adaptation and mitigation the and advanced technologies. e-National Agricultural
Government of India has launched several over- Market can help farmers to diversify their income
arching programmes like National Mission for sources to high value crops by addressing
Sustainable Agriculture, National Innovations on fragmentation of the markets, price anomalies,
Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) and National multiple functionaries chain and information
Adaptation Fund. These programmes have multi- asymmetry. Existence of local off-farm opportunities
pronged strategy for facilitating climate adaptation at will ensure smooth consumption pattern for the farm
the farm level in the form of infrastructure households while ensuring further investment in farm
development, capacity building of local stakeholders productivity and lesser migration. Rural population
and extensive R&D activities for developing suitable often lacks adequate skills and education to serve
crop varieties and technologies. Adoption of other non-farm sectors. Mega programmes of the
innovative and efficient technologies for adaptation at government of India such MNREGA, National Rural
the farm level demands an active extension system Livelihood Mission and Pradhan Mantri Kaushal
which can be achieved by establishing extension Vikas Yojana can help strengthen and empower rural
agencies, capacity building and information folks to diversify their income.
dissemination via electronic and print media. In this
context programmes such as National Mission on Conclusion
Agriculture and Extension, Krishi Vigyan Kendra and For making agriculture sustainable and resilient to
Krishi Call Center can play a significant role in unpredictable weather perils, assessment of household
ensuring access to suitable adaptation technologies. perceptions is prerequisite to understand local needs
382 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, APRIL 2019

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