Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) on

“Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy Sources”

Course Coordinator (s) : Dr Sanjay Agrawal, Dr Manoj Verma

Module: 01 Fundamentals of Energy Science

By Dr.Manoj Verma

Fundamentals of Energy Science:

In this enlightening journey through Energy Science, we will explore the
fundamental concepts and basic principles that power our world.
This module serves as a gateway to understanding the diverse forms of energy
that surround us and fuel our modern civilization.
From traditional fossil fuels to cutting-edge renewable sources, we will review
and analyze the full spectrum of energy options available today.

Classification of Energy
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any
country. In the case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a
critical importance in view of the ever- increasing energy needs requiring huge
investments to meet them.
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:

• Primary and Secondary energy

• Commercial and Noncommercial energy
• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
What is ENERGY?
The capacity to do work is energy.

Our vehicles, machinery, and technology all rely on energy to function efficiently.
From cooking our meals to running industries, energy is a crucial part of our
daily lives.
As our population grows and technology advances, the demand for energy
continues to rise. Therefore, it is essential for us to explore and embrace
sustainable energy sources to meet our needs while preserving the health of our
planet for future generations.

The word Energy is taken from "energia" which is derived from the Greek
language, where "en" means "in," and "ergon" means "work" "activity " or
"operation" Therefore the term energy represents In-Work OR in-process.
The most basic definition of Energy states that “Energy is the capacity to do
work” This statement explains energy as the ability of a physical system to
perform work. In the context of physics, "work" refers to the application of a
force over a distance to move an object. Energy is what allows this work to be
done. When a physical system possesses energy, it has the potential to exert a
force and cause motion or changes in its surroundings.

For example, think of a car. The fuel in the car's tank contains chemical energy.
When the engine converts this chemical energy into mechanical energy, the car
can do work by moving forward. In this case, energy is transferred from the fuel
to the car's engine, which enables it to perform the work of propelling the car.
In order for an object to perform work, it must receive energy in some form.
When energy is transferred to an object, it gains the ability to do work. For
instance, to lift an object, you must transfer energy to it by applying a force. This
energy allows the object to overcome the force of gravity and move upward.
When energy is transferred from one object to another, the amount of energy
transferred can be quantified. This shows that energy has quantitative property.

The unit of energy in the MKS (Meter-Kilogram-Second) system is the Joule (J).
The Joule is the same unit of energy in both the SI (International System of
Units) and the MKS systems. It is defined as the amount of energy transferred
when a force of one Newton (N) is applied to move an object one meter (m) in
the direction of the force. Mathematically, it can be represented as:

1 Joule (J) = 1 Newton (N) * 1 meter (m)

In terms of SI base units, the Joule can be expressed as:
1 Joule (J) = 1 kilogram (kg) * (m^2/s^2)
The CGS (Centimeter-Gram-Second) system, on the other hand, uses the unit
"erg" for energy. One erg is equal to 10^-7 Joules, and it is defined as the amount
of work done by a force of one dyne (which is the CGS unit of force) acting on an
object and displacing it by one centimeter.
Mathematically, it can be expressed as:
1 erg = 1 dyne * 1 centimeter

In SI and MKS system: Energy is measured in Joules (J).

And In CGS system: Energy is measured in ergs.
There is one other unit of energy which is Calorie, taken from the concept of
heat energy
1 Calorie is equivalent to 4.184 Joules.

Types of Energy

Mechanical Energy: Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and

potential energy of an object or a system due to its motion or position.

Thermal Energy: Thermal energy is the internal energy of a substance due to

the random motion of its atoms and molecules. It is associated with temperature
and represents the total kinetic energy of all the particles within a system.
Heating an object increases its thermal energy, causing its particles to move
more strongly.

Sonic or Sound Energy: Sound energy is a type of mechanical energy caused by

the vibration of particles in a medium, such as air or water. These vibrations
create pressure waves that propagate as sound waves. Our ears detect these
sound waves and perceive them as sound.
Chemical Energy: Chemical energy is a form of potential energy stored in the
bonds of chemical compounds. It is released or absorbed during chemical
reactions. When chemical bonds are broken, energy is released, and when new
bonds form, energy is absorbed. For example, the chemical energy in gasoline is
converted to kinetic energy when it undergoes combustion in an engine.

Nuclear Energy: Nuclear energy is the energy stored within the nucleus of an
atom. It is released through nuclear reactions, such as nuclear fission (splitting
of atomic nuclei) or nuclear fusion (combining atomic nuclei). Nuclear power
plants use nuclear reactions to produce heat, which is then converted into
electricity.

Electromagnetic Energy: Electromagnetic energy is a type of energy carried by

electromagnetic waves, such as light, radio waves, microwaves, and X-rays. It
includes both visible and non-visible forms of radiation. Electromagnetic energy
can transfer energy and information across space.

Gravitational Energy: Gravitational energy is a type of potential energy

associated with an object's position in a gravitational field. The higher an object
is above the ground, the more gravitational potential energy it possesses.
Potential Energy: Potential energy is the energy stored in an object or system
due to its position or configuration. For Example energy stored in stretched or
compressed materials, like a stretched rubber band.

Kinetic Energy: As mentioned earlier, kinetic energy is the energy an object

possesses due to its motion. The amount of kinetic energy depends on the
object's mass and its velocity. For example, a moving car or a flying airplane has
kinetic energy.
Ionization Energy: Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to
remove an electron from an atom or molecule, resulting in the formation of an
ion. It is a characteristic property of elements and is essential in understanding
chemical bonding and reactivity.

Major Energy Sources

Primary and secondary energy sources are terms used to categorize different
types of energy based on their origin and availability. Let's explain each of
them in detail with examples:
Primary energy sources are natural resources directly obtained from the
environment. These sources are in their raw and unconverted form and serve
as the basis for producing other forms of energy that we use in our daily lives.
Primary energy sources are considered inexhaustible or renewable if they can
be naturally restocked within a short period. They are classified into two main
categories:
a. Renewable Energy Sources:
b. Non-Renewable Energy Sources:

Secondary energy sources are derived from the conversion of primary energy
sources into more convenient and usable forms. These are the forms of energy
that we directly use in our everyday activities. Secondary energy sources are
produced through various processes, usually involving the transformation of
primary energy sources. Some common examples include:
Electricity, Gasoline and Diesel, Propane and Biofuels
In Breeder reactor nuclear plants, PWR (Pressurized Water Reactor), BWR
(Boiling Water Reactor), and AGCR (Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor) are
commonly used.
In Non-Breeder reactor type plants, Fast Breeder reactor and Thermal Breeder
reactor are used.
All these systems exist in the physical world and play a fundamental role in
understanding and explaining energy transformations and interactions.

For efficient and effective use of energy and its conservation, the Energy
Conservation Act of 2001 was ratified in India. This comprehensive regulation
aims to promote sustainable energy practices, reduce energy consumption, and
optimize the utilization of resources. Except Jammu and Kashmir, the act was
implemented across India in October 2001.

The EC Act 2001 establishes guidelines and regulations for various sectors,
including industries, commercial establishments, and households, to adopt
energy-efficient technologies and practices. The act also encourages the
implementation of renewable energy sources to reduce dependency on fossil
fuels and mitigate environmental impacts.

Through its provisions and incentives, the EC Act 2001 plays a crucial role in
fostering a greener and more sustainable energy landscape while driving
economic growth and energy security.
The Government of India set up Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under
Ministry of Power on 1st March 2002 under the provisions of the Energy
Conservation Act, 2001.
The Powers of the Central Government under the proposed legislation are :
1. Norms and Standards: The Central Government is empowered to specify
the norms and energy consumption standards for various equipment,
appliances, or systems that consume, generate, transmit, or supply energy.
2. Description: It can designate specific equipment, appliances, or classes of
them that fall under the scope of the proposed legislation.
3. Mandatory Conformance: The Central Government has the authority to
prohibit the manufacture, sale, purchase, or import of equipment or appliances
that do not conform to the prescribed energy consumption standards.

4. Labeling Requirements: The Government can direct manufacturers to

display specific particulars, such as energy efficiency ratings or other relevant
information, on labels attached to the equipment or appliances.

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) is the nodal Ministry of the
Government of India for all matters relating to new and renewable energy.
Its primary objective is to accelerate the adoption of clean and sustainable
energy options to meet the growing energy demands while reducing the
country's dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating environmental impacts.

The national bodies under MNRE are:

• INDIAN RENEWABLE ENERGY DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (IREDA)

• NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WIND ENERGY (NIWE)
• NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF SOLAR ENERGY (NISE)
• SOLAR ENERGY CORPORATION OF INDIA (SECI)
• SARDAR SWARAN SINGH NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF BIO-ENERGY
The Energy Conservation (EC) Act 2001 mandates creation of a two-tier
organizational structure to promote the efficient use of energy and its
conservation in the country with Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) as the nodal
agency at central level and State Designated Agencies (SDAs) as nodal agencies
at State / Union Territory (UT) level.

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) aims to enhance the institutional,

technical, and financial capabilities of State Designated Agencies (SDAs) to
facilitate energy efficiency initiatives at the state level.
By offering financial assistance, BEE supports the SDAs in coordinating,
regulating, and promoting the efficient use and conservation of energy.
Here we can see the different SDAs in the Map of India.
All 36 States/UTs have nominated a SDA in their respective State/UT. These
agencies differ from State to State with 16 States designating Renewable Energy
Development Agency.

Some nonconventional, renewable and inexpensive energy sources are

described below:

1. Solar energy:

Solar energy, a primary energy source, is non-polluting and inexhaustible. There

are three methods to harness solar energy:
(i) Converting solar energy directly into electrical energy in solar power
stations using photo cells or photovoltaic cells or silicon solar cell.
(ii) Using photosynthetic and biological process for energy trapping. In the
process of photosynthesis, green plants absorb solar energy and convert it into
chemical energy, stored in the form of carbohydrate.
(iii) Converting solar energy in to thermal energy by suitable devices which
may be subsequently converted into mechanical, chemical or electrical energy.
Since solar energy is non-ending and its conversion to some other energy form
is nonpolluting, attention should be paid for the maximum utilization of solar
energy.

2. Wind energy:

Wind is air in motion. The movement of air takes place due to the convection
current set out in the atmosphere which is again due to heating of earth’s surface
by solar radiation, rotation of earth etc. The movement of air occurs both
horizontally and vertically.

The average annual wind density is 3 kW/m 2/day along costal lines of Gujarat,
western ghat central parts of India which may show a seasonal variation (i.e., in
winter it may go up to 10kW/m2/day).]

Since wind has a tremendous amount of energy, its energy can be converted into
mechanical or electrical energy using suitable devices, now days, wind energy s
converted in to electrical energy which is subsequently used for pumping water,
grinding of corns etc. As per available data dearly 20,000 mW of electricity can
be generated from wind. In Puri, wind farms are set up which can generate 550
kW of electricity.

3. Tidal energy:

The energy associated with the tides of the Ocean can be converted in to
electrical energy. France constructed the first tidal power plant in 1966. India
could take up Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) and by the process it
will be capable of generating 50,000 mW of electricity, to meet the power
requirements of remote oceanic islands and coastal towns. The Netherlands is
famous for windmills. In India, Gujarat and Tamil nadu have windmills. The
largest wind farm has been set at Kanyakumari which generates 380 mW of
electricity.

4. Geothermal energy:

The geothermal energy may be defined as the heat energy obtainable from hot
rocks present inside the earth crust. At the deeper region of earth crust, the solid
rock gets melted in to magma, due to very high temperature. The magma layer
is pushed up due to some geological changes and get concentrated below the
earth crust. The places of hot magma concentration at fairly less depth are
known as hot spots.
These hot spots are known as sources of geothermal energy. Now a days, efforts
are being made to use this energy for generating power and creating
refrigeration etc. There are a quite few number of methods of harnessing
geothermal energy. Different sites of geothermal energy generation are Puga
(Ladakh), Tattapani (Suraguja, M.P.), Cambay Basin (Alkananda Valley,
Uttaranchal).

5. Bio-mass based energy:

The organic matters originated from living organisms (plants and animals) like
wood, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes etc. are called as biomass. These
substances can be burnt to produce heat energy which can be used in the
generation of electricity. Thus, the energy produced from the biomass is known
as biomass energy.
There are three forms of biomass:

(i) Biomass in traditional form:

Energy is released by direct burning of biomass (e.g. wood, agricultural residue
etc.)

(ii) Biomass in nontraditional form:

The biomass may be converted in to some other form of fuel which can release
energy. For example carbohydrate can be converted into methanol or ethanol
which may be used as a liquid fuel.

(iii) Biomass for domestic use:

When organic matters like cow dung, agricultural wastes, human excreta etc.
subjected to bacterial decomposition in presence of water in absence of air, a
mixture of CH4, C02, H2, H2S etc. is produced. These gases together is known as
biogas. The residue left after the removal of biogas is a good source of manure
and biogas is used as a good source of non- polluting fuel.

6. Biogas:
Biogas is an important source of energy to meet energy, requirements of rural
area. As per given data, around 22,420-million m3 of gas can be produced from
the large amount of cow dungs obtained in rural areas in a year. The gas is
generated by the action of bacteria on cow dung in absence of air (oxygen).
There are two types of biogas plants namely. Fixed done type and floating gas
holder type.
These plants are commonly known as Gobar gas plants because the usual raw
material is cow dung (Gobar). The methodology involves in the process is to
prepare a slurry of cow dung with water. Sometimes form waters can also be
added to the slurry.
The slurry is subjected to bacterial decomposition at 35 .C. There are about 330,
00 biogas plants in India. All India dung production is about 11.30 kg per cattle
and 11.60 kg per buffalo with about 67.10 m3 of gas per ton of wet dung.

7. Petro plants:
In order to release the pressure on mineral oils (a nonrenewable resource), the
scientists have discovered some potential plant species from which liquid
hydrocarbons can be extracted. The liquid hydrocarbons present in such plants
can be converted in to petroleum. Such plants are known as petro plants which
belong to families Apocynaceae, Ascalepiadaceae, Euphrobiaceae;
Convolvulaceae and Spontaceae. Still research is on to increase the biomass of
the petro plants and effective method of converting their hydrocarbons in
petroleum.

8. Dendrothermal energy (Energy plantation):

Due to rapid deforestation and overgrazing, a number of denuded wastelands

are formed. On these wastelands, fast growing trees and shrubs may be planted
which will provide fuel wood, charcoal, fodder, etc. Through gasification, these
plants can produce a lot of energy-

9. Baggasse-based plants:
Bagggasse is generated as a waste product in sugar mills. This can be utilised to
produce electrical energy. As per available data, the sugar mills in India can
generate about 2000 mW surplus electricity during crushing season.

10. Energy from urban waste:

Sewage and solid municipal wastes can also generate energy on their suitable
treatments.
What is solar Energy: solar energy (Noun): Radiant energy Emitted by the sun
Solar power is energy from the sun. "Solar" is the Latin word for "sun"
and it's a powerful source of energy. Without it, there will be no life. Solar energy
is considered as a serious source of energy for many years because of the vast
amounts of energy that is made freely available, if harnessed by modern
technology.

Climate Change

The burning of fossil fuels for energy remains the world's No. 1 source of carbon
dioxide emissions. Solar power is sometimes described as a zero emissions or
emissions-free form of energy, and it is true that greenhouse gas emissions from
solar are negligible . However, the construction of new utility scale solar energy
projects is bound to result in some greenhouse gas emissions. This fact is
acknowledged in the Final Environmental Impact Statement for one proposed
solar farm in California. Water
Creating energy is a water intensive process. In the U.S., electricity production
accounts for more than 40 percent of all daily freshwater withdrawals. Solar
photovoltaic systems do not require any water to generate electricity. Some
solar thermal systems use water, but this water can be reused. Utility scale
parabolic and central tower solar energy systems use steam plants to produce
power, often relying on water for cooling . There is some concern that these
types of systems, when located in arid environments, could put a strain on local
water resources.

Solar photovoltaic panels may contain hazardous materials that could be

released when a panel is damaged or disposed of improperly . Concentrating
solar energy systems may also use potentially hazardous materials like oils and
molten salts, creating the potential for spills.

Solar Radiation on Earth’s Surface:

Solar irradiance (SI) is the power per unit area (watt per square metre, W/m2),
received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation as reported in
the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Solar irradiance is often
integrated over a given time period in order to report the radiant energy emitted
into the surrounding environment (joule per square metre, J/m2), during that
time period. This integrated solar irradiance is called solar irradiation, solar
exposure, solar insolation, or insolation.

Irradiance may be measured in space or at the Earth's surface after

atmospheric absorption and scattering. Irradiance in space is a function of
distance from the Sun, the solar cycle, and cross-cycle changes. Irradiance on the
Earth's surface additionally depends on the tilt of the measuring surface, the
height of the sun above the horizon, and atmospheric conditions. Solar
irradiance affects plant metabolism and animal behaviour.

The study and measurement of solar irradiance have several important

applications, including the prediction of energy generation from solar power
plants, the heating and cooling loads of buildings, and in climate modeling and
weather forecasting.

The study of "Fundamentals of Energy Science" encompasses a comprehensive

understanding of various aspects related to global and Indian energy scenarios.
It investigates into the exploration of current energy challenges and concerns
in power generation.
 Fundamentals of Energy Science

Indian & World Energy Scenario

Introduction

Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any

country. In the case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a

critical importance in view of the ever- increasing energy needs requiring

huge investments to meet them.

 It is a ‘capacity to do work’.

 Energy is one of the major Inputs for the economic development of

any country.

 Fossil fuel like coal, oil & natural gas are main source of energy.

 The electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 267.637

GW as of end March 2015.

 India became the world's third largest producer of electricity in the year

2013.

 During the financial year 2014-15, the electricity generated is 1,030.785

billion kWh with a short fall of requirement by 38.138 billion kWh (-

3.6%).

Classification of Energy
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any
 country. In the case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a

critical importance in view of the ever- increasing energy needs requiring

huge investments to meet them.

Energy can be classified into several types based on the following

criteria:

• Primary and Secondary energy

• Commercial and Noncommercial energy

• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy

Global Primary Energy Consumption

The development of the electric energy’s chain of supply has evolved, moving

from a differentiated analysis to an integral one of the generation, transmission

and distribution phases and the final use. Future development trends of the

electric network regarding planning and operation must consider the synergy

existing between each phase of the energy chain. The global primary energy

consumption at the end of 2003 was equivalent to 9741 million tonnes of oil.

Figure shows the worldwide energy consumption trend between 1965 and 2035.

It is evidenced that for diverse energy sources there is a high consumption of

limited and non-renewable energy resources (oil, carbon and gas), which

determine the production of capital goods (competitiveness).

The Figure shows in what proportions the sources mentioned above

contributed to this global figure.

 Global Primary Energy Consumption

The primary energy consumption for few of the developed and developing

countries are shown in Table 1.1. It may be seen that India's absolute

primary energy consumption is only 1/29th of the world, 1/7th of USA,

1/1.6th time of Japan but 1.1, 1.3, 1.5 times that of Canada, France and U.K

respectively. Its depicted in figure

Energy Distribution Between Developed and Developing Countries

Although 80 percent of the world's population lies in the developing countries (a

four- fold population increase in the past 25 years), their energy consumption
amounts to only 40 percent of the world total energy consumption. The high
standards of living in the developed countries are attributable to high- energy
consumption levels. Also, the rapid

population growth in the developing countries has kept the per capita energy
consumption low compared with that of highly industrialized developed
countries. The world average energy consumption per person is equivalent to
2.2 tonnes of coal. In industrialized countries, people use four to five times more
than the world average, and nine times more than the average for the developing
countries. An American uses 32 times more commercial energy than an Indian.

Indian Energy Scenario

 Coal dominates the energy mix in India, contributing to 55% of the total

primary energy production. Over the years, there has been a marked

increase in the share of natural gas in primary energy production from

 10% in 1994 to 13% in 1999. There has been a decline in the share of oil

in primary energy production from 20% to 17% during the same period.

 The electricity sector in India had an installed capacity of 267.637 GW as

of end March 2015.

 During the fiscal year 2014-15, the electricity generated is 1,030.785

billion kWh with a short fall of requirement by 38.138 billion kWh (-

3.6%).

Energy Supply

Coal Supply

India has huge coal reserves, at least 84,396 million tonnes of proven

recoverable reserves (at the end of 2003). This amounts to almost 8.6% of the

world reserves and it may last for about 230 years at the current Reserve to

Production (R/P) ratio. In contrast, the world's proven coal reserves are

expected to last only for 192 years at the current R/P ratio.

Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio- If the reserves remaining at the end of the

year are divided by the production in that year, the result is the length of

time that the remaining reserves would last if production were to continue at

that level.

India is the fourth largest producer of coal and lignite in the world. Coal

production is concentrated in these states (Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,

Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,Orissa, Jharkhand, West Bengal).

 Oil Supply

Oil accounts for about 36 % of India's total energy consumption. India today

is one of the top ten oil-guzzling nations in the world and will soon overtake

Korea as the third largest consumer of oil in Asia after China and Japan. The

country's annual crude oil production is peaked at about 32 million ton as

against the current peak demand of about 110 million ton. In the current

scenario, India's oil consumption by end of 2007 is expected to reach 136

million tons (MT), of which domestic production will be only 34 MT. India will

have to pay an oil bill of roughly $50 billion, assuming a weighted average

price of $50 per barrel of crude. In 2003- 04, against total export of $64

billion, oil imports accounted for $21 billion. India imports 70% of its crude

needs mainly from gulf nations.

Natural Gas Supply

Natural gas accounts for about 8.9 per cent of energy consumption in the

country. The current demand for natural gas is about 96 million cubic

metres per day (mcmd) as against availability of 67 mcmd. By 2007, the

demand is expected to be around 200 mcmd. Natural gas reserves are

estimated at 660 billion cubic meters.

Electrical Energy Supply

The all India installed capacity of electric power generating sta- tions under

utilities was 1,12,581 MW as on 31st May 2004, consisting of 28,860 MW-

hydro, 77,931 MW - thermal and 2,720 MW- nuclear and 1,869 MW- wind

(Ministry of Power). The gross generation of power in the year 2002-2003 stood
at 531 billion units (kWh).

Nuclear Power Supply

Nuclear Power contributes to about 2.4 per cent of electricity

generated in India. India has ten nuclear power reactors at five nuclear

power stations produc-ing electricity. More nuclear reactors have also been

approved for construction.

Hydro Power Supply

India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential for power generation

of which only 15% has been harnessed so far. The share of hydropower in the

country's total generated units has steadily decreased and it presently stands

at 25% as on 31st May 2004. It is assessed that exploitable potential at 60%

load factor is 84,000 MW.

Final Energy Consumption

Final energy consumption is the actual energy demand at the user end. This

is the difference between primary energy consumption and the losses that

takes place in transport, transmission & distribution, and refinement. The

actual final energy consumption (past and projected) is given in Table 1.2.

Sector Wise Energy Consumption in India

The major commercial energy consuming sectors in thecountry are classified

as shown in the Figure 1.5. As seen from the figure, industry remains the

biggest consumer of commercial energy and its share in the overall

consumption is 49%.
 Economic growth is desirable for developing countries, and energy is

essential for economic growth. However, the relationship between economic

growth and increased energy demand is not always a straightforward linear

one. The energy industry contributes to economic growth in two ways. First,

energy is an important sector of the economy that creates jobs and value by

extracting, transforming and distributing energy goods and services

throughout the economy.

Second, energy underpins the rest of the economy.

In this context, the ratio of energy demand to GDP is a useful indicator. A

high ratio reflectsenergy dependence and a strong influence of energy on GDP

growth. The developed countries, by focusing on energy efficiency and lower

energy-intensive routes, maintain their energy to GDP ratios at values of less

than 1. The ratios for developing countries are much higher.

Per Capita Energy Consumption

The per capita energy consumption (see Figure 1.7) is too low for India as

compared to developed countries. It is just 4% of USA and 20% of the world

average. The per capita consumption is likely to grow in India with growth in

economy thus increasing the energy demand.

Energy Intensity

Energy intensity is energy consumption per unit of GDP. Energy intensity

indicates the development stage of the country. India's energy intensity is 3.7

times of Japan, 1.55 times of USA, times of Asia and 1.5 times of World

average.
Long Term Energy Scenario for India

Coal

Coal is the predominant energy source for power production in India,

generating approximate- ly 70% of total domestic electricity. Energy demand

in India is expected to increase over the next 10-15 years; although new oil

and gas plants are planned, coal is expected to remain the dominant fuel for

power generation. Despite significant increases in total installed capacity dur-

ing the last decade, the gap between electricity supply and demand continues

to increase.

Oil

India's demand for petroleum products is likely to rise from 97.7 million

tonnes in 2001-02 to around 139.95 million tonnes in 2006-07, according to

projections of the Tenth Five-Year Plan. The plan document puts compound

annual growth rate (CAGR) at 3.6 % during the plan peri- od. As shown inthe

figure 1.8, around 92% of India's total oil demand by 2020 has to be met by

imports.

Natural Gas

India's natural gas production is likely to rise from 86.56 million cmpd in

2002-03 to 103.08 million in 2006-07. It is mainly based on the strength of a

more than doubling of production by private operators to 38.25 mm billion

cubic meters during 2008-09.

Electricity

Long-term demand forecasting presents the first step in planning and

 developing future generation, transmission, and distribution facilities. One of

the primary tasks of an electric utility accurately always predicts load demand

requirements, especially for long-term. India currently has a peak demand

shortage of around 14% and an energy deficit of 8.4%. Keeping this in view

and to maintain a GDP (gross domestic product) growth of 8% to 10%, the

Individual State grids were interconnected to form 5 regional grids covering

mainland India. The grids were the Northern, Eastern, Western, North Eastern

and Southern Grids.

The first interconnection of regional grids was established in October 1991

when the North Eastern and Eastern grids were interconnected. The Western

Grid was interconnected with the grids in March 2003. The Northern grid was

also interconnected in August 2006, forming a Central Grid synchronously

connected operating at one frequency.[6] The sole remaining regional grid, the

Southern Grid, was synchronously interconnected to the Central Grid on 31

December 2013 with the commissioning of the 765 kV Raichur-Solapur

transmission line, thereby establishing the National Grid.

 Total installed capacity of coal washeries in India is 152.31 Million Tonne

per year (MTY) as on the year 2022 (P). This comprises of 37.18 MTY in

coking and 115.13 MTY in NonCoking Coal Washeries (Table 2.1).

 Similarly, as on 2022, there were a total of 23 refineries in the country, 19

in the Public Sector, 4 in the Private sector and Joint Venture shown in

(Table 2.2).

 The refining capacity of the country is 2,51,216 TMTPA on 2021 which is

2000 TMTPA more than from the last year. Public sector refineries have

the dominance of over 60% of the total capacity in India.

 The Refinery production (crude throughput) achievement was 2,21,773

TMT during 2020-21 which has increased to 2,41,703 TMT during 2021-

22 i.e. a net increase of 9% over 2020-21.

 Hence, the overall Capacity utilization of the refineries which was 88.76%

during 2020- 21 has increased to 96.99% in 2021-22. In the Public Sector,

Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) increased its capacity utilization from

89.46% in 2020-21 to 96.60% in 2021-22. The Private and Joint venture,

have also experienced positive growth rate of 8.17% during FY:2021- 22

over the previous year.

 In absolute terms, the installed capacity of electricity generation increased

by 4.68% to 4,82,232 MW in 2021-22 over 4,60,659 MW in 2020-21 with

the major share of installed capacity existing with utilities i.e. 82.84%

(Table 2.3).
 Fundamentals of Energy Science
Lecture 3. Alternate Energy Resources
What are alternative energy sources?

Alternative energy refers to energy sources other than fossil fuels (such as
coal, petroleum, and diesel) and includes all renewable and nuclear energy
sources. Although nuclear energy is not as bad for the environment as fossil
fuels, it still isn’t classified as a renewable energy source because nuclear
material cannot be replenished within a human’s lifetime. Nuclear energy is
produced by using elements like uranium and thorium, which cannot be
replenished and have a finite amount in existence.

What is an advantage to alternative energy technology?

The major advantage of alternative energy technology is that it will not run
out. Our days using fossil fuels are numbered, and so all alternative energy
sources are beneficial over traditional sources. Another huge advantage is
that many of them do not require the same damaging and expensive
extraction techniques, as much of it is available to us here on the surface.

What are the different types of alternative energy?

There is a surprising number of forms of alternative energy, some well-

known, while others are relatively unheard of. alternative energy are:

1. Solar energy: This is probably the most commonly known source of

alternative energy, and for good reason. Solar energy is completely
renewable, and the costs expended on installation can be made back
through energy bill savings. The only potential setback of solar panels
is that they are prone to deterioration over time and aren’t completely
weather-safe in countries with erratic weather conditions

2. Wind energy: This is one of the cleanest and most accessible sources
of energy. Wind power is sustainable and does not release carbon
emissions as a by-product. It’s also entirely renewable, as there will
always be wind. Energy sources such as fossil fuels often fluctuate in
 price. A typical wind farm repays its carbon footprint in around six
months or even less, which provides decades of zero-emission energy
that displaces fossil fuel energy.

3. Biomass energy: This type of energy can come in several forms.

Biomass energy can include anything from burning wood to burning
waste, as many countries do now. With biomass in the form of
burning wood, the heat generated is often equivalent to that of a
central heating system, and the costs involved tend to be lower than a
household or building that uses fossil fuels. It’s not, however, a green
energy source, even if it is technically renewable.

Biofuels: Biofuels are somewhat like biomass, but biofuels use

biological matter (animal and plant) to create energy. Biofuel is renewable
when plants are used because, of course, plants can always be grown.
However, they do require dedicated machinery for extraction, which can
indirectly contribute to increased emissions even if biofuels themselves don’t.
In 2020, total biofuels consumption accounted for about 5% of total U.S.
transportation sector energy consumption.

4. Tidal energy: Tidal energy is power produced by the surge of ocean

waters during the rise and fall of tides. Tidal energy is a renewable
source of energy. Tidal power or tidal energy is harnessed by
converting energy from tides into useful forms of power, mainly
electricity using various methods. Although not yet widely used, tidal
energy has the potential for future electricity generation. Tides are
more predictable than the wind and the sun. This method of energy
production is still fairly new and has only produced a small amount of
energy so far, so it will be a long time before we see real results from
tidal energy.

5. Geothermal energy: The term Geothermal originated from Greek in

which Geo means Earth and thermal implies heat. Hence, from here,
we get the geothermal energy definition - thermal energy that derives
 from the 1,800 miles below the crust of the Earth contained in the hot
rocks, hot water, hot brines or steam. It is heat deposited in the rock
and fluid filling the pores as well as fissures of the Earth's crust.
Geothermal energy reaches the surface of the Earth through water or
steam. Geothermal energy is obtainable all over the planet. However,
the Earth takes several years to generate this energy by decaying the
minerals and forests.

6. Fuel Cell:- A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the

chemical energy from a fuel (such as hydrogen, natural gas, methanol,
or others) directly into electricity and heat through a process called
"electrochemical reaction." Fuel cells operate without combustion,
making them a clean and efficient energy conversion technology.

7. Hydrogen gas: This is an important energy carrier and a potential

alternative clean energy fuel with a notable stake in the global fuel
market. However, today, hydrogen gas is largely produced from fossil
fuels, which pose a threat to the environment. A more sustainable
version of this energy source has been described as biohydrogen, and
there are hopes it will be derived from organic, biodegradable waste in
the future.

1. Solar Energy

• Solar thermal power plants are electricity generation plants.

• A typical solar thermal plant captures the infrared radiation that falls
on the Earth and uses it to heat a thermodynamic fluid in order to
drive a heat engine.

• A solar thermal facility can exploit a small amount of the long-

wavelength visible radiation too, and power-generating plants are able
to use around 50% of the energy in sunlight that reaches the surface
of the Earth
 • Solar thermal power plants are electricity generation plants that
utilize energy from the Sun to heat a fluid to a high temperature.

• This fluid then transfers its heat to water, which then becomes
superheated steam.

• This steam is then used to turn turbines in a power plant

• this mechanical energy is converted into electricity by a generator.

• This type of generation is essentially the same as electricity generation

that uses fossil fuels, but instead heats steam using sunlight instead
of combustion of fossil fuels.

• These systems use solar collector to concentrate the Sun's rays on one
point to achieve appropriately high temperatures.

Working Principle

• Reflector-

Mirror reflects and concentrate sunlight.

• Receivers-

Receivers collect the solar energy. A heat-transfer fluid is heated and

circulated in the receiver and used to produce steam.

• The steam is converted into mechanical energy in a turbine, which

powers a generator to produce electricity.

• Solar thermal power plants are electricity generation plants.

• A typical solar thermal plant captures the infrared radiation that falls
on the Earth and uses it to heat a thermodynamic fluid in order to
drive a heat engine.

• A solar thermal facility is able to exploit a small amount of the long-

wavelength visible radiation too, and power-generating plants are able
to use around 50% of the energy in sunlight that reaches the surface
of the Earth
 • Solar thermal power plants are electricity generation plants that
utilize energy from the Sun to heat a fluid to a high temperature.

• This fluid then transfers its heat to water, which then becomes
superheated steam.

• This steam is then used to turn turbines in a power plant

• this mechanical energy is converted into electricity by a generator.

• This type of generation is essentially the same as electricity generation

that uses fossil fuels, but instead heats steam using sunlight instead
of combustion of fossil fuels.

• These systems use solar collector to concentrate the Sun's rays on one
point to achieve appropriately high temperatures.

2. Wind Energy

• Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun,

variations in the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Mountains,
bodies of water, and vegetation all influence wind flow patterns.

• Wind turbines convert the energy in wind to electricity by rotating

propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor turns the drive shaft,
which turns an electric generator.

• Three key factors affect the amount of energy a turbine can harness
from the wind

wind speed, air density, and swept area.

Modern Turbines

• The most common design of wind turbine, is the horizontal axis wind
turbine (HAWT). That is, the axis of rotation is parallel to the
ground.

horizontal axis wind turbine rotors are usually classified according to

the-

• rotor orientation (upwind or downwind of the tower)

 • hub design (rigid or teetering)

• rotor control (pitch vs. stall)

• number of blades (usually two or three blades),

• how they are aligned with the wind (free yaw or active yaw)

3. Biomass

• Biomass is a term for all organic material that stems from plants
(including algae, trees and crops). Biomass is produced by green
plants converting sunlight into plant material through photosynthesis
and includes all land- and water-based vegetation, as well as all
organic wastes.

• The biomass resource can be considered as organic matter, in which

the energy of sunlight is stored in chemical bonds. When the bonds
between adjacent carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules are broken
by digestion, combustion, or decomposition, these substances release
their stored, chemical energy.

• The conversion of biomass into energy can be achieved in a number of

ways. To provide a fuel suitable for direct use in spark ignition gas
engines. The fuel must be provided in either a gaseous, or a liquid
form. Production of a gaseous fuel from biomass can be achieved by
the application of a number of technologies, each with its specific
requirements, advantages and disadvantages.

• Biomass is the plant material derived from the reaction between CO2
in the air, water and sunlight, via photosynthesis, to produce
carbohydrates that form the building blocks of biomass.

• Typically, photosynthesis converts less than 1% of the available

sunlight to stored, chemical energy.
• The solar energy driving photosynthesis is stored in the chemical
bonds of the structural
components of biomass.

• If biomass is processed efficiently, either chemically or biologically, by

extracting the energy stored in the chemical bonds and the
subsequent ‘energy’ product combined with oxygen, the carbon is
oxidised to produce CO2 and water.

• The process is cyclical, as the CO2 is then available to produce new

biomass.

Using Biomass Energy

• Fermentation

There are several types of processes that can produce an alcohol

(ethanol) from various plants, especially corn. The two most used
processes involve using yeast to ferment the starch in the plant to
produce ethanol.

One of the newest processes involves using enzymes to break down

the cellulose in the plant fibres, allowing more ethanol to be made
from each plant, because all of the plant tissue is utilized, not just the
starch.

• Burning

We can burn biomass in waste-to-energy plants to produce steam for

making electricity, or we can burn it to provide heat for industries and
homes.

Bacterial Decay

Bacteria feed on dead plants and animals, producing methane.

Methane is produced whenever organic material decays. Methane is
the main ingredient in natural gas, the gas sold by natural gas
utilities. Many landfills are recovering and using the methane gas
produced by the garbage.
 Conversion

Biomass can be converted into gas or liquid fuels by using chemicals

or heat. In India, cow manure is converted to methane gas to produce
electricity. Methane gas can also be converted to methanol, a type of
alcohol made from fermenting wood. Methane and methanol each
have only one carbon atom.

Biomass and the Environment

Environmentally, biomass has some advantages over fossil fuels such

as coal and petroleum.

Biomass contains little sulphur and nitrogen, so it does not produce

the pollutants that can cause acid rain.

Burning biomass releases carbon dioxide, but growing plants for use
as biomass fuels may also help keep carbon dioxide levels balanced.

Plants remove carbon dioxide a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere

when they grow.

4. Tidal

Tidal power exploits energy drawn from the movement of ocean tides to
produce electricity. There are two scenarios in which tides can be tapped for
energy.

1. The first is in changing sea levels. This phenomenon is responsible for

the advancing and receding tides on shorelines. With the help of
turbines, incoming tides can be manipulated to generate electricity.

2. The second way to exploit tidal energy is by sinking turbines to the

sea floor where fast-flowing currents turn generator blades much like
wind does with a wind turbine.
Tidal energy is considered renewable because the tides move on a
predictable, daily schedule, depending only on the orbits of the Earth, Moon,
and Sun, and are essentially inexhaustible.

Though tidal energy is carbon free, it is not environmentally benign.

Concerns over the health of shoreline and aquatic ecosystems mar this
otherwise clean source of energy. Older tidal barrage technology can
devastate fish populations.

In the past, large-scale barrage systems dominated the tidal power scene.
But because of increasingly evident unfavourable environmental and
economic drawbacks with this technology, research into the field of tidal
power shifted from barrage systems to tidal current turbines in the last few
decades. This new technology leaves a smaller environmental footprint than
tidal barrages, as turbines are placed in offshore currents avoiding the need
to construct dams to capture the tides along ecologically fragile coastlines.

The gravitational force of attraction of the moon causes that the oceans
waters bulge on the side of the earth that faces the moon. The centrifugal
force produces the same effect but in the opposite side of the earth. On
these two sides it can be observe the maximum amplitudes of the tides (high
tides) and on midways of it occur the minimum amplitudes of the tides (low
tides).

As the earth rotates these two bulges travel at the same rate as the earth`s
rotation. The moon rotates around the earth with respect to the sun
approximately 29.5 days (lunar month) in the same direction that the earth
rotates every 24 hours. The rotation of the earth with respect to the moon is
approximately 24.48 hours (24 hours and 50 minutes) and is called lunar
day. This is the reason of why the tides advance approximately 50 minutes
each day.

In very simple terms a barrage is built at the entrance of a gulf and the
water levels vary on both sides of the small dam. Passages are made inside
the dam and water flows through these passages and turbines rotate due to
this flow of water under head of water. Thus, electricity is created using the
turbines.

5. Geothermal.

 Geothermal energy is an inexhaustible source of energy and is

available from earth crust. It is that renewable energy source which
does not need any fuel to generate electricity, and the emissions
connected with geothermal energy are very low and negligible
compared to emissions that result from fossil fuels burning.

 Geothermal energy is gaining importance as alternate source of energy.

Geothermal energy-based power production over the world has gone
up from 5800 MW to 8400 MW from 1998 to 2010.

 It is observed that most of the places in India do not have the

sufficient energy sources and hence to be depend on the other parts of
the country. So, geothermal energy may be one of the viable solutions
for these state and provinces.

 Geothermal energy is obtainable all over the planet. However, the

Earth takes several years to generate this energy by decaying the
minerals and forests.
Geothermal Energy Resources

Geothermal energy is the energy that comes from the deeper part of the
earth inside. It is due to the phenomenon of slow decaying of radioactive
particles present in the core of the earth. This leads to the formation of
geothermal energy. Earth has four parts or layers:

 Inner core. It is composed of solid iron. It is around 1500 miles in

diameter.

 The outer core is composed of hot molten rock called magma. It is

about 1500 miles thick.
  Mantle of magma and rock which surrounds the outer core. It is about
1800 miles thick.

 The crust of solid rock forms the continents and ocean floors. It is 15-
35 miles thick in the continental part and 3-5 miles thick in the parts
of the ocean.

Important applications of geothermal energy

Geothermal energy is used for the generation of electricity.

Geothermal power plants are established near the geothermal reserves.
From these reserves, steam arises which is directly used to rotate the
turbines connected to an electrical generator and thus electricity is
produced. Geothermal energy is used in agriculture and farming
especially in cold countries where it is used for heating greenhouses
or heating water required for irrigation. It is important in various
industries like gold mining, food dehydration and milk pasteurisation.
It is also used for heating buildings by using direct heating systems.

 Space heating and cooling.

 Generation of electrical power.

 Industrial process heat.

 Other applications include desalination of water, heavy water

production, extraction of minerals from geothermal fluids, timber
seasoning etc.

 However, the geothermal energy is presently utilized mainly for power

generation and space heating purposes only.

Geothermal Energy use

More than 20 countries are utilising this natural energy today. Amongst
them, the USA is the biggest generator of geothermal energy in the world
with the most extensive geothermal field. We can divide the uses of
geothermal energy into three categories:
 1. Direct Uses Of Geothermal Energy

It is the most common application of geothermal energy in which low-

temperature geothermal resources are used, such as natural hot
springs, therapeutic spas, aquaculture ponds, and greenhouses. Also,
it is an excellent source for cooking, milk pasteurisation, drying fruit,
vegetables, and timber in industries.

2. Electric Power Generation

One of the most popular uses of geothermal energy is to produce

electricity. Since most of the geothermal energy from the Earth's crust
can't bubble out as magma, steam, or water, it's extracted by building
thermal plants. This renewable source of energy generates through
three different techniques, i.e., dry steam, binary and flash.

After digging wells one or two miles deep into the ground, power
produces from geothermal energy by entering the hot water and steam
into it. This generated energy runs turbines connected to electricity
generators.

The USA, Indonesia, and the Philippines are successfully using this
energy. Apart from these countries, Kenya and Turkey are also
efficiently establishing geothermal energy plants.

(Geothermal energy extracted from Earth through dry steam

technique. Steam from hot water is converted into power using the
turbine and generator then injected back into the Earth's surface after
cooling down)

Geothermal Heat Pumps

Geothermal heat pumps or GHPs function by using geothermal energy

found within 300 metres of Earth's surface, which has a moderate
temperature. This GHP system is made with a pump and a loop of pipes
implanted in the ground that transfers heat energy between the surface
air and Earth. The GHPs help draws warm air from a building to cool
them down during summer. On the contrary, it warms the buildings in
the winter season.

6. Fuel cell

• A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that produces electricity

without combustion by combining hydrogen and oxygen to produce
water and heat.

Working Principle

Fuel cell is an electro-chemical device in which the chemical energy of

fuel is continuously converted into electric energy. This conversion of
energy takes place at constant pressure and temperature.

For explaining the principle of operation of fuel cells, here we shall

consider hydrogen (H2)-oxygen (O2) called Hydrox fuel cell.

The main components of a fuel cell are:

1. A fuel electrode (anode)

2. An oxidant electrode (cathode)

3. An electrolyte (a solution of H2SO4 for acidic fuel cell and KOH for
alkali fuel cells).

4. Additional components are container, separators, scaling's, fuel and

oxidant supply etc.

The basic feature of a fuel cell is that the fuel and the oxidant are
combined in the form of ions than in form of neutral molecules.

• A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or hydrogen-rich fuel) and
oxygen to create electricity by an electrochemical process.

• A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two

thin electrodes (a porous anode and cathode.

• Hydrogen, or a hydrogen-rich fuel, is fed to the anode where a

catalyst separates hydrogen's negatively charged electrons from
positively charged ions (protons).
• At the cathode, oxygen combines with electrons and, in some cases,
with species such as protons or water, resulting in water or hydroxide
ions, respectively.

• The electrons from the anode side of the cell cannot pass through the
membrane to the positively charged cathode; they must travel around
it via an electrical circuit to reach the other side of the cell. This
movement of electrons is an electrical current.

• The amount of power produced by a fuel cell depends upon several

factors, such as fuel cell type, cell size, the temperature at which it
operates, and the pressure at which the gases are supplied to the cell.

• Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they

employ. This determines the kind of chemical reactions that take
place in the cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range
in which the cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors.

• There are several types of fuel cells currently under development,

each with its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications.

Basic energy conversion of a fuel cell can be decribed as

Chemical energy of fuel= electrical energy + Heat energy

7. Hydrogen

• Hydrogen is the simplest and most abundant element on earth.

• Hydrogen combines readily with other chemical elements, and it is

always found as part of another substance, such as water,
hydrocarbon, or alcohol.

• Hydrogen is also found in natural biomass, which includes plants and

animals. For this reason, it is considered as an energy carrier and not
as an energy source.
• Hydrogen is a clean alternative to methane, also known as natural gas.

• It's the most abundant chemical element, estimated to contribute 75%

of the mass of the universe.

• Here on earth, vast numbers of hydrogen atoms are contained in

water, plants, animals and, of course, humans.

• The existence of hydrogen as a chemical substance in nature, with the

molecular formula of H2, is not readily available and it is often in the
form of compounds called hydrides with a negative or anionic
character, denoted (H−).

• The direct production of hydrogen in industry comes from steam

reforming of hydrocarbons.

• Hydrogen is abundant and is the most available renewable energy.

• Only water vapor is produced from the combustion of hydrogen.

• It is considered as the cleanest energy source.

• Hydrogen is also deemed to be the suitable solution to the

environmental problems if it is produced from renewable resources.

• The advantages of hydrogen are zero emission of greenhouse gases

 Fundamentals of Energy Science

Lecture 4. New Emerging Technologies

Several new and emerging technologies were gaining prominence and had

the potential to reshape various industries. Here are some of the new

emerging technologies as of.

Energy Storage

Let us understand - What is energy storage…?

Energy storage is the capture of energy produced at one time for use at a
later time to reduce imbalances between energy demand and energy
production. A device that stores energy is generally called
an accumulator or battery. Energy comes in multiple forms including
radiation, chemical, gravitational potential, electrical potential, electricity,
elevated temperature, latent heat and kinetic. Energy storage involves
converting energy from forms that are difficult to store to more conveniently
or economically storable forms. Some technologies provide short-term
energy storage, while others can endure for much longer. Bulk energy
storage is currently dominated by hydroelectric dams, both conventional as
well as pumped. Grid energy storage is a collection of methods used for
energy storage on a large scale within an electrical power grid. Common
examples of energy storage are the rechargeable battery, which stores
chemical energy readily convertible to electricity to operate a mobile phone;
the hydroelectric dam, which stores energy in a reservoir as
gravitational potential energy; and ice storage tanks, which store ice frozen
by cheaper energy at night to meet peak daytime demand for cooling. Green
hydrogen, from the electrolysis of water, is a more economical means of
long-term renewable energy storage in terms of capital expenditures than
pumped-storage hydroelectricity or batteries. Fossil fuels such as coal and
gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later
died, became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels.
Food (which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy
stored in chemical form.

The following list includes a variety of types of energy storage:

Mechanical Methods
Energy can be stored in water pumped to a higher elevation using pumped
storage methods or by moving solid matter to higher locations (gravity
batteries). Other commercial mechanical methods include compressing
air and flywheels that convert electric energy into internal energy or kinetic
energy and then back again when electrical demand peaks.

 Hydroelectricity
Hydroelectric dams with reservoirs can be operated to provide
electricity at times of peak demand. Water is stored in the reservoir
during periods of low demand and released when demand is high. The net
effect is similar to pumped storage, but without the pumping loss.

 Pumped hydro
At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used
to pump water from a lower source into a higher reservoir. When demand
grows, water is released back into a lower reservoir (or waterway or body of
water) through a turbine, generating electricity. Reversible turbine-
generator assemblies act as both a pump and turbine (usually a Francis
turbine design).

 Compressed air
Compressed air energy storage (CAES) uses surplus energy to
compress air for subsequent electricity generation. Small-scale systems
have long been used in such applications as propulsion of mine
locomotives. The compressed air is stored in an underground reservoir,
such as a salt dome.

 Flywheel
 Flywheel energy storage (FES) works by accelerating a rotor (a flywheel)
to a very high speed, holding energy as rotational energy. When energy
is added the rotational speed of the flywheel increases, and when energy is
extracted, the speed declines, due to conservation of energy.

 Solid mass gravitational

Changing the altitude of solid masses can store or release energy via
an elevating system driven by an electric motor/generator. Studies
suggest energy can begin to be released with as little as 1 second
warning, making the method a useful supplemental feed into an
electricity grid to balance load surges.

Thermal Methods
Thermal energy storage (TES) is the temporary storage or removal of heat.
 Sensible heat thermal
Sensible heat storage takes advantage of sensible heat in a material to
store energy. Seasonal thermal energy storage (STES) allows heat or
cold to be used months after it was collected from waste energy or
natural sources.

 Latent heat thermal (LHTES)

Latent heat thermal energy storage systems work by transferring heat
to or from a material to change its phase. A phase-change is the
melting, solidifying, vaporizing or liquifying. Such a material is called
a phase change material (PCM). Materials used in LHTESs often have a
high latent heat so that at their specific temperature, the phase change
absorbs a large amount of energy, much more than sensible heat.

 Cryogenic thermal energy storage

Air can be liquefied by cooling using electricity and stored as a
cryogen with existing technologies. The liquid air can then be expanded
through a turbine and the energy recovered as electricity.

 Carnot battery
 Electrical energy can be stored thermally by resistive heating or heat
pumps, and the stored heat can be converted back to electricity
via Rankine cycle or Brayton cycle. This technology has been studied to
retrofit coal-fired power plants into fossil- fuel free generation
systems. Coal-fired boilers are replaced by high-temperature heat storage
charged by excess electricity from renewable energy sources.

Electrochemical Methods
 Rechargeable battery
A rechargeable battery comprises one or more electrochemical cells. It
is known as a 'secondary cell' because its electrochemical reactions are
electrically reversible. Rechargeable batteries come in many shapes and
sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt grid systems.

Chemical Methods

 Power to gas
Power to gas is the conversion of electricity to a gaseous fuel such as
hydrogen or methane. The three commercial methods use electricity to
reduce water into hydrogen and oxygen by means of electrolysis. In
the first method, hydrogen is injected into the natural gas grid or is used
for transportation. The second method is to combine the hydrogen
with carbon dioxide to produce methane.

 Hydrogen

The element hydrogen can be a form of stored energy. Hydrogen can

produce electricity via a hydrogen fuel cell. Green hydrogen,
from electrolysis of water, is a more economical means of long-term
renewable energy storage in terms of capital expenditures than
pumped-storage hydroelectricity or batteries.

 Methane
Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon with the molecular formula CH4.
Methane is more easily stored and transported than hydrogen. Storage and
combustion infrastructure (pipelines, gasometers, power plants) are
mature. Methane combustion produces carbon dioxide (CO2) and water.

 Power to liquid
Power to liquid is similar to power to gas except that the hydrogen is
converted into liquids such as methanol or ammonia. These are easier to
handle than gases, and requires fewer safety precautions than hydrogen.
They can be used for transportation, including aircraft, but also for
industrial purposes or in the power sector.

 Biofuels

Various biofuels such as biodiesel, vegetable oil, alcohol fuels,

or biomass can replace fossil fuels. Various chemical processes can
convert the carbon and hydrogen in coal, natural gas, plant and animal
biomass and organic wastes into short hydrocarbons suitable as
replacements for existing hydrocarbon fuels. Examples are bio-
diesel, methanol, dimethyl ether and syngas.

 Aluminium
Aluminium has been proposed as an energy store by a number of
researchers. Its electrochemical equivalent (8.04 Ah/cm3) is nearly four
times greater than that of lithium (2.06 Ah/cm3). Energy can be
extracted from aluminium by reacting it with water to
generate hydrogen.

 Boron, silicon, and zinc

Boron, Silicon, and Zinc have been proposed as energy storage
solutions.
 Other chemical

The organic compound norbornadiene converts to quadricyclane upon

exposure to light, storing solar energy as the energy of chemical bonds.
A working system has been developed in Sweden as a molecular solar
thermal system.

Electrical Methods
 Capacitor
 A capacitor (originally known as a 'condenser') is a passive two-
terminal electrical component used to store energy electrostatically. A
capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging
circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery, or like other types
of rechargeable energy storage system. Capacitors are commonly used
in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries change.

 Superconducting magnetics
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) systems store
energy in a magnetic field created by the flow of direct current in
a superconducting coil that has been cooled to a temperature below
its superconducting critical temperature.

Solar Dryers

Let us understand - What is a solar dryer…?

Solar dryers are devices that use solar energy to dry substances,
especially food. Solar dryers use the heat from sun to remove the moisture
content of food substances. There are two general types of solar dryers:
Direct and indirect.

 Direct

Direct solar dryers expose the substance to be dehydrated to

direct sunlight. Historically, food and clothing were dried in the sun by
using lines, or laying the items on rocks or on top of tents. In these
systems the solar drying is assisted by the movement of the air (wind) that
removes the more saturated air away from the items being dried. More
recently, complex drying racks and solar tents were constructed as solar
dryers. One modern type of solar dryer has a black absorbing
surface which collects the light and converts it to heat; the substance to
be dried is placed directly on this surface. These driers may have enclosures,
glass covers and/or vents in order to increase efficiency.

 Indirect
 In indirect solar dryers, the black surface heats incoming air rather
than directly heating the substance to be dried. This heated air is then
passed over the substance to be dried and exits upwards often through
a chimney, taking moisture released from the substance with it. They can
be very simple, just a tilted cold frame with black cloth to an insulated
brick building with active ventilation and a back-up heating system. One
of the advantages of the indirect system is that it is easier to protect
the food, or other substance, from contamination whether wind-blown or by
birds, insects, or animals.

Electric Vehicles

Let us understand - What are electric vehicles…?

An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that uses one or more electric motors for
propulsion. It can be powered by a collector system, with electricity from
extravehicular sources, or it can be powered autonomously by
a battery (sometimes charged by solar panels, or by converting fuel to
electricity using fuel cells or a generator). EVs include, but are not limited to,
road and rail vehicles, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft,
and electric spacecraft. The electricity may be stored in the vehicle using a
battery, flywheel, or supercapacitors. Vehicles using internal combustion
engines usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources,
usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of electric vehicles
is regenerative braking, which recovers kinetic energy, typically lost
during friction braking as heat, as electricity restored to the on-board
battery.

Let us understand - What are various sources of electricity

for electric vehicles…?

There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying costs, efficiency and
ecological desirability.
 i. Connection to generator plants
Direct connection to generation plants as is common
among electric trains, trams, trolleybuses and trolley
trucks. Online electric vehicle collects power from electric power
strips buried under the road surface through electromagnetic
induction.

ii. Onboard generators and hybrid EVs

Generated on-board using a diesel engine: diesel-
electric locomotive and diesel–electric multiple unit (DEMU),
generated on-board using a fuel cell: fuel cell vehicle, generated on-
board using nuclear energy: nuclear submarines and aircraft
carriers and Renewable sources such as solar power: solar vehicle.

iii. Onboard storage

These systems are powered from an external generator plant
(nearly always when stationary), and then disconnected before
motion occurs, and the electricity is stored in the vehicle until
needed.

Let us understand - What are various components used in

electric vehicles…?

 Lithium-ion battery
Most electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ions or LIBs).
Lithium ion batteries have higher energy density, longer life span and
higher power density than most other practical batteries. Complicating
factors include safety, durability, thermal breakdown, its environmental
impact and cost. Li-ion batteries should be used within safe temperature
and voltage ranges in order to operate safely and efficiently. Increasing the
battery's lifespan decreases effective costs. One technique is to operate
a subset of the battery cells at a time and switching these subsets.

 Electric Motor
 The power of a vehicle's electric motor, as in other machines, is
measured in kilowatts (kW). Electric motors can deliver their maximum
torque over a wide RPM range. This means that the performance of a
vehicle with a 100-kW electric motor exceeds that of a vehicle with a 100-
kW internal combustion engine, which can only deliver its maximum
torque within a limited range of engine speed. Efficiency of charging varies
considerably depending on the type of charger, and energy is lost
during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical
energy. Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter
where it is converted to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC
electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor. For electric trains, forklift
trucks, and some electric cars, DC motors are often used. In some
cases, universal motors are used, and then AC or DC may be
employed. In recent production vehicles, various motor types have been
implemented; for instance, induction motors within Tesla Motor vehicles
and permanent magnet machines in the Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Bolt.

Let us understand - What are various types of electric

vehicles…?

Ground vehicles

a) Pure-electric vehicles
A pure-electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is powered exclusively
through electric motors. The electricity may come from a battery (battery
electric vehicle), solar panel (solar vehicle) or fuel cell (fuel cell vehicle).

b) Hybrid EVs

A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) is a type of hybrid vehicle that

combines a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) system with
an electric propulsion system (hybrid vehicle drivetrain). The presence of
the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better fuel
economy than a conventional vehicle or better performance.

c) Plug-in electric vehicle

 A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be
recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets,
and the electricity stored in the Rechargeable battery packs drives or
contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles
that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles,
(PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.

d) Range-extended electric vehicle

A range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) is a vehicle powered by an

electric motor and a plug-in battery. An auxiliary combustion engine is
used only to supplement battery charging and not as the primary
source of power.

e) On- and off-road EVs

On-road electric vehicles include electric cars, electric
trolleybuses, electric buses, battery electric buses, electric buses, battery
electric buses, electric trucks, electric bicycles, electric motorcycles and
scooters, personal transporters, neighbourhood electric vehicles, golf
carts, milk floats, and forklifts. Off-road vehicles include electrified all-
terrain vehicles and tractors.

Rail borne EVs

The fixed nature of a rail line makes it relatively easy to power EVs through
permanent overhead lines or electrified third rails, eliminating the need for
heavy onboard batteries. Electric locomotives, electric multiple units,
electric trams (also called streetcars or trolleys), electric light rail systems,
and electric rapid transit are all in common use today, especially in Europe
and Asia. Since electric trains do not need to carry a heavy internal
combustion engine or large batteries, they can have very good power-to-
weight ratios. This allows high speed trains such as France's double-
deck TGVs to operate at speeds of 320 km/h (200 mph) or higher,
and electric locomotives to have a much higher power output than diesel
locomotives. In addition, they have higher short-term surge power for fast
acceleration, and using regenerative brakes can put braking power back into
the electrical grid rather than wasting it. Maglev trains are also nearly
always EVs.

Airborne EVs

Since the beginnings of aviation, electric power for aircraft has received a
great deal of experimentation. Currently, flying electric aircraft include
manned and unmanned aerial vehicles.

Seaborne EVs

Electric boats were popular around the turn of the 20th century. Interest in
quiet and potentially renewable marine transportation has steadily
increased since the late 20th century, as solar cells have
given motorboats the infinite range of sailboats. Electric motors can and
have also been used in sailboats instead of traditional diesel
engines. Electric ferries operate routinely. Submarines use batteries
(charged by diesel or gasoline engines at the surface), nuclear power, fuel
cells or Stirling engines to run electric motor-driven propellers.

Vertical Axis Wind Turbines

Let us understand - What are turbines…?

A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from

a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. The work produced can be
used for generating electrical power when combined with a generator. A
turbine is a turbomachine with at least one moving part called a rotor
assembly, which is a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts
on the blades so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor.
Early turbine examples are windmills and waterwheels.

Wind Turbines
A wind turbine is a device that converts the kinetic
energy of wind into electrical energy. As of 2020, hundreds of thousands
of large turbines, in installations known as wind farms, were generating over
650 gigawatts of power, with 60 GW added each year. Wind turbines are an
increasingly important source of intermittent renewable energy, and are
used in many countries to lower energy costs and reduce reliance on fossil
fuels. One study claimed that, as of 2009, wind had the "lowest relative
greenhouse gas emissions, the least water consumption demands and the
most favourable social impacts" compared
to photovoltaic, hydro, geothermal, coal and gas energy sources. Smaller
wind turbines are used for applications such as battery charging and remote
devices such as traffic warning signs. Larger turbines can contribute to a
domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility
supplier via the electrical grid. Wind turbines are manufactured in a wide
range of sizes, with either horizontal or vertical axes, though horizontal is
most common.
Let us understand - What are various types of wind
turbines…?

 Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT)

Large three-bladed horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) with the
blades upwind of the tower produce the overwhelming majority of wind
power in the world today. These turbines have the main rotor shaft
and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into
the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large
turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a yaw system. Most have
a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker
rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.

 Vertical axis (VAWT)

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft
arranged vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is that the
turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective, which is
an advantage on a site where the wind direction is highly variable. It is
also an advantage when the turbine is integrated into a building because
it is inherently less steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed
near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the
ground-based gearbox, improving accessibility for maintenance.

Let us understand – What are various types of Vertical Axis

Wind Turbines…?

Savonius
The Savonius wind turbine (SWT) is a drag-type vertical axis wind turbine
(VAWT). The common design includes a rotating shaft with two or three
scoops that catch the incoming wind. Due to its simplistic and robust design
and its relatively low efficiency it is used whenever reliability is more
important than efficiency. One reason for the low efficiency of a Savonius
wind turbine is that roughly only half of the turbine generates positive
torque, while the other side moves against the wind and thus produces
negative torque. A variant of SWT is the Harmony wind turbine with helix-
shaped blades and an automatic furling mechanism during high-speed wind
conditions.

Darrieus
The Darrieus wind turbine is a lift-type vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT).
The original design included a number of curved aerofoil blades with the tips
attached on a rotating shaft. However, there are also designs that use
straight vertical airfoils, referred to as H-rotor or Giromill Darrieus wind
turbines. Furthermore, the blades of the Darrieus wind turbine can be
shaped into a helix to reduce the torque ripple effect on the turbine by
spreading the torque evenly over the revolution. Being lift-type devices, the
Darrieus wind turbines can extract more power from the wind than drag-
type wind turbines, such as the Savonius wind turbine.

Revolving Wing
Revolving wing wind turbines or rotating wing wind turbines are a new
category of lift-type vertical axis wind turbines (VAWT) which use 1 vertically
standing, non-helical airfoil to generate 360-degree rotation around a
vertical shaft that runs through the centre of the airfoil.

Advantages
VAWTs offer a number of advantages over traditional horizontal-axis wind
turbines (HAWTs):

 Omni-directional VAWTs may not need to track the wind. This means
they don't require a complex mechanism and motors to yaw the rotor
and pitch the blades.
 Gearbox replacement and maintenance are simpler and more efficient,
because the gearbox is accessible at ground level instead of requiring the
operator work hundreds of feet in the air. Motor and gearbox failures
generally are significant operation and maintenance considerations.
 Some designs can use screw pile foundations, which reduces the road
transport of concrete and the environmental impact of installation. Screw
piles can be fully recycled at end of life.

Disadvantages
When the velocity of a VAWT wind turbine grows, so does the power,
however at a certain peak point, the power progressively decreases to zero
even while the wind turbine velocity is at its greatest.[clarification
needed] Such that, disc brakes are used to slow the velocity of a wind
turbine at high wind conditions. However, sometimes due to disc brake
overheating, the turbine can catch fire. VAWTs often suffer from dynamic
stall of the blades as the angle of attack varies rapidly. The blades of a
VAWT are fatigue-prone due to the wide variation in applied forces during
each rotation. The vertically oriented blades can twist and bend during each
turn, shortening their usable lifetimes. Other than the drag-types, VAWTs
have proven less reliable than HAWTs, although modern designs have
overcome many early issues.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF ENERGY SCIENCE
LECTURE 5 PROSPECTS AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF POWER
GENERATION THROUGH RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

Introduction of Renewable energy

What is “Renewable Energy” and where does it come from? We all think we
know and some of us may even be able to name some of the most prominent
sources of renewable energy, but do we really understand the purpose of each
type (such as how and where it is used), how much energy it can generate or
its wider economic or benefits? Here, we attempt to cut through the fog and
give a clear and decisive summary of the information presently available on
renewable energy and associated technologies. Put simply, renewable energies
are those generated from sources that do not have a finite end, or those that
can be recycled, typically from natural sources - like solar power, wind power
and water power. These are the examples that we think about most when we
hear the term “renewable energy” but they are not the only sources.

We use energy every day of our lives - our electronic devices require electricity
for power, our streetlights need the same for lighting, our vehicles require
gasoline and diesel. We fuel our homes with domestic oil, propane or electricity
from a national or local grid for lighting, heating and for powering our devices.
You're reading this article on a website that is hosted on a server that needs
power, as does the computer with which you are viewing the site. The places we
work use computers, phone networks, security systems and servers, as do our
shopping malls, parking lots, sports stadiums, cars, airplanes and so on. All of
these things require power from fuel.

The world is doing what it can to reduce carbon emissions and limit the global
average temperature change with a new agreement decided in 2015 at the Paris
Climate Summit (or COP21). To move forward, we also need to realize that
there is only so much that can possibly be done in limiting GHG output as the
human population only increases and puts more demands on our energy
infrastructure. To further help the environment and secure the future of the
planet for our children and their children, we need to move to renewable
sources for our energy generation.

Renewable energy is energy from renewable resources that are naturally

replenished on a human timescale. Renewable resources
include sunlight, wind, the movement of water, and geothermal heat. Although
most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some are not. For example,
some biomass sources are considered unsustainable at current rates
of exploitation.

Renewable energy is often used for electricity generation, heating and cooling.
Renewable energy projects are typically large-scale, but they are also suited
to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often
crucial in human development. Renewable energy is often deployed together
with further electrification, which has several benefits: electricity can move
heat or objects efficiently, and is clean at the point of consumption.

Renewable energy

Renewable energy is energy that has been derived from earth’s natural
resources that are not finite or exhaustible, such as wind and sunlight.
Renewable energy is an alternative to the traditional energy that relies on fossil
fuels, and it tends to be much less harmful to the environment.

Renewable energy sources

There are different types of sources for power generation which is given below
in details. Hydro energy, small Hydro power, Biomass Power, Biopower, Urban
Industrial waste power, wing power, solar power
Solar

Solar energy is derived by capturing radiant energy from sunlight and

converting it into heat, electricity, or hot water. Photovoltaic (PV) systems can
convert direct sunlight into electricity through the use of solar cells.

BARRIERS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF RETs IN THE REGION

Policy and planning barriers Dissemination approach:

The current approach for executing RET programme entails planning and
dissemination by state renewable energy development agencies and/or rural
development departments. A ‘top down’ approach is adopted, where the targets
are set at the top and transmitted to various levels below. Often these targets
are determined independent of the felt needs of the people, leading to faulty
identification of target groups. For example, in the early years of biogas
dissemination, larger sized biogas plants were installed to achieve the target
notwithstanding inadequate supply of dung.

The rural population, the ultimate beneficiaries of the programmes, have little
role in deciding the design content of any renewable energy programme leading
to failure of the programmes in many cases. Further, the RET dissemination
has also failed to take into account the gender perspective during the planning
and implementation stages resulting in the limited success of the programme.
Absence of adequate database: Absence of reliable and adequate database of
the resources, weather and other environmental parameters in the region is a
chronic problem in implementation of the RET schemes.
The application of RETs being site-specific, reliable weather and resource
availability data plays a vital role during the implementation and operation of
the system. The absence of authentic information on physical and social
conditions of difficult and remote villages in most hilly areas of the NE region
has led to poor technical performance of the systems.

Financial barriers
The infrastructure bottleneck and remoteness of the region has made
installation costs of RETs very high even though, the region receives a higher
subsidy on the purchase of RET devices than the rest of India. Moreover, high
subsidies on the commercial fuels in spite of their environmental implications
has also slowed the pace of RET dissemination. The government subsidized
commercial fuel use does not take into account the efficiency of the device
(kerosene stove, lamp, etc).

Thus, the subsidy on fossil fuels (covert and overt) is largely responsible for the
unfavorable market economics bearing on RETs. Further, inefficient
technologies using traditional or commercial energy are bound to show better
attractiveness than RETs based on financial cost-benefit analysis. In view of
the need to promote sustainable development, it is not just the financial cost of
a renewable energy project, which is important, but also the attached social
and economic costs. Also, currently there is no mechanism in the region to
provide micro credit facility to the beneficiaries for installation of RETs.

Though at current market prices, RETs are unaffordable to the poor without
subsidy, but with appropriate financial support schemes the subsidy can be
gradually reduced and market for RETs may be developed in the region. The
higher financial stake in the ownership of the device also compels beneficiaries
to use the systems regularly and efficiently, as they have to repay the loan.
Experience in our country as well as globally has shown that micro credit
mechanisms assist in disseminating RETs more efficiently among the rural
people instead of direct capital subsidy.
Technological barriers

Mismatch between technologies, users’ needs and resource availability:

In many of the programmes, little attention has been paid to the issue of
matching technologies with peoples’ needs and resource availability of a
particular location. The suitability of a particular technology to either the
beneficiary or the place is usually not considered and technologies have been
promoted with the consideration that the users will modify their lifestyles in
accordance with the technology. This is evident from cases such as
constructing smokeless ICs where households use smoke for curing food and
drying wood, installing biogas plants in areas with paucity of cattle dung
and/or water, and installation of street lights in areas where people do not
venture out after sunset.

Lack of maintenance infrastructure:

Lack of adequate maintenance infrastructure in the region remains one of the

major reasons for failure of majority of the systems Even in states with
dedicated nodal agencies, the maintenance has been far from satisfactory due
to lack of trained technicians and inaccessible nature of installations.
Additionally, poor user training combined with the absence of effective
servicing and maintenance networks has resulted in the loss of confidence in
the RETs even due to minor maintenance problems.

Lack of local manufacturing capabilities:

No attempts have been made by government to support the development of

local manufacturing and/or assembling facilities for RETs in the region.
Consequently, the entire system is imported, adding to increased cost with no
accountability for system performance by the supplier. Institutional barriers

Lack of monitoring mechanisms:

In most of the states of the region, there is a lack of proper monitoring
mechanism. As renewable energy devices are relatively new technologies,
modifications to make the systems compatible for local requirements to
encourage wider acceptance are necessary. But in absence of proper technical
monitoring of these devices in most programmes, feedback for R&D is not
available resulting in under utilization or failure of the devices. The remote and
inaccessible nature of the installation of these systems is also a deterrent in
regular monitoring.

Low level of participation of NGOs and rural entrepreneurs:

Except for some schemes funded by the NEC, and the biogas and IC
programmes implemented through the Khadi and Village Industries
Commission, the participation of NGOs in promoting renewables in the region
has been minimal. The strengths of the large number of NGOs working in the
rural development sector in the region have not been harnessed effectively.
Experience has shown that NGOs and rural entrepreneurs can contribute
significantly to successful promotion of RETs such as identification of
appropriate interventions, implementation, and repair and maintenance of the
installed systems.

STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF RETs

Dissemination approach

The current implementation process needs a complete makeover of the

conventional approach to achieve maximum effectiveness. Thus, planning has
to be undertaken at a decentralized level with multilevel spatial considerations.
A ‘bottom up’ approach entailing government’s contribution for overall policy,
R&D and financial support with the primary responsibility of planning,
implementation and maintenance on local bodies, village level organizations,
and NGOs, would ensure the success of state sponsored RETs programmes.
To create significant impact, the dissemination strategy should have a
geographical focus, a concentrated deployment of a technology based on its
careful matching with community’s needs and resource base. For example, ICs
that save on wood should be promoted in areas with fuelwood scarcity. Such
areas may include geographical pockets with high population density and a
heavy stress on forest resources. This will help to realize ‘economics of scale’ in
installation of devices thus reducing transportation costs and also facilitating
better monitoring and repair services. Grassroots experience with SPV, IC and
biogas installations also shows that cluster approach makes follow- up and
maintenance much easier.

Focus should also be on cohesive nature of a village where majority population

belongs to the same ethnic community with uniform lifestyle and economic
status. Villages with presence of a strong progressive leadership and having
considerable influence in convincing the people about the virtues of the project
should be preferred for selection of RET project. For rural electrification
projects, micro projects with communities as ‘active partners’ will be most
suitable and sustainable.

Support systems:

financial and technical

Financial support being critical to sustainability of a renewable energy

programme, innovative financing packages to include flexible micro credit
facilities need to be extended to agencies/institutions and potential users to
promote the greater use of RETs. The subsidy mechanism provided to the
beneficiaries should be such that the users have stake in the ownership of the
systems. Instead of providing direct/flat subsidies on the devices, beneficiaries
should be given incentives to use RETs equivalent to the recurring subsidy
given on commercial fuels saved by use of the RETs. Further, because of the
decentralized nature of the RETs adequate measures should be taken to make
the supply systems highly reliable.

Local technicians can be identified and their existing skills enhanced to repair
RET devices. More funds should be invested in local infrastructure creation
and imparting of technical skills to qualified local people as many devices fail
due to lack of prompt after sales service. Establishment of ‘energy service’
companies should be encouraged at district/block level for sale, installation,
and maintenance services of RETs where spare parts could be easily available.
This would ease the burden on the implementation agencies and make such
services easily accessible to the users. The respective state governments should
promote rural development schemes linked to the RETs, which encourage
entrepreneurs to take up manufacturing, installation, maintenance, monitoring
and awareness related jobs

Integrating RETs with other development initiatives

It is important that the renewable energy programme be integrated with the

economic development planning of an area in order to improve its chances of
success in the field conditions. Instead of confining the programme only to a
'cooking and lighting' paradigm, the RET programme should try to address the
issues of sustainable development of the region in terms of income generation,
local empowerment and environmental protection. Gender, equity, social and
cultural factors should also be taken into account for successful
implementation of RET programme. Further, as all renewable energy projects
have the potential to qualify as CDM projects, all RET projects planned in the
region may be linked to CDM projects to avail international funding for
development of the region

Strengthening linkages with NGOs and village institutions

Given the inaccessibility and difficult geographical conditions and the limited
manpower and physical infrastructure available with the implementing
agencies, participation of NGOs, PRIs and village level institution is a
prerequisite for ensuring successful dissemination of RETs. Case studies on
different RET programmes such as NPIC, NPBD, etc. in West Bengal, Gujarat
and Maharashtra illustrate that high penetration level of RETs could be
achieved by involving the NGOs and village institutions extensively. The NGOs
can thus play an important role in providing the interface between the
governments and the people, undertaking implementation and maintenance
activities, training village communities in the operation and maintenance, and
helping in commercialization efforts.

R&D and resource mapping

A ‘goal’ oriented RD&D (research, development and demonstration) programme

based on local renewable resources is necessary to meet the challenges of RET
implementation in the region. A focus on upgradation of indigenous
technologies and developing user-friendly energy systems can lead to a greater
impact. For village electrification, detailed survey and investigation of all
unelectrified villages should be made for renewable resources availability round
the year.

The idea should not be only to survey the remote villages where grid
electrification may not be possible but to survey all villages and find out the
least cost option for ‘sustainable electrification’. There is also need to combine
resource mapping and GIS based rural planning models for determining the
scope and best location for implementing a project.

Promoting capacity building facilities and information dissemination

Many institutional barriers can be overcome by imparting focused training to

target groups and trainers, and introducing a free flow of information for
awareness, feedback and appreciation. The capacity building of local
institutions and user community is imperative because implementation and
management of RET programmes if shared among stakeholders would
encourage a greater sense of accountability and eventually result in the desired
impact.

Because of the limited access to technical information, the users are unable to
take optimum advantages of devices. Capacity building is needed at the
grassroots level and persons/groups with interest in the technology need to be
identified, trained in its installation and maintenance, and then encouraged to
set up small business/ESCOs to sell and service the technology within the
local area.

Grid integration of renewable energy sources:

Challenges, issues and possible solutions

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Renewable energy sources are intermittent in nature hence it is therefore a

challenging task to integrate renewable energy resources into the power grid.
Some of the challenges and issues associated with the grid integration of
various renewable energy sources particularly solar photovoltaic and wind
energy conversion systems. Further these challenges are broadly classified into
technical and non-technical and described below.

A. Technical Issues

The following are the technical issues are described as

1. Power quality

a. Harmonics
b. Frequency and voltage fluctuation

2. Power fluctuation

a. Small time power fluctuations

b. Long time or seasonal power fluctuations

3. Storage

4. Protection issues

5. Optimal placement of RES

6. Islanding

Apart from aforesaid technical issues some of the non-technical issues are also
presented in this paper.

B. Non-Technical Issues

1. Lack of technical skilled man power

2. Less availability of transmission line to accommodate RES

3. RES technologies are excluded from the competition by giving them priority
to dispatch which discourage the installation of new power plant for reserve
purpose.

POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

The renewable energy sources such as solar, wind etc. has accelerated the
transition towards greener energy sources. The increasing number of renewable
energy sources and distributed generators requires new strategies for the
operation and management of the electricity grid in order to maintain or even
to improve the power-supply reliability and quality. Keeping in view of the
aforesaid some of the possible solutions have been proposed by researchers.

1. The power-electronic technology plays an important role in distributed

generation and in integration of renewable energy sources into the electrical
grid, and it is widely used and rapidly expanding as these applications become
more integrated with the grid- based systems. During the last few years, power
electronics has undergone a fast evolution, which is mainly due to two factors.
The first one is the development of fast semiconductor switches that are
capable of switching quickly and handling high powers. The second factor is
the introduction of real- time computer controllers that can implement
advanced and complex control algorithms. These factors together have led to
the development of cost- effective and grid-friendly converters.

2. Intermittence of power generation from the RES can be controlled by

generating the power from distributing the RES to larger geographical area in
small units instead of large unit concentrating in one area. For example output
power of large solar PV system with rating of tens of megawatt can be change
by 70% in a five to ten minutes of time frame by the local phenomenon like
cloud passing etc. therefore large number of small solar PV system should be
installed in larger geographical area. The fluctuation of total output power can
be minimized because of local problem can affect only small unit power not the
total output power.

3. In case of irrigation load the load is fed during the night time or off-peak
load time and this is fed by conventional grid. On other hand power generated
by RES like solar PV is generated during day time so we can use this power for
irrigation purposes instead of storing the energy for later time which increases
the cost of the overall system. Using the solar water pumping for irrigation
gives very high efficiency approx 80% to 90% and the cost of solar water
pumping is much lesser than the induction motor pumping type.

4. In large solar PV plant output power is fluctuating during the whole day and
this power is fed to the grid and continuously fluctuating power gives rise to
the security concern to the grid for making stable grid. Solar PV plant owner
have to install the different type of storage system which gives additional cost
to the plant owner. Once the storage system is fully charged then this storage
elements gives no profit to the system owner. Therefore, solar based water
pumping system may be installed instead of storage system.

Now Let us Conclude

India’s energy-mix comprises both fossil fuels (coal, lignite, petroleum and
natural gas) and renewable energy sources (wind, solar, small hydro, biomass
etc.). The fossil fuels, with about three-fifths of the country’s power generation
capacity being dependent on vast indigenous reserves of coal. However,
electricity demand is higher during crop irrigation time and in summer when
cooling load for human comfort is extremely higher than the supply.

Ultimately, it leads unpredicted power cut and sometime whole power

generating systems shutdown; many time blackouts have been pointed out in
India. This is because of infrastructure problems. The blackout ‘‘is symbolic of
the infrastructure bottlenecks of the country. On the hand, India faces the
problem of coal to feed all its new coal-burning power plants. The coal supply
has not been matching with power sector demand sometime hardy getting any
kind of coal. Natural gas-based generation capacity has also grown very rapidly
in the last decade due to lower capital requirements, shorter construction
periods, and higher efficiencies have a 1/12th share in the overall capacity.
Power generation from nuclear fuel is still limited due to security and safety
view point. Fortunately, India is rich enough as far as renewable energy source
is concerned.
The sustainable development is impossible without using renewable energy
sources. Among the renewable energy sources, solar power generation
undoubtedly offers the most promising and viable option for electricity
generation for the present and future.
Course Name: Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy Sources.
Topic Name : Solar Radiation

Solar Radiation

1.1 INTRODUCTION
All the solar energy devices depend upon the electromagnetic radiation continuously being emitted
from the sun and striking the Earth surface. These are short wave radiations. When solar radiation
strikes the Earth’s surface, it gets absorbed and is re-emitted as long wavelength thermal radiation.
Thus, thermal radiations are a form of energy emission and depend solely on the temperature and
the characteristics of the emitting surface. The various forms of radiations differ only in
wavelength. If you study the spectrum of electromagnetic waves, the range of wavelength of
thermal radiation is, theoretically, from zero meter to infinity. A large part of thermal radiation has
wavelength in the range from about 0.1 μm to 100 μm(1μm = 10 -6 meter). The visible portion of
thermal radiation ranges from approximately 0.4 μm to 0.7 μm.
As solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, some of it is absorbed, some is scattered, and the
rest is reflected by the following:
 Air molecules
 Water vapor
 Clouds
 Dust
 Pollutants
 Forest fires
 Volcanoes
The radiation reaching the Earth’s surface is called diffused solar radiation or simply diffused
radiation. The solar radiation which reaches the Earth's surface without being diffused is called
direct solar radiation or simply direct insolation. The sum of the diffused and direct insolation is
called global insolation. Atmospheric conditions can reduce direct insolation by about 10% on
clear, dry days and by 100% on thick, cloudy days.

1.2 HEAT TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS OF SURFACES

Thermal radiations are electromagnetic radiations and travel at the speed of light, which is equal to
about 3 x 108 m/s in vacuum. This speed of thermal radiations is related to the wavelength and
frequency by the following equation:
c= λν (1.1)
where c = speed of light, m/s
λ = wavelength of radiation, m
ν = frequency of radiation, s -1
The electromagnetic radiations have dual nature, behaving like waves and also like particles. As
particles electromagnetic waves are discrete quanta, called photons of energy E given by
E=hν (1.2)
where E = energy of a photon in Joules
 h = Planck constant = 6.6 x 10-34 J.s
ν = frequency of radiation, s-1
When a beam of thermal radiation is incident on the surface of a body, the following could happen:
(a) some of it may gets reflected away from the surface
(b) some of it may get absorbed by the body
(c) some of it may get transmitted through the body
This is shown in Fig. 1.2.1. The radiation characteristics of a surface are its ability to reflect
(reflectivity), its ability to absorb (absorptivity) and its ability to transmit (transmissivity). These
are defined as follows:
α = reflectivity = fraction of radiation reflected by the surface
ρ = absorptivity = fraction of radiation absorbed by the surface
τ = transmissivity = fraction of radiation transmitted through the surface
Thus,
α+ρ+τ=1 …(1.3)
Most of the solid objects are opaque and hence τ = 0. If a body absorbs all the incoming radiation
(such a body is called black body), we have τ = 0, ρ = 1and hence α = 0.

The emissive power, Eb, of a black body is expressed by Stefan- Boltzman law defined as follows:
Eb   T 4 …(1.4)
where σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2.K4 and T is the temperature in degree
Kelvin.
Incident Reflected
Radiation Radiation

Absorbed
Radiation

Transmitted
Radiation

Fig. 1.2.1 Solar radiation striking a surface

1.3 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES OF REAL SURFACES
An ideal black body is a perfect absorber as well as perfect emitter of thermal radiations All real
surfaces emit less energy than corresponding blackbodies.

1.1.1 Emmissivity of a Surface

The ratio of the total emissive power E of a real surface to the total emissive power, Eb, of a
blackbody is called the emissivity, ε , of the real surface. Thus,
E
 …(1.5)
Eb
The emissivity of a surface is a function of following parameters:
(1) surface temperature
(2) wavelength of the incident radiation
(3) direction of the incident radiation
The emissivity defined by Eq. (1.5) is the average value over the entire wavelength range in all
directions. It is called total emissivity.
1.3.2 Kirchoff’s Law
The Krichhoff’s law of radiation states that the monochromatic (single wavelength) emissivity is
equal to the monochromatic absorptivity for any surface when in thermal equilibrium with its
surroundings. This may be expressed as follows:
  (T )    (T ) …(1.6)

where   (T ) is the monochromatic emissivity at wavelength λ and temperature T and   (T ) is the

monochromatic absorptivity at wavelength λ and temperature T.
You will learn later in this course that the solar energy absorbed by a solar collector is always in
the process of losing the absorbed radiation to the environment by radiation, conduction and
convection.
1.3.3 Advantages of Selective Surfaces
The radiation losses from a solar absorber can be reduced significantly when the receiving surface
has selective radiation properties. Table 1.3.1 gives the properties of some selective surfaces.

Table 1.3.1 Properties of a Some Selected Surfaces

Material Short-wave Long-wave

absorptivity emissivity
Black nickel on nickel-plated steel 0.95 0.07
Black chrome on nickel-plated steel 0.95 0.09
Black chrome on galvanized steel 0.95 0.16
Black chrome on copper 0.95 0.14
Black copper on copper 0.88 0.15
CuO on nickel 0.81 0.17
CuO on aluminum 0.93 0.11
PbS crystals on aluminum 0.89 0.20

You can see the following properties of selective surfaces:

 high absorptivity for radiation in the solar range of wavelengths
 low emissivity for long wave thermal radiation
1.4 Solar Radiation On A Surface
1.4.1 Basic Principles
Each location on Earth receives sunlight at least for a part of the year. The amount of solar
radiation that reaches a particular "spot" on the Earth's surface depends on a number of factors.
These factors are:
 Geographic location
 Time of day
 Season
 Local landscape
 Local weather
The Sun strikes the surface at different angles ranging from 0° (just above the horizon) to 90°
(directly overhead) due to nearly round shape of the earth. When the Sun's rays are vertical, the
Earth's surface gets maximum energy possible. The more slanted the Sun's rays are, the longer they
travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffused reducing the amount of
energy reaching Earth's surface.
Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit and is closer to the Sun during a part of the year.
When the Sun is nearer the Earth, the Earth's surface receives a little more solar energy. The Earth
is nearer the Sun when it's summer in the southern hemisphere and winter in the northern
hemisphere. The 23.5° tilt in the Earth's axis of rotation is also a significant factor in determining
the amount of sunlight striking the Earth at a particular location.
The rotation of the Earth around its own axis is responsible for hourly variations in sunlight. In the
early morning and late afternoon, the Sun is low in the sky. Its rays travel longer through the
atmosphere than at noon when the sun is at its highest point. On a clear day, the maximum amount
of solar energy reaches a solar collector around solar noon.

Before we discuss solar radiation on a surface (horizontal or tilted), let us talk about the nature of
the solar radiation. The earth receives two types of solar radiation called beam and diffuse
radiation. These are defined in the following sections.
1.4.2 Beam Radiation or Direct Radiation
The radiation received by the Earth without any change in the direction is referred to as beam
radiation or direct radiation as shown in Fig. 1.4.1.
Beam Radiation

Surface

Fig: Beam Radiation

1.4.3 Diffused Radiation

The diffused radiation is received by the Earth from all directions. The radiations may change their
direction due to scattering from dust particles, clouds etc. while passing through atmosphere.
Diffused radiations do not have a unique direction. The diffused radiation is shown in Fig. 1.4.2.
The concept of how beam and diffused radiations are received by the surface is shown in Fig. 1.4.3.
Diffused component of solar radiation (B) is that portion which is reflected from clouds, the
ground, and nearby objects, and direct component of solar radiation (A) is that portion which falls
onto flat-plate solar panels.
Some of the other terms used to discuss solar radiation are:
1.4.4 Global Radiation (Solar Insolation)
The total radiation is the sum of direct radiation and diffused radiation and is called global
radiation or simply insolation.
Diffused Radiation

Fig. 1.4.2 Diffused Radiation

Fig. 1.4.3 Beam and Diffuse Radiation (US Dept. of Energy)

Insolation: Total amount of solar radiation per unit area per day reaching a part of the Earth is
called the ‘insolation’, a short form of “incident solar radiation”.
Solar insolation is defined as the amount of sunshine incident on the surface of the Earth per unit
area per day. You can determine the size of solar collectors provided the value of solar insolation is
known. If the value of solar insolation is less, the area of the collector will be large as compared to
the case where solar insolation is high.
Solar insolation is expressed in KWh/m2/day. It is the amount of solar energy which falls on a
square meter of Earth’s surface in a single day.

1.4.5 Irradiance
The rate at which radiations fall on a surface per unit area is called irradiance (W/m2).
In solar energy engineering, we come across the term extraterrestrial solar radiation and terrestrial
solar radiation. In order to understand these terms, let us consider terrestrial and extraterrestrial
regions as shown in Fig. 1.4.4.
 SUN

Extraterrestrial O2, O3, CO2,, H2O, CO,

Region dust

Atmosphere

Diffused Radiation
Terrestrial
Region Long Wavelength Radiation

Earth

Fig. 1.4.4 Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Regions

1.4.6 Extraterrestrial Solar Radiation
You know that Earth is inclined at an angle and revolves around the Sun in an elliptic orbit. The
orientation of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun is such that the Earth-Sun distance varies only by
about 1.7 %. The solar radiation outside Earth’s atmosphere is almost constant and is called solar
constant.
Solar Constant
The radiation received per second by a surface of unit area held normal to the sun’s rays at the
mean earth-sun distance outside the atmosphere is constant throughout the year. It is called Solar
Constant and is equal to 1367 W/m2.

The intensity of extraterrestrial radiation measured at a plane normal to the radiation is given by
(Duffie and Beckman 1991).
I ext  I sc [1  0.033 cos(360n / 365)] …(1.7)
where
Iext = extraterrestrial radiation
Isc = solar constant
n = day of the year (n = 1 for January 1, n= 365 for December 31)

Example 1.1
Evaluate the extraterrestrial solar radiation on January 1, June 22 and December 1.
Solution:
For January 1, n = 1
For June 22, n = 174
For December 21, n = 355
Using Eq. (1.7), we get
For January 1:
Iext = 1367 [1 + 0.033 cos (360 x 1/365)] = 1412 W/m2
For June 22 :
 Iext = 1367 [1 + 0.033 cos (360 x 174/365)] = 1322 W/m2
For December 21:
Iext = 1367 [1 + 0.033 cos (360 x 355/365)] = 1411 W/m2

1.4.7 Main Features of Solar Radiation

Sun is continuously radiating energy in the form of electromagnetic radiations. These radiations
while passing through earth’s atmosphere are subject to absorption (by ozone O 3 , oxygen O2 ,
nitrogen N2 ,carbon dioxide CO2, carbon monoxide CO and water vapour H2O) and scattering (by
dust particles, air molecules and water droplets etc) in the atmosphere. A fraction of the radiation
striking the earth’s surface is reflected back into the atmosphere where it is again absorbed and
scattered. The remaining radiations are absorbed by the Earth’s surface.

The main components of solar radiation falling on the earth are the following:
 Short wavelength (optical wavelengths) radiation from the Sun reaches the top of the
atmosphere.
 Clouds reflect 17% back into space. If the Earth gets more cloudy, as some climate models
predict, more radiation will be reflected back and less will reach the surface.
 8% is scattered backwards by air molecules.
 6% is actually directly reflected off the surface back into the space.
 So the total reflectivity of the earth is 31% which is technically known as Albedo.

You may be wondering what happens to the remaining 69% of the incoming radiation that doesn’t
get reflected back. Here is the approximate break up:
 19% gets absorbed directly by dust, ozone and water vapour in the upper atmosphere. This
region is also known as stratosphere and is heated by this absorbed radiation.
 4% gets absorbed by the clouds located in the troposphere. This is lower part of the Earth’s
atmosphere.
 The remaining 46% of the sunlight that is incident on top of the earth’s atmosphere reaches
the surface.
Example 1.2
Estimate the average energy from the Sun that reaches the surface of the Earth.
Solution
Incident solar energy on the ground:
 Average over the entire Earth = 170 W/m2 over a 24 hour day
 8 hour summer day , 40 degree latitude = 600 W/m2
So this 8 hour will receive
 8 hours* 600 W/m2 = 4800 Whr/m2 which equals 4.8 KWh /m2.

Classes of solar radiation:

 Ultraviolet (UV): < 0.38 μm wavelength, approximately 7% of solar radiation

 Visible: 0.38-78 μm, 47% of solar radiation
 Infrared (IR): > 0.78 μm, 46% of solar radiation
 1.5 SOLAR RADIATION ON A TILTED SURFACE
Let us consider the solar radiation falling on a surface. The amount of solar radiation on a
terrestrial surface at a given location for a given time depends on the orientation and slope of the
surface. A surface which is always normal to the sun’s rays would receive maximum amount of
solar radiation. The solar energy collectors may be tilted at a suitable angle so that it is roughly
normal to the sun’s rays so that maximum energy collection is obtained.
If you wish to design any solar energy device, you need to know the data of solar radiation on such
tilted surfaces. However, measured or estimated radiation data are available mostly either for
normal incidence or for horizontal surfaces. It is necessary to convert these data to radiation on
tilted surfaces.
Let us consider beam radiation falling on horizontal and tilted surfaces as shown in Fig. 1.5.1.

Ibi
Ib
Ibn Ibn
i
z

y
s

Fig. 1.5.1 Beam radiation on horizontal and tilted surfaces

Let
Ibn = beam radiation at normal incidence
Is = beam radiation at horizontal surface
Ibi = beam radiation at tilted surface

From Fig. 1.5.1, we have

Ib = Ibn cos z
Ibi = Ibn cos i
The beam radiation tilt factor, Rb , is then given by
Rb = Ibi / Ib = cos i/ cos z
A tilted surface receives diffused radiation as well as reflected radiation form the ground and
surroundings in addition to the beam radiation.
The diffused sky radiation on the tilted surface at an angle s is given by I d (1+ cos s)/2, where Id is
the diffuse sky radiation on a horizontal surface.

If the ground and other surfaces seen by the tilted surface have a diffuse reflectivity τ g for both
beam and diffuse sky radiation, the amount of ground-reflected solar radiation on the tilted surface
is equal to τg (1- cos s)/2, of the total radiation (Ib + Id) on the horizontal surface.
The beam, diffuse, and reflected components, can be added to give the total incident radiation, I t ,
on a tilted surface. The total solar radiation on a horizontal surface, I, is the sum of horizontal beam
and diffuse radiation.
1.6 MONTHLY AVERAGE OF DAILY TOTAL SOLAR
RADIATION ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

The computation of solar radiation on a horizontal or tilted surface is not an easy task and requires
a complete knowledge of solar geometry and earth sun relationships. However, there are
correlations available for estimation of solar radiations at horizontal surfaces. Ultimately we need
the values of monthly average of daily solar radiation on a horizontal surface.
The correlation for determining monthly average of daily solar radiation on a horizontal surface is
given by the following relation:
H n
 ab ( ) …(1.8)
Ho N
where
H = monthly average daily total radiation on a horizontal surface
Ho = monthly average daily extraterrestrial radiation on a
horizontal surface
n = monthly average daily hours of bright sunshine hours
N = monthly average of the maximum possible daily hours of
bright sunshine hours
The a and b are the regression parameters and are given by
a  0.309  0.539 cos  0.0693 E0  0.290(n / N ) …(1.9)
b  1.527  1.027 cos  0.0926 E0  0.359(n / N ) …(1.10)
where
φ = latitude
E0 = elevation of the location above sea level in kilometers.
The values of φ (latitude) and E0 (elevation of the location above sea level in kilometers) are given
in Table 1.6.1 for few locations.

Table 1.6.1 Latitude and Elevation of Some Places in India

Place Latitude, ϕ Elevation, E0

Bangalore 12º58ʹ N 921 m
Mumbai 18º54ʹ N 11 m
Jodhpur 26º18ʹ N 224 m
New Delhi 28º35ʹ N 216 m
Shimla 31º06ʹ N 2202 m
Kolkata 22º32ʹ N 6m
Chennai 13º00ʹ N 16 m
 |1

Course Name: Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy Sources.

Topic Name : SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC

1.1.5 SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV)

Solar photovoltaic is the process of directly converting sunlight into electricity using a device known
as a solar cell or photovoltaic cell. Solar cells are made of semiconductor materials. Different types of
semiconductor materials are used to manufacture various types of solar cells. Silicon (Si) is the most
commonly used semiconductor material in the fabrication of solar cells. At the moment, silicon
semiconductor is used to manufacture approximately 90 per cent of the PV modules on the market.
Daryl Chaplin, Gerald Pearson, and Calvin Souther Fuller created the first practical solar cell in 1954
at Bell laboratories in the United States. Initially, it was used to supply electrical power to satellites
orbiting the Earth.
1.5.1Solar Cell Parameters
1.5.1.1 Short Circuit Current (Isc)
When the voltage across the cell terminals is zero, current flows through the solar cell. The solar cell
is short-circuited in this condition. The maximum current produced by a solar cell is denoted as Isc.
1.5.1.2 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)
When no load is connected, the open circuit voltage is measured across the two terminals of the solar
cell. Voc is the abbreviation for it. This voltage is affected by the manufacturing technique and cell
temperature, but is largely unaffected by the intensity of solar radiation. The typical value of open
circuit voltage is 0.5 to 0.6 volts.
1.5.1.3V-I Characteristics of Solar Cell
A graph of output voltage versus current for different levels of solar insolation and cell temperature is
the V-I characteristic of a solar cell. Figure 1.3 depicts a typical V-I curve of a solar cell. Pmax
represents the maximum power. The current at which maximum power occurs is denoted as Imax, and
the voltage at which maximum power occurs is denoted as Vmax.
1.5.1.4 Maximum Power Point (MPP)
It is the maximum electrical power that a solar cell can produce under standard test condition (STC).
In standard test condition, the solar intensity is 1000 W/m2 and solar cell temperature is 25oC. It is
denoted as Pm. It represents the point on V-I curve where the product of current and voltage is
maximum. On the V-I curve (Fig.1.3) of solar cell it occurs at the bend point of the curve.
 |2

Fig. 1.3:V-I curve of a solar cell

1.5.1.5 Fill Factor of Solar Cell (FF)
Fill factor is defined as the ratio of Pmax to the product of Isc and Voc of the solar cell. Mathematically,
it is expressed as:
Pmax Imax ×Vmax
FF = I = (2.1)
sc ×Voc Isc ×Voc

1.5.1.6 Efficiency of Solar Cell

The efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of maximum electrical power output to the optical
power incident on the solar cell. Mathematically, it is represented as:
Pmax Imax ×Vmax FF×Isc ×Voc
Efficiency = Pin
= I(t)×Ac
= I(t)×Ac
(2.2)
Where, Imax and Vmax are the current and voltage for maximum power corresponding to solar intensity
I(t).
Example 1.1Calculate the fill factor for a solar cell that has the following parameters:
VO C = 0.2 V, Isc = 5.5 mA, Vmax = 0.125 V, Imax = 3 mA.
Solution
EXAMPLE 1.1

From Eq. (1.1) we have,

Imax ×Vmax
Fill factor (FF) = Isc ×Voc

Substituting given values of VO C, Isc, Vmaxand Imax, we get

I ×Vmax 0.125×3
Fill factor = max = = 0.34
Isc ×Voc 0.2×5.5
 |3

Example 1.2 Calculate the efficiency of a single solar cell of dimension 10 cm x 10 cm

which produces a voltage of 0.5 V and a current up to 2.5 A. The solar intensity is 800
W/m2.
Solution
EXAMPLE 1.2

Given, Imax = 2.5 A, Vmax= 0.5 V, solar intensity I(t) = 800 W/m2
Area of solar cell Ac = 10 cm x 10 cm = 100 cm2 =100 x 10-4 m2.
From Eq. (2.2) we have
Imax ×Vmax 2.5 × 0.5
Cell Efficiency = I(t)×Ac
= 800 × 100 × 10−4 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟔
In percentage, efficiency = 0.156 x 100% = 15.6 %

Example 1.3 If a solar intensity of 500 W/m2 is incident on a solar cell of area 3 m2.
Calculate the power output of the cell. If the efficiency of cell is 12%.
EXAMPLE 1.2

Solution
Given, Solar intensity I (t) = 500 W/m2, Area of solar cell Ac = 3 m2,
Cell efficiency = 12% = 0.12
Pout Pout
We know that, Cell Efficiency = =
PinI(t)×Ac I(t)×Ac

Or, Power output, Pout= cell efficiency x I (t) x Ac= (0.12 x 500 x 3) Watt = 180 Watt
1.5.2 Working of Photovoltaic (Solar) Cell: Photovoltaic Effect
When a photovoltaic cell is exposed to sunlight, it produces voltage or current. It is called as
photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is essentially a p-n junction diode. A typical silicon solar cell consists
of a boron-doped p-type semiconductor and a phosphorous-doped n-type semiconductor. When these
two are connected, an electric field is created at the P-N junction. The Schematic diagram of typical
solar cell is presented in Fig. 1.4.
When sunlight strikes a solar cell, photons are absorbed. Some photons have energies greater than the
energy difference between the valance and conduction bands of the solar cell's semiconductor
material. After absorbing such a photon, an electron in the semiconductor material jumps to the
conduction band, forming an electron-hole pair. These are known as light-generated electrons and
holes. The electric field created at the p-n junction gives these electrons and holes momentum and
direction. The electron near the p-n junction moves to the n-type side, while the hole near the junction
moves to the p-type side. As a result, a potential difference is created between the two sides of the
junction, and if the two sides are connected by an external load, current flows from positive to
negative.
 |4

Fig. 1.4: Working of a solar cell

A typical single photovoltaic cell is about the size of a compact disc (CD). Due to its small size, a
single solar cell can only generate a limited voltage and current. It can generate 0.5-0.6 volts of direct
current voltage. The power generated by a solar cell is determined by its efficiency and size.
1.5.3 Types of Photovoltaic Cells
Photovoltaic cells are divided into two broad categories, crystalline solar cells and thin film solar
cells.
1.5.3.1 Crystalline Solar Cells: First Generation
At the moment, the majority of solar cells on the market (about 90%) are made from crystalline silicon
(c-Si) wafers. These cells are cut from large silicon ingots. Ingots are solid metal pieces that are
typically prepared in the shape of bricks. Silicon ingots are grown in laboratories using crystal growth
processes such as the Czochralski (CZ) process. It could take up to a month for silicon ingot to grow.
During the growing process, these ingots can take the form of a single or multiple crystals. The single
crystals are used to make monocrystalline (mono-Si) solar cells. Single crystal wafers are typically
125 mm x 125 mm or larger in size, with a pseudo square shape. Monocrystalline silicon cells are
typically coloured and cylindrical in shape. Multicrystalline or polycrystalline (multi-Si or Poly c-Si)
solar cells are made up of multiple crystals. These are constructed from square silicon substrate cut
from polycrystalline ingots grown in a quartz crucible. Multi crystalline wafers are typically 100 mm
x 100 mm or larger and square shape.
The efficiencies of commercial crystalline silicon solar cells are in the range of 16-18 per cent for
monocrystalline cells and 15-17% for polycrystalline cells. The manufacturing process of crystalline
solar cells is presented in Fig. 1.5.
 |5

Fig. 1.5: Manufacturing process of crystalline silicon solar cells

(Source: Saga, T. Advances in crystalline silicon solar cell technology for industrial mass
production. NPG Asia Mater 2, 96–102 (2010))
1.5.3.2 Thin Film Solar Cells: Second Generation
Thin film solar cells are 100 times thinner than crystalline silicon solar cells. These are made from
amorphous silicon (a-Si). In contrast to crystalline silicon, atoms in amorphous silicon are randomly
arranged. Thin film solar cells use less material than crystalline silicon cells, making them less
expensive. However, efficiency remains low at 6-7%. Thin film solar cells are primarily made of
compound semiconductors such as cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium di-selenide
(CIGS). Because of their smaller size, they can be made more flexible in design as shown in Fig. 1.6
(a). As a result, they can be laminated on a building's windows and roofs, as shown in the Fig. 1.6 (b).

Fig.1.6 (a):Thin film solar cells Fig. 1.6 (b): Thin film cell laminated on the window
 |6

1.5.3.3 Multijunction Solar Cells: Third Generation

By combining the best features of crystalline and thin film solar cells, third generation solar cell
technology aims to improve the performance and efficiency of first and second generation silicon
solar cells. These cells are made of organic polymers and amorphous silicon. They have multiple
junctions made of different layers of semiconductor materials. These cells are more cost effective and
efficient than crystalline and thin film solar cells. The various configurations of multijunction solar
cells are show in Fig. 1.7.

Fig.1.7:Multi-junction solar cells

1.6 PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) MODULE OR SOLAR PANEL
A single solar panel typically produces a very low voltage of 0.5 - 0.6 volts. This voltage is
insufficient for most practical applications. A larger voltage and current can be generated by
connecting a number of solar cells together. Module consisting of thirty six number of cells arranged
in series connection in shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig.1.8: PV module with 36 solar cells connected in series

 |7

PV modules or solar panels are constructed by connecting solar cells in series to produce the desired
current and voltage. Photovoltaic panels are available in a variety of sizes and shapes, depending on
the desired power output. A typical crystalline PV module contains very thin silicon solar cells
(thickness of about 300 micron). A string of cells is placed between a top glass cover (toughened glass
with high transmittivity), an encapsulate (transparent and insulating layer of EVA (ethylene vinyl
acetate), and a back cover to provide strength and protect the cells from damage. The back cover is
made of an insulating teldar sheet or a transparent glass sheet. An outer metallic frame is attached for
strength and easy mounting on the structures. At the back of the module, a terminal box with positive
and negative strings is also installed.
There are two types of crystalline PV modules available, depending on whether the back cover is
opaque tedlar or transparent glass. I Glass-to-tedlar or opaque PV module with tedlar back cover and
ii) Gass-to-Glass or semi-transparent PV module with glass back cover, as shown in Figs. 1.9 (a) and
1.9 (b). The power outputof a PV module is affected by solar intensity, solar cell temperature, solar
cell electrical efficiency, and load resistance. The majority of module manufacturers produce modules
with 12 V or 24 V output voltage.

Fig. 1.9 (a):Opaque PV Module Fig. 1.9 (b):Semi-transparent PV module

1.7 PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) ARRAY
Many PV modules are connected in series or parallel in larger PV plants. A photovoltaic (PV) array is
a system made up of a number of PV modules that are electrically connected together in either series
or parallel. Connecting many PV modules in series results in higher voltage, while connecting many
PV modules in parallel results in higher current. In general, series connections are preferred to
increase voltage. For example, if two PV modules are connected in series, the voltage doubles while
the current remains constant. Even if the voltage, current, and power ratings are nominally the same,
mixing PV modules from different manufacturers in a single PV array is not recommended. The
transition from a single solar cell to a PV array is described in Fig. 1.10.
 |8

Fig. 1.10:PV cell, module and array

1.8 SOLAR POWER PLANTS
Solar power plants are electricity generation plants that use solar energy to generate electrical
power.Solar energy can be used to generate electricity in two ways:
(i) Solar thermal power plants
(ii) Solar PV power system
1.8.1 Solar Thermal Power Plants
Solar thermal power plants heat a fluid to a high temperature using solar energy. This fluid conducts
heat to water, which is then converted into superheated steam. The steam produced at a temperature
higher than the boiling point at absolute pressure is known as superheated steam. This superheated
steam is used to run powerplants' steam turbines. A mechanical generator converts the turbine's
mechanical energy into electricity. Solar thermal power plants are essentially the same as traditional
fossil fuel-based thermal power plants; the only difference is that sunlight is used to generate steam
instead of burning fossil fuels in solar thermal power plants (coal, oil, natural gas). Solar concentrators
are commonly used in these plants to concentrate the sun's rays on a single point in order to achieve
high temperatures. Concentrating solar power (CSP) plants use mirrors or reflectors to concentrate
solar radiation in order to power traditional steam turbines. There are various types of solar thermal
power plants that use various mirrors and reflectors to focus the sun’s rays on one point.
1.8.1.1 Solar Power Tower
 |9

A solar power tower is a large-scale electricity generation system. It consists of a large tower that
serves as the primary receiver of solar energy. It works by directing the sun's rays to the top of the
central tower via thousands of mirrors. Heliostats are a large number of flat and sun tracking mirrors.
The heat transfer fluid is heated in a mounted heat exchanger after the receiver collects the sun's heat.
This hot fluid is then used to generate steam for a conventional steam turbine and generator at the
bottom of the tower, which generates electricity. Initially, water and steam were used as heat transfer
fluids in most solar power tower plants.To maximise temperature, some advanced designs employ
high temperature molten salts. Figure 1.11 depicts a schematic diagram of a typical solar power tower
plant.

Fig. 1.11: Solar power tower plant (Source: Solar Energy Technologies Office)
1.8.1.2Parabolic Trough Solar Power Plant
The most common type of CSP device is a parabolic trough. It is essentially a solar thermal collector
that is used to concentrate the sun's rays along a specific line. It is made up of parabolic mirrors with
metallic polish on the concave side. Because of its parabolic shape, it can focus solar radiation along
the focal line of the trough. It is powerful enough to focus the sun’s rays.
Figure 1.12 depicts a schematic diagram of a parabolic trough solar power plant. It is made up of a
long metal receiver pipe filled with heat transfer fluid (HTF), usually synthetic oil. Pipe is installed
along the trough's focal line. When sunlight strikes the parabolic trough collectors, it is concentrated
along the receiver pipe. The receiver absorbs concentrated solar energy, and the temperature of HTF
inside the receiver pipe rises to around 390 degrees Celsius. The heat is then transferred from the HTF
to the working fluid (WF), which is typically water, via heat exchangers 1 (pre-heater) and 2. (boiler).
Superheated steam of water is produced as a result of this heat transfer. This steam is then used to
power the conventional steam turbine, which generates electricity via a generator. Exhausted steam is
allowed to pass through a condenser, where it is converted into water and then pumped back to the
heat exchanger via a pump. It is now the most commercially used and cost effective CSP plant.
 |10

Fig. 1.12: Parabolic trough Solar power plant

1.8.1.3Parabolic Dish Solar Power Plant
This type of CSP plant is made up of a parabolic disc concentrator, which directs solar radiation
towards the disc's focal point. The disc is mounted on a dual axis solar tracker, which allows it to
always face the sun. Figure 1.13 depicts a schematic diagram of a parabolic disc solar power plant.
Solar radiation incident on the disc is reflected and concentrated at the parabolic disc's focal point. At
the focal point, a receiver is placed. After absorbing concentrated solar radiation, the working fluid
inside the receiver is heated to a high temperature of around 750 degrees Celsius. This heated fluid is
then used to power a micro-turbine or a sterling engine mounted at the receiver, which generates
electricity. This type of CSP plant works as standalone system.
1.8.1.4Fresnel Reflectors Solar Power Plant
Solar radiation heats the receiver pipe containing the working fluid in this type of power plant, which
is similar to parabolic trough collectors. Fresnel reflectors are typically made up of 10 to 20
individuals, long and narrow Fresnel lenses with little or no curvature. Each reflector is attached to a
tracking system that allows it to track the sun. Figure 1.14 depicts a schematic diagram of a Fresnel
reflectors solar power plant. Solar radiation reflected by Fresnel reflectors and directed at a stationary
receiver. After receiving this concentrated solar radiation, the fluid inside the receiver heats up. The
conventional steam turbine is powered by superheated steam. A mechanical generator generates
electricity. Exhausted steam is then passed through a condenser unit, which converts steam to liquid
fluid. In a close cycle, this liquid is sent back to the receiver pipes. In contrast to parabolic trough
 |11

power plants, these plants typically use a direct steam collection system rather than a heat transfer
fluid and heat exchanger to improve efficiency and lower costs.

Fig. 1.13: Parabolic disc solar power plant

Fig. 1.14: Fresnel reflector solar power plant

1.8.2 Solar PV Power Systems
Solar PV power generation is the process converting solar energy directly into electrical power using
PV modules. In the PV system, a number of PV modules are linked together to form the PV array.
Although the PV array generates power when exposed to sunlight, a number of other components are
required to convert, control, distribute, and store the energy generated by the PV array. The following
are the primary components of the PV power generation system:
 |12

Solar Photovoltaic Array:It converts sunlight directly into direct current (DC).
Charge Controller: It regulates battery charging and protects it from overcharging. A battery bank is
not always required in a PV system. It is only required if the PV system includes a battery bank.
Battery Bank:The energy produced by the PV array that is not immediately consumed is stored in a
battery bank. Few PV systems use the electricity generated immediately and do not require a battery
bank.
Inverter: It converts the direct current (DC) generated by the PV array to alternating current (AC)
(AC). This is necessary because most of our home appliances require AC power to function.
Utility Meter/Power Meter: It measures the electricity consumption by households or apartments.
Electric Grid: It is an interconnected network that distributes electricity from producers to
consumers. If the house is wired to the grid, any excess power generated after using and storing it in
the battery will be sent to the grid.
A PV power generation plant also requires a variety of balance of system (BOS) hardware, such as
wiring, overcurrent, safety and grounding equipment, surge protection and disconnect devices, and
other power processing equipment. Figure 1.15 depicts the main components of a PV power
generation system, as well as the relationships between them.

SUN Electric Load

Charge
PV
controller/ Utility meter
Inverter

PV Array

Batterybank Electric/utility grid

Fig. 1.15: Main components of a PV power generation system

1.8.3 Types of PV Power Systems
 |13

During the summer, it is possible that the solar PV system produces more electricity than is required
by the consumer. This excess energy can be stored in batteries or fed directly into the utility grid via
the PV system. PV power generation systems are classified into two types based on their functional
and operational requirements, as well as how the components are connected to other power sources
and the grid:
(i) Grid connected or on grid PV systems
(ii) Stand Alone or off grid PV systems
1. Grid ConnectedPV Systems
Grid connected PV systems are also referred to as "on-grid," "grid-tied," or "utility-interactive." The
PV array in this PV system is linked to the local power grid via a power inverter. It works in tandem
with the electric utility grid. Extra power generated that is not required by users is fed into the utility
grid. Figure 1.16 depicts a block diagram of the main components of a grid-connected PV system. It is
made up of three major components: a PV array that converts solar energy into DC power, a grid-
connected inverter that converts DC power to AC power and also generates sinusoidal power that will
be used by local AC loads. The utility metre is also used to send any excess power to the power grid.
To record the electricity coming from or going to the utility grid, a bi-directional metre is required.

PV Array Utility Meter Local Utility Grid

AC Load

Grid connected
inverter/PCU

Fig. 1.16: Main components of a grid-connected PV system

2. Stand Alone PV Systems
Off-grid PV systems are also known as stand-alone PV systems. A system like this is made up of a
number of individual PV panels. A number of 12 Volt PV modules are combined in a stand-alone PV
system to achieve the desired power output. It is not connected to the power grid. The electricity
generated by these systems is used directly by the users, and any excess energy is stored in batteries.
This stored energy in batteries is used at night or when there is no solar radiation. Figure 1.17 depicts
the main components of a stand-alone PV system. PV panels, a charge controller, a battery bank, and
an inverter are all part of it.
 |14

PV Panel Charge DC Load

Controller

Battery Bank Inverter

AC Load/home
appliances

Fig. 1.17: Block diagram of a stand-alone PV system

Stand alone PV systems are commonly used in rural areas where access to the local electric grid is
limited. The incident sunlight on the PV panel is first converted into DC power. This power can be
used directly to power the DC load or stored in a battery bank via a charge controller. A charge
controller is used to prevent the battery from being overcharged. An inverter converts the DC power
stored in the battery to AC power, which is then sent to AC appliances.
1.8.4 Rooftop Solar PV Power System
PV arrays are installed on the rooftops of residential or commercial buildings in rooftop solar PV
systems. It is typically installed on a building's roof where sunlight is easily and abundantly available.
Figure 1.18 depicts a schematic diagram of a typical rooftop PV system. The sunlight that falls on the
rooftop PV array is converted into direct current power. It is stored in a battery bank with the help of a
charge controller for use when there is no grid power available. A DC-AC inverter is used to convert
DC power stored in batteries into AC power to power home appliances such as light bulbs, televisions,
and refrigerators. A charger is also connected between the mains and the battery to charge it using grid
electricity. Figure 1.19 depicts a typical roof-mounted solar PV power system.
 |15

Fig. 1.18: Block diagram of a roof topPV system

Fig. 1.19: Photograph of a roof top solar PV power system

 |16

1.9 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OFSOLAR POWER PLANTS

There are several advantages and disadvantages to using solar energy:
Advantages
1. Solar energy is a renewable and environmentally friendly source of energy
2. It causes no pollution
3. Once solar panels are installed, energy can be produced free of cost
4. Very little operational and maintenance cost is required
5. Reduces the use of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas
Disadvantages:
1. Because there is no solar power available at night, a large battery backup is required
2. High initial cost of materials and installation
3. Lower energy production in winter and on cloudy days
4. Generates DC power and hence DC-AC converter is required to run home appliances
5. Uses large space for installation of solar power plants
Course Name: Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy Sources.
Topic Name: Flat Plate Collectors & Solar Water Heaters.

Broadly speaking, there are two types of solar collectors:

• Flat-plate type
• Concentrating type
A flat-plate collector has the same area for intercepting and for absorbing
solar radiation whereas in concentrating collectors, sun’s beam radiation is
focused to a smaller receiving area thereby increasing the amount of
radiation.
The solar water heaters may be used for domestic, commercial and
industrial applications as described below:
Domestic (50 to 55 ºC): Flats, houses and apartments etc.
Commercial (60 to 80 ºC): Hotels, lodges, hostels, hospitals, dairy etc.
Industrial (> 80 ºC): Pre-heating boiler feed water, processing industries,
dairy, dyeing etc.
Can you guess the solar water heaters installed worldwide so far?
It is estimated that about 107 million sq.m of collector area has been
installed world wide.
In this unit, we will discuss various aspects of solar water heaters.
Principles of Solar Water Heaters
Solar water heaters are classified in several ways. One of the widely used
methods is to divide them into two systems:

1
 • active systems
• passive systems
Active solar systems rely upon moving mechanical parts in order to
transport heat. The collector is usually an all copper tube and fin absorber
enclosed with an insulated aluminum frame or "box", covered with a
glazing. The water is circulated through the solar panels.
The passive systems, on the other hand, use the sun’s energy to transport
heat. Passive systems can be divided into two types: Thermosyphon and
Collectors Storage. Passive solar systems are popular because of their
inherent simplicity and reliability. The storage tank is located on the roof
and heating effect of the sun causes warm water to circulate within it.
Solar water heaters are also classified based on their designs, location, heat
transfer mechanism etc and are discussed as follows:
• type of collector
• location of the collector
• location of the storage tank
• with and without pump
• method of heat transfer
A solar water heater basically consists of the following:
• a collector to collect solar energy
• an insulated tank to store the hot water
The solar collector could be Flat Plate Collector or Evacuated Tube
Collector. We will now discuss solar water heaters based on these

2
collectors’ types. For applications where the temperature requirements are
below 85 ºC, following three types of solar water heaters may be used:
• Collector-cum-storage solar water heater
• Natural circulation type solar water heater
• Forced circulation type solar water heater
Before we discuss these types of solar water heaters, let us first discuss the
ways of efficient use of solar energy and energy losses in a flat plate
collector.

Efficient Use of Solar Energy

The key to efficient use of solar energy lies in the efficient modes of heat
transfer in a solar energy collector. There are three possible modes of heat
transfer:
Thermal Conduction
Thermal Convention
Thermal Radiation
Thermal Conduction
Heat energy flows from regions of high temperature to low temperature
region in a material
Wide variation in ability to conduct heat energy among different materials
is due to the density of free electrons in the material
Metals are required for efficient heat transfer because of their high thermal
conductivity.

3
Thermal Convention
The liquids and gases transfer heat by convection. Fireplaces produce
natural convention, warm air rises and are replaced by cold air. Most space
heating system operate via convective heat transfer (forced air).
Thermal Radiation
All materials absorb sunlight and heats up and then re-rediates that as
long wavelength infrared radiation (heat radiation). Sandstone dwellings
and walls absorb much sunlight during the day and then radiate that as heat
at night.
• Efficiency  depends upon specific heat of material and its thermal
conductivity
• Specific heat  measure of how much energy a substance can store
Thermal conductivity  measure of efficiency of heat transfer (i:e getting
it back when you want it).
The specific heat and thermal conductivity of some materials is given
in Table
Material Specific Heat Thermal Conductivity
(KJ/Kg ºC) (W/m ºC)
Water 4.19 0.596
Iron 0.502 62.764
Glass 0.67 1.05
Concrete 1.13 1.73
Aluminum 0.921 211

Energy Losses in a Flat Plate Collector

When solar radiation falls on the surface of a solar collector, it is not
possible for all solar photons to penetrate back collector surface. Once the
4
collector becomes hotter than the environment, heat loss by conduction,
convention (aided by wind) and radiation starts. The transmission and
reflectance depends on the incidence angle. The efficiency starts
decreasing if the collector becomes too hot as the thermal radiation (which
goes up as temperature to the forth power) dramatically increases. The
overall effect is that the collector system has an efficiency which decreases
with higher temperature. The following points guide the number of
glazings to be used.
• Single glass cover allows most sunlight but also most re-radiated
infrared radiation. The single glass covers are best suited at low
temperature differences.
• More than one glass cover admits fewer photons but inhibits
radiative losses. The collectors with more than one glass cover are
best suited at high temperature differences.
• The orientation of collector with respect to sun is crucial part of
overall efficiency.
Collector-cum-storage solar water heater
The collector-cum-storage type of solar water heaters were designed,
studied and developed and found very attractive for domestic
applications. This type of solar water heater does not have separate
tank for hot water storage but servers the purpose for both collection
and storage. The built-in-storage and shallow pond water heaters are
widely used solar water heaters of collector-cum-storage type.
Built-in-storage Solar Water Heaters
• A schematic diagram of built-in-storage solar water heater is shown
in Fig. Such types of collectors are good in efficiency, easy to install
and low in cost.

5
It mainly consists of the following components:
(a) a rectangular box covered by glass wool insulation around the bottom
and side walls
(b) one or two glass covers at the top (glazing)
The system works on the greenhouse principle. When solar radiation is
passed through the transparent cover or covers and impinges on the
blackened absorber plate of high absorptivity, it gets absorbed by the
absorber. The glass covers allow the short wave solar radiations to enter.
The thermal radiations (long wave radiations) are not allowed to escape by
the glazing. So the solar energy which enters inside is trapped and
absorbed by the water.
The underside of the absorber plate and the side casing are well insulated
to reduce conduction losses. In solar water heaters, the water tubes are
welded to the absorber plate, or they can be an integral part of the plate.
The water tubes are connected at both ends by large headers.

6
Functions of the Transparent Covers
In solar energy collectors, the transparent cover is used for the following
purposes:
• to reduce convection losses from the absorber plate through the
stagnant air layer between the absorber plate and the glass
• to reduce radiation losses from the collector because the spectral
transmissivity of glass is such that it is transparent to short-wave
radiations but nearly opaque to long-wave thermal radiation emitted
by the interior of the collector.
• To further reduce radiation-convection losses when two or more
transparent covers are used.
Collector Tilt
We will now discuss the orientation of solar collectors for receiving
maximum solar radiations throughout the year. Flat-plate collectors are
usually permanently fixed in position and require no tracking of the sun.
The solar collectors should be oriented directly toward the equator, facing
south in the northern hemisphere and facing north in the southern
hemisphere. The optimum tilt angle of solar collectors is equal to the
latitude. For winter season, tilt angle should be approximately 10 to 15
more than the latitude. For summer season, tilt angle should be
approximately 10 to 15 less than the latitude.
Flat-plate collectors are useful in supplying thermal energy at moderate
temperatures; up to the normal boiling point of water (100 ºC). The major
applications of flat-plate collectors are in domestic hot water and space
heating, and to a lesser degree, in industrial processes. They can be

7
employed to supply hot water in absorption refrigeration systems for space
cooling.
Solar Water Heaters based on Flat Plate Collectors
Solar water heaters based on flat plate collectors works on passive
concepts. Passive solar water heating systems are mainly of two types:
• Thermosyphon systems
• Integral Collectors Storage (ICS) systems.
Natural Circulation Type of Solar Water Heaters
The systematic diagram of a solar water heater is shown in Fig. . It consists
of the following components:
(a) insulated outer metallic box.
(b) metallic box is covered by a glass sheet called glazing.
• selectively coated black metallic absorber sheets with built in
channels.
• highly insulated water tank placed at a height above the collector
level.
The solar radiations are absorbed by the absorber, the water in the tubes
gets heated and then moves up because of decrease in density and gets
stored in the insulated tank. The fresh water enters the solar collector by
thermosyphoning (natural flow). This process goes on till sunshine is
available. The hot water in the tank can retain its heat for 2-3 days
depending upon the insulation level of the tank. Nowadays, new polymer
flat plate collectors are available in Europe. These types of solar water
heaters are used for domestic applications and at the places where
electricity is not available.

8
 To be Remembered :
The circulation of water takes place automatically and goes on until
temperature of collector water and that of the storage tank are equal.
The collector gives hot water in the range of 50-60 ºC

Passive solar systems have become widely acceptable because of their

inherent simplicity and reliability. The heating effect of the sun causes
warm water to circulate within the storage tank. Cold water flows directly
to the tank and then flows to a conventional water heater. In the case of a
thermosyphon system, an insulated tank will prevent the loss of stored heat
during the night. The ICS or "batch" heater is the simplest kind of solar
heater, but the exposure of the storage unit to night air can cause
significant heat loss in winter and precludes the use of this kind of panel in
all but the mildest climates.
Solar water heaters not only save you money but also run for a long, long
time without you having to worry about it. There are many manufacturers
of solar waters). Solar water designed and developed by Venus is shown in
Fig. a. A cross-sectional view of a solar water heater is shown in Fig. b.

9
Special Features of a Venus Solar Water Heater are the following:
Collector Plate:
• High performance, specially coated collector plate to maximise heat
absorption from solar radiation.
• Water temperature up to 80º-85º can be realized in 3-4 hours of
bright sunshine.
Tank:
• Unique Copper Inner Tank: No corrosion, lifelong trouble free
performance
• Thick insulation of glass wool to minimize heat loss overnight
• Powder coated aluminium body prevents rusting and corrosion
• Rugged and sturdy construction design helps withstand adverse
weather conditions.
• Safer than electric heaters.

10
 Fig. a Solar Water Heater

Fig. b Cross Sectional view of a Solar Water Heater

11
Economics of Solar Water Heaters
You will find that initially when compared to an electric heater, any Solar
Heater may sound slightly expensive. But a Solar water heater will pay
back its investment in 2-3 years.
For example: Consider a 100 LPD (liters per day capacity) water heater.
You may consider the following parameters:
• Total cost of Solar Water Heater : Rs.18,800
• Cost of Electric Water Heater : Rs.8,800
• Difference in initial cost = Rs. 10000
• A solar water of 100 LPD may replace two numbers of 25 Ltrs.
Electric Water Heater and works for 300 days/year resulting an
annual energy saving of 1200 KWh..
• Electric tariff = Rs.4.50/ KWh
• Annual cost of energy saved = Rs. 4.5 x 1200 = Rs. 5400
Payback period = (10000/5400) x 12 = 22 months
Forced Circulation Type of Solar Water Heaters

As the name implies, water in this type of solar water heater is pumped
using water pumps because these types of water heaters are used where
there is requirement of large amount of hot water. The large number of
solar collectors is used in series as per the water requirement. A schematic
diagram of such type of solar water heaters is shown in Fig. 3.4.4.

12
 Hot
Water Water
storage out
Solar Radiation

Tank

Cold Water in

Water Pump

Fig. 3.4.4 Forced Circulation Solar Water Heater

Thermal Performance of Flat Plate Solar Water Heaters

The thermal efficiency, η, of a solar water heater is given by the following

relation:
Useful Heat Gain (useful output of the collector ) (3.1)

Input Energy

(3.1)

The useful gain of the solar collector, Qu, may be written as follows:

Qu  mC p (To  Ti ) (3.2)

(3.2)
13
Where
m = flow rate of water, Kg./s
Cp = Specific heat of water, J/Kg. ºC
To = Outlet water temperature, ºC
Ti = Inlet water temperature, ºC

Now under steady state conditions, the energy balance at the collector
gives:
Useful heat delivered by solar collector
= Energy absorbed by the absorber surface of the collector – Heat loss
from the absorber to the surroundings.
or
Qu  FR Ac [ I ( )  U L (Ti  Ta )]
(3.3)

(3.3)
where
Ac = Collector area, m2
I = Solar radiation received on the collector surface, W/ m2
τ = Transmissivity of the glazing
α = Absorptivity of the absorber
UL = Collector overall heat loss coefficient, W/ m2 ºC
Using Eqns. (3.1), (3.2) and (3.3), you can arrive at the following relation:

Ti  Ta
  FR [( )  U L ( )]
I

(3.4)
(3.4)

This equation is known as Hottel-Whilliar-Bliss equation.

14
The heat removal factor, FR, is defined as follows:

Use ul collected energy

FR 
Useful collected energy if the absorber
plate were at the inlet air temperature

The maximum value of FR can be unity. The value of τ α is always less

than unity.
You may now see the ways how to increase the efficiency of solar water
heater. The collector efficiency can be increased by the following way:
• increasing heat removal factor
• reducing heat loss coefficient
• increasing the mass flow rate per unit area
• increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient between the water
stream and the absorber plate
Solar Water Heaters based on evacuated tube Collectors
In solar water heaters based on evacuated tube collector, the collector is
made of double layer borosilicate glass tube evacuated for providing
insulation. The outer wall of the inner tube is coated with selective
absorber material for enhanced absorption of solar radiation.

15
The evacuated tube collectors are able to maintain their efficiency level
over a wide range of heating requirements and ambient temperatures.
Why evacuated tube solar collectors?
(1) The peak efficiency levels of flat plate collectors and that of
evacuated tube collectors are almost the same.
(2) The advantage of evacuated tube collectors become clear when
seen on annual basis: Less conductive and convective heat loses,
strong and long lasting, compact size
(3) On annual basis, the output per m2 of evacuated tube collector is
25 to 40% greater than the flat plate collector.
Advantages of Solar Water Heaters
There are numerous advantages of solar water heater. Some of them are
listed below:
Payback Period
Solar water heaters have different payback period depending upon the fuel
replaced; 2-3 years when electricity is replaced; 3-4 years when furnace
oil is replaced; 4-6 years when coal is replaced.
Fuel Savings
On an average, a 100 liters capacity of solar water heater can save about
1500 units of electricity annually. You know that sun is free.
Environmental Benefits
Solar hot water is a green and renewable heating system. It does not
release any harmful CO2 or other pollutants. On an average, a 100 liters
capacity of solar water heater can prevent 1.5 tonnes of CO2 annually.

16
Round the Clock Availability of Hot Water
A solar water heater can provide hot water round the clock depending upon
the size.
Maintenance and Fuel Costs Free
Solar water heaters are maintenance free and there are no operating costs.
Long Life
Solar water heater has long life (15-20 years).

17
Course Name: Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy Sources.
Topic Name : Solar Air Heaters & Solar dryer

A solar collector is basically a heat exchanger, which absorbs the incident solar
radiation, convert it into heat and finally transfer this heat to a heat removal fluid
which is also called working fluid for an end use system.

If the working fluid is water, solar collector is called solar water heater .

If the working fluid is air, solar collector is called solar air heater.

Principles of Solar Air Heating Systems

Classification of Solar air heaters:

(1) First type has nonporous absorber in which air stream does not flow through the
absorber plate.

(2) Second type has a porous absorber in which air stream flows through the absorber
plate.

Solar Air Collectors with a Nonporous Absorber

The incident solar radiation on the blackened surface gets absorbed and the resulting
heat is partially transferred to the flowing air within the duct.

Disadvantage of non porous type of solar air collector:

High thermal losses to the ambient due to convection and radiation.
The convective losses can be reduced by covering the absorber plate with
one or more transparent covers, usually called glazing.
In this solar air heater the air flow duct is between the glazing (glass cover) and the
absorber.

The flow of the air is above the absorber. On the other hand, the air flow is below
the absorber in the solar air heater.

The selective coatings may be applied to the absorber to reduce the radiative
losses.

THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF SOLAR AIR HEATERS

Ti  Ta
  FR [( ) e  U L ( )]
I

(τ α)e is referred to as the effective transmissivity-absorbtivity product.

The heat removal factor( FR )

Use ul collected energy
FR 
Useful collected energyif the absorber plate were at the inlet
air temperature

The maximum value of FR can be unity.

The efficiency can be increased by increasing heat removal factor and by
reducing heat loss coefficient.

The other parameters for increasing thermal efficiency are:

• Increasing the mass flow rate per unit area

• Increasing the convective heat transfer coefficient between the air stream
and the absorber plate

• Increasing the surface area to transfer heat from the absorber plate to the air
stream using fins etc.

The main disadvantage of nonporous solar air heater is the low transfer
between air and the absorber plate.

The heat transfer can be increased by roughing the surface of the absorber at
the rear, by adding fins or by making the absorber plate vee corrugated.
Solar Air Collectors with a Porous Absorber

A porous absorber overcomes some of these problems:

(a)The solar radiation penetrates to greater depths and is absorbed gradually

depending upon the porosity of the absorber.

The incoming air introduced from the upper surface of the matrix is first heated by
the upper layers.

The air stream gets heated while traveling through the matrix layers. The lower
matrix layers are hotter than the upper ones resulting into better heat transfer from
the matrix.

(b) The pressure drop for the porous matrix is usually much lower than the
nonporous absorber.
Applications of Solar Air Heating Systems

The air heated by solar collectors can be used in the following applications:

(a) Space heating

(b) Solar drying

(c) Solar water heating

Space Heating

(1) If the solar radiation is available and the heating load is there, the room air is
circulated through the solar collectors and returned back to the room.

(2) When there is no space heating load, the air heated by the collectors is sent
through the pebble bed storage where the thermal energy carried by the hot air is
absorbed by the pebble bed for later use.

(3) When there is no sunlight but the space requires heating, the room air is
circulated through the pebble bed to meet the required heating load.

(4) When there is no sunlight or the stored energy is not sufficient to meet the
required heating load, then some auxiliary energy source is used to meet the extra
heating demand.

SOLAR DRYER

❖ Solar energy has tremendous potential among all the renewable energy
sources.

❖ Solar air heating systems are used mainly for drying applications.

❖ Solar dryers can be used in agriculture for food and crop drying and in
industries for drying chemicals etc.
 ❖ Solar drying can be used for the entire drying process or for supplementing
artificial drying systems, so reducing the total amount of fuel energy
required.

Solar energy has tremendous potential among all the renewable energy sources. If
we are able to convert even a small fraction of it, it will turn out one of the best
energy source to the human society.

Solar air heating systems are used mainly for drying applications.

Solar dryers can be used in agriculture for food and crop drying and in industries
for drying chemicals etc.

Solar drying can be used for the entire drying process or for supplementing
artificial drying systems, so reducing the total amount of fuel energy required.

DRYING

Whether it is open sun or solar drying or by any other method, drying implies the
partial removal of moisture i.e. water from the material. But when fuel fired
equipment is used in the process then the term dehydration is often used. The
conditions essential to both drying and dehydration include a supply of heat energy
to evaporate the water and a supply of air to carry away the water vapor produced.
DRYING MODES

❖ Open sun drying

❖ Direct mode drying

❖ Indirect mode drying

OPEN DRYING

Product to be dried is spread on a clean surface.

Solar radiation falls on the surface of the product.

A part of the solar radiation is reflected back, while the remaining part is
absorbed by the surface of the products.

The absorbed radiation is converted into the thermal energy and the temperature
of the product starts rising.

This leads to the loss of long wave radiations from the surface of the products to
ambient air through the moist air. Simultaneously, there is convective heat loss
due to blowing wind over the product.

It results in evaporation of moisture and its loss to the surrounding air and the
product gets dried.

• Product to be dried is spread on a clean surface.

• Solar radiation falls on the surface of the product.

This leads to the loss of long wave radiations from the surface of the products to
ambient air through the moist air. Simultaneously, there is convective heat loss due
to blowing wind over the product.

• It results in evaporation of moisture and its loss to the surrounding air and the
product gets dried.

Open sun drying, though it is very economical, has many demerits. Some of them
are given below:

• Open sun drying requires presence of somebody at site throughout the drying
period, so that the products could be protected from birds, animals and adverse
weather conditions.

• The resulting dried products are not of high quality because of dusts and other
sediments present in the atmosphere etc.

• The products are usually unhygienic.

All these problems can be avoided to the large extent by using solar drying.

Solar Cabinet Dryer

Solar cabinet dryer mainly consist of a drying cabinet. One side of the cabinet is
glazed to let admit solar radiation in, which is converted into low grade thermal heat
raising the temperature of inside air, the drying chamber, and the material to be dried.

Usually, the solar radiation falls directly on the material being dried. The moisture
evaporated by solar heat is removed by air circulation. This is accomplished either
by designing to encourage natural convective air flow or by forcing circulation with
fans or blowers.

It consists of wire-mesh trays fitted in wooden framework and covered by a clear

plastic sheet. Such a dryer is usually called cabinet dryer. A typical solar cabinet
dryer of 10 m2 surface area could dry about 20-25 Kg of produce in about 3-4 days,
if adequate sunshine is available.

❖ Solar cabinet dryer mainly consist of a drying cabinet.

❖ One side of the cabinet is glazed to let admit solar radiation in, which is
converted into low grade thermal heat raising the temperature of inside air,
the drying chamber, and the material to be dried.
Dehydration of Fruits and Vegetable Products

Drying of agricultural products is an important unit operation. It refers to removal

of moisture from agricultural products to a predetermined level. Dehydration on the
other hand means artificial removal of moisture to desired levels.

Many fruits and vegetable products contain high moisture content and they
deteriorate or perish quickly. For example, fresh fruits, leafy vegetables etc perish
faster than potatoes etc. For the storage of these products for the larger duration,
their moisture content needs to be reduced by “drying” or “dehydration”.

Some of the additional advantages of the dehydration are the following:

• The dehydrated products can be sold in off-season thus fetching more money.

• It is easy to handle dehydrated products because of less weight.

• The reduced weight and volume of the dehydrated products results in reduced
transportation costs.

Components of Dehydration Unit

The fruits and vegetable products can be dried by various ways. Air is widely used
as the drying medium because of many merits like its availability and convenience
in use. The principle components of solar drying system are the following:

Solar Air Collectors: Solar air collectors, also called solar air heaters are used to
heat for ambient air. There exists several designs of these solar air heaters (Bansal,
Ram Chandra and Malik 1984, Ram Chandra and Sodha, 1991, 1994, Sodha et al
1987).

Air Handling Unit: The air handling unit consists of a blower and suitable duct
work. The air handling unit takes heated air from the solar collectors and sends it to
the drying unit.

Drying Unit: The drying takes place in this unit, where heated air extracts
moisture from the product to be dried. A schematic diagram of a solar drying
unit is shown in Fig.
Drying Using Solar Energy

❖ Drying of agricultural products is an energy intensive operation.

❖ Conventional dryers using conventional fuels may have certain merits over
the one based on renewable energy.

❖ Solar dryers, in which air is heated from solar energy, are the most viable
option for most of the developing countries which are within the belt of good
solar radiation.

Classification of a Solar Dryer

❖ Direct mode dryers

❖ Indirect mode dryers

❖ Mixed mode dryers

 ❖ Structure integrated dryers
❖ Natural Circulation Dryers

It consists of a collector and a separate drying chamber.

These dryers operate efficiently and allow more control over the drying as compared
to open sun drying.

The humid air is allowed to pass out from the dryer through the chimney.

Drying time depends on

1) Amount of incident solar radiation

2) Relative humidity of ambient air
3) Type of the product to be dried

Forced Circulation Dryers

❖ If we use a fan to create the airflow, drying time is reduced considerably and
collector area required may also be reduced significantly.
❖ A forced circulation one tonne per day rice dryer has a blower of 500W
capacity.
❖ The dryer is operated for 6 hours. Electricity consumed by the blower = 500
W x 6 h = 3000 Wh = 3 KWh.
❖ If the cost of electricity is Rs. 5/KWh, the electricity cost will be about Rs.15
per tonne of rice (to be dried).

Forced Circulation Dryers

Fan

PV Module
 DRYING OF MINT LEAVES

First day Second day

Third day Fourth day

FRONT AND RARE VIEW OF SOLAR DRYER

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF SOLAR DRYING

Merits

❖ Solar drying technologies are simple for improving the rate of drying over
traditional methods.

❖ Solar drying to the desired moisture levels reduces losses during storage and
increases the value of final output. Selling crops at the correct moisture level
increases their value.

❖ Solar drying systems are relatively cheap to install and have minimal
maintenance costs.

DEMERITS OF SOLAR DRYING

❖ Solar drying systems employing natural circulation are slow.

❖ The mechanised systems using new and renewable sources as fuels are
expensive to run.

❖ The solar air heaters are simple but the technology behind them needs to be
carefully understood, so that they can be operated efficiently, otherwise these
may be operated ineffectively.
 UNIT II - WIND ENERGY
Power in the Wind – Types of Wind Power Plants(WPPs)–Components of WPPs-Working of WPPs- Siting
of WPPs-Grid integration issues of WPPs.

Introduction
Wind power or wind energy is the use of wind to provide the mechanical power through wind
turbines to operate electric generators. Wind power is a sustainable and renewable energy. Wind possesses
energy by virtue of its motion. Any device capable of slowing down the mass of moving air, like a sail or
propeller, can extract part of the energy and convert it into useful work. The spinning blades, attached to a
hub and a low-speed shaft, turn along with the blades. The rotating low-speed shaft is connected to a
gearbox that connects to a high-speed shaft on the opposite side of the gearbox. This high-speed shaft
connects to an electrical generator that converts the mechanical energy from the rotation of the blades into
electrical energy. The key characteristics of a good wind power site are high average wind speed, sufficient
separation from noise-sensitive neighbours, good grid connection, good site access, No special
environmental or landscape designations. The integration of wind into grid has certain challenges like,
Variability, Uncertainty, Location-specificity, Nonsynchronous generation, Low capacity factor.

Wind Energy Basics

Wind energy is a form of solar energy. Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by
the sun, variations in the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Mountains, bodies of water and vegetation
influence wind flow patterns. Wind speeds vary based on geography, topography and season. As a result,
there are some locations better suited for wind energy generation.
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into electricity or mechanical energy using wind
turbines. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. A generator can
convert mechanical power into electricity. Mechanical power can also be utilized directly for specific tasks
such as pumping water.
The mechanism used to convert air motion into electricity is referred to as a turbine. The power in
the wind is extracted by allowing it to blow past moving blades that exert torque on a rotor. The rotor turns
the drive shaft, which turns an electric generator. The amount of power transferred is dependent on the rotor
size and the wind speed. The types of wind power plants based on capacity are
 Utility-scale wind: Wind turbines that range in size from 100 kilowatts to several megawatts, where
the electricity is delivered to the power grid and distributed to the end user by electric utilities or
power system operators.
 Distributed or "small" wind: Single small wind turbines below 100 kilowatts that are used to
directly power a home, farm or small business and are not connected to the grid.
 Offshore wind: Wind turbines that are erected in large bodies of water, usually on the continental
shelf. Offshore wind turbines are larger than land-based turbines and can generate more power.

Windmills: People have been using windmills for centuries to grind grain, pump water, and do other work.
Windmills generate mechanical energy, but they do not generate electricity.

Wind Turbines: In contrast to windmills, modern wind turbines are highly evolved machines with more
than 8,000 parts that harness wind's kinetic energy and convert it into electricity.

Wind farm: Oftentimes a large number of wind turbines are built close together, which is referred to as a
wind project or wind farm. A wind farm functions as a single power plant and sends electricity to the grid.

Windmills have been in use since 2000 B.C. and were first developed in Persia and China. Ancient
mariners sailed to distant lands by making use of winds. Farmers used wind power to pump water
and for grinding grains. Today the most popular use of wind energy is converting it to electrical
energy to meet the critical energy needs of the planet.
Power in the Wind

1
 Wind results from the movement of air due to atmospheric pressure gradients. Wind flows from
regions of higher pressure to regions of lower pressure. The larger the atmospheric pressure gradient, the
higher the wind speed and thus, the greater the wind power that can be captured from the wind by means of
wind energy converting machinery. The generation and movement of wind are complicated due to a number
of factors. Among them, the most important factors are uneven solar heating, the Coriolis effect due to the
earth‘s self-rotation, and local geographical conditions.

Uneven solar heating

The unevenness of the solar radiation can be attributed to four reasons.
First, the earth is a sphere revolving around the sun in the same plane as its equator. Because the
surface of the earth is perpendicular to the path of the sunrays at the equator but parallel to the sunrays at the
poles, the equator receives the greatest amount of energy per unit area, with energy dropping off toward the
poles. Due to the spatial uneven heating on the earth, it forms a temperature gradient from the equator to the
poles and a pressure gradient from the poles to the equator. Thus, hot air with lower air density at the
equator rises up to the high atmosphere and moves towards the poles and cold air with higher density flows
from the poles towards the equator along the earth‘s surface. Without considering the earth‘s self-rotation
and the rotation-induced Coriolis force, the air circulation at each hemisphere forms a single cell, defined as
the meridional circulation.

Fig. 1. Uneven solar heating

Second, the earth‘s self-rotating axis has a tilt of about 23.5° with respect to its ecliptic plane. It is
the tilt of the earth‘s axis during the revolution around the sun that results in cyclic uneven heating, causing
the yearly cycle of seasonal weather changes.
Third, the earth‘s surface is covered with different types of materials such as vegetation, rock, sand,
water, ice/snow, etc., Each of these materials has different reflecting and absorbing rates to solar radiation,
leading to high temperature on some areas (e.g. deserts) and low temperature on others (e.g. iced lakes),
even at the same latitudes.
The fourth reason for uneven heating of solar radiation is due to the earth‘s topographic surface.
There are a large number of mountains, valleys, hills, etc. on the earth, resulting in different solar radiation
on the sunny and shady sides.

Coriolis effect
The earth‘s self-rotation is another important factor to affect wind direction and speed. The Coriolis
force, which is generated from the earth's self-rotation, deflects the direction of atmospheric movements. In
the north atmosphere wind is deflected to the right and in the south atmosphere to the left. The Coriolis force
depends on the earth‘s latitude; it is zero at the equator and reaches maximum values at the poles. In
addition, the amount of deflection on wind also depends on the wind speed; slowly blowing wind is
deflected only a small amount, while stronger wind is deflected more.
In large-scale atmospheric movements, the combination of the pressure gradient due to the uneven
solar radiation and the Coriolis force due to the earth‘s self rotation causes the single meridional cell to
break up into three convectional cells in each hemisphere: the Hadley cell, the Ferrel cell, and the Polar cell
as shown in Fig.2. Each cell has its own characteristic circulation pattern. In the Northern Hemisphere, the
Hadley cell circulation lies between the equator and north latitude 30°, dominating tropical and sub-tropical
climates. The hot air rises at the equator and flows toward the North Pole in the upper atmosphere. This
moving air is deflected by Coriolis force to create the northeast trade winds. At approximately north latitude
30°, Coriolis force becomes so strong to balance the pressure gradient force. As a result, the winds are
defected to the west.
2
 The air accumulated at the upper atmosphere forms the subtropical high-pressure belt and thus sinks
back to the earth‘s surface, splitting into two components: one returns to the equator to close the loop of the
Hadley cell; another moves along the earth‘s surface toward North Pole to form the Ferrel Cell circulation,
which lies between north latitude 30° and 60°. The air circulates towards the North Pole along the earth‘s
surface until it collides with the cold air flowing from the North Pole at approximately north latitude 60°.
Under the influence of Coriolis force, the moving air in this zone is deflected to produce westerlies. The
Polar cell circulation lies between the North Pole and north latitude 60°. The cold air sinks down at the
North Pole and flows along the earth‘s surface toward the equator. Near north latitude 60°, the Coriolis
effect becomes significant to force the airflow to southwest.

Fig. 2. Idealized atmospheric circulations

Local geography
The roughness on the earth‘s surface is a result of both natural geography and manmade structures.
Frictional drag and obstructions near the earth‘s surface generally retard with wind speed and induce a
phenomenon known as wind shear. The rate at which wind speed increases with height varies on the basis of
local conditions of the topography, terrain, and climate, with the greatest rates of increases observed over the
roughest terrain. A reliable approximation is that wind speed increases about 10% with each doubling of
height. In addition, some special geographic structures can strongly enhance the wind intensity. For instance,
wind that blows through mountain passes can form mountain jets with high speeds.

Wind energy characteristics

Wind energy is a special form of kinetic energy in air as it flows. Wind energy can be either
converted into electrical energy by power converting machines or directly used for pumping water, sailing
ships, or grinding grain. Three key factors affect the amount of energy a turbine can harness from the wind:
wind speed, air density, and swept area.

Most of the modern wind turbines have 3 blades which can reach speeds at the tip of over 320 kph
(200 mph).

Wind power
Kinetic energy exists whenever an object of a given mass is in motion with a translational or
rotational speed. When air is in motion, the kinetic energy in moving air can be determined as
1
E k = mu 2 (1)
2
where m is the air mass and u is the mean wind speed over a suitable time period. The wind power can be
obtained by differentiating the kinetic energy in wind with respect to time, i.e.:
dE 1
Pw = k = mu 2 (2)
dt 2

3
 However, only a small portion of wind power can be converted into electrical power. When wind
passes through a wind turbine and drives blades to rotate, the corresponding wind mass flowrate is
m = ρAu (3)
where ρ is the air density and A is the swept area of blades, as shown in Fig. 3 . Substituting (3) into (2), the
available power in wind Pw can be expressed as
1
Pw = ρAu 3 (4)
2
An examination of eqn (4) reveals that in order to obtain a higher wind power, it requires a higher
wind speed, a longer length of blades for gaining a larger swept area, and a higher air density. Because the
wind power output is proportional to the cubic power of the mean wind speed, a small variation in wind
speed can result in a large change in wind power.

Blade swept area

As shown in Fig. 3, the blade swept area can be calculated from the formula:
A = π  l+r  - r 2  = πl (l+2r)
2
(5)
 

Fig.3. Swept area of wind turbine blades

where l is the length of wind blades and r is the radius of the hub. Thus, by doubling the length of wind
blades, the swept area can be increased by the factor up to 4. When l >> 2 r, A ≈ πl2 .

Air density
Another important parameter that directly affects the wind power generation is the density of air,
which can be calculated from the equation of state:
p
ρ= (6)
RT
where p is the local air pressure, R is the gas constant (287 J/kg-K for air), and T is the local air temperature
in K.
The hydrostatic equation states that whenever there is no vertical motion, the difference in pressure
between two heights is caused by the mass of the air layer:
dp = -ρg dz (7)
where g is the acceleration of gravity. Combining eqns (6) and (7), yields
dp g
=- dz (8)
p RT
The acceleration of gravity g decreases with the height above the earth‘s surface z:
 4z 
g = g 0 1 -  (9)
 D
where g0 is the acceleration of gravity at the ground and D is the diameter of the earth. However, for the
acceleration of gravity g, the variation in height can be ignored because D is much larger than 4z.
In addition, temperature is inversely proportional to the height. Assume that dT /dz = c, it can be derived that
4
 -g/cR
T
p = p0   (10)
 T0 
where p0 and T0 are the air pressure and temperature at the ground, respectively.
Combining eqns (6) and (10), it gives

-(g/cR +1) -(g/cR +1)

T  cz 
ρ = ρ0   = ρ0 1+  (11)
 T0   T0 
This equation indicates that the density of air decreases nonlinearly with the height above the sea level.

The largest wind turbine in the world is located in US in Hawaii. It stands 20 stories tall and has
blades the length of a football field.
Wind power density
Wind Power Density (WPD) is a quantitative measure of wind energy available at any location. It is the
mean annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and is calculated for different
heights above ground. Some of the wind resource assessments utilize 50m towers with sensors installed at
intermediate levels (10 m, 20 m, etc.). For large-scale wind plants, class rating of 4 or higher is preferred.
Calculation of wind power density includes the effect of wind velocity and air density.

Wind power parameters

Power coefficient
The conversion of wind energy to electrical energy involves primarily two stages: in the first stage, kinetic
energy in wind is converted into mechanical energy to drive the shaft of a wind generator.
The power coefficient Cp deals with the converting efficiency in the first stage, defined as the ratio of the
actually captured mechanical power by blades to the available power in wind:
P Pme,out
Cp = me,out = (12)
PW (1/2)ρAu 3
Because there are various aerodynamic losses in wind turbine systems, for instance, blade-tip, blade-root,
profile, and wake rotation losses, etc., the real power coefficient Cp is much lower than its theoretical limit,
usually ranging from 30 to 45%.

Total power conversion coefficient and effective power output

In the second stage, mechanical energy captured by wind blades is further converted into electrical energy
via wind generators. In this stage, the converting efficiency is determined by several parameters
 Gearbox efficiency ηgear – The power losses in a gearbox can be classified as load-dependent and no-
load power losses. The load-dependent losses consist of gear tooth friction and bearing losses and
no-load losses consist of oil churning, windage, and shaft seal losses. The planetary gearboxes,
which are widely used in wind turbines, have higher power transmission efficiencies over traditional
gearboxes.
 Generator efficiency ηgen – It is related to all electrical and mechanical losses in a wind generator,
such as copper, iron, load, windage, friction, and other miscellaneous losses.

 Electric efficiency ηele – It encompasses all combined electric power losses in the converter,
switches, controls, and cables.

Therefore, the total power conversion efficiency from wind to electricity ηt is the production of these
parameters, i.e.:
ηt = Cp ηgear ηgen ηele (13)
The effective power output from a wind turbine to feed into a grid becomes
Peff = Cp ηgear ηgen ηelePw = ηtPw =  ηt ρAu 3  (14)
1
2
5
Lanchester–Betz limit
The Betz limit is the theoretical maximum efficiency for a wind turbine, conjectured by German physicist
Albert Betz in 1919. Betz concluded that this value is 59.3%, meaning that atmost only 59.3% of the kinetic
energy from wind can be used to spin the turbine and generate electricity. In reality, turbines cannot reach
the Betz limit, and common efficiencies are in the 35-45% range. If a wind turbine was 100% efficient, then
all of the wind would have to stop completely upon contact with the turbine which is not practically
possible.

Wind Speed – Power curve

Wind speed largely determines the amount of electricity generated by a turbine. Higher wind speeds
generate more power because stronger winds allow the blades to rotate faster. Faster rotation translates to
more mechanical power and more electrical power from the generator. The relationship between wind speed
and power for a typical wind turbine is shown in Fig 2.

Fig.4 Wind power curve

Turbines are designed to operate within a specific range of wind speeds. The limits of the range are
known as the cut-in speed and cut-out speed. The cut-in speed is the point at which the wind turbine is able
to generate power. Between the cut-in speed and the rated speed, where the maximum output is reached, the
power output will increase cubically with wind speed. For example, if wind speed doubles, the power output
will increase 8 times. This cubic relationship is what makes wind speed such an important factor for wind
power. This cubic dependence does cut out at the rated wind speed. This leads to the relatively flat part of
the curve in Fig. 4, so the cubic dependence is during the speeds below 15 m/s (54 kph).
The cut-out speed is the point at which the turbine must be shut down to avoid damage to the
equipment. The cut-in and cut-out speeds are related to the turbine design and size and are decided on prior
to construction.

Tip Speed Ratio

The Tip Speed Ratio (often known as the TSR) is of vital importance in the design of wind turbine
generators. If the rotor of the wind turbine turns too slowly, most of the wind will pass undisturbed through
the gap between the rotor blades. Alternatively if the rotor turns too quickly, the blurring blades will appear
like a solid wall to the wind. Therefore, wind turbines are designed with optimal tip speed ratios to extract as
much power out of the wind as possible. The tip speed ratio is given by dividing the speed of the tips of the
turbine blades by the speed of the wind – for example if a 20 mph wind is blowing on a wind turbine and the
tips of its blades are rotating at 80 mph, then the tip speed ration is 80/20 = 4.

Force on a wind turbine

Airflow over any surface creates two types of aerodynamic forces— drag forces, in the direction of
the airflow, and lift forces, perpendicular to the airflow. Either or both of these can be used to generate the
forces needed to rotate the blades of a wind turbine.

Drag-based wind turbine

In drag-based wind turbines, the force of the wind pushes against a surface, like an open sail. In fact,
the earliest wind turbines, dating back to ancient Persia, used this approach. The Savonius rotor is a simple

6
drag-based windmill that you can make at home. It works because the drag of the open, or concave, face of
the cylinder is greater than the drag on the closed or convex section.
Lift-based Wind Turbines
More energy can be extracted from wind using lift rather than drag, but this requires specially shaped
airfoil surfaces, like those used on airplane wings. The airfoil shape is designed to create a differential
pressure between the upper and lower surfaces, leading to a net force in the direction perpendicular to the
wind direction. Rotors of this type must be carefully oriented (the orientation is referred to as the rotor
pitch), to maintain their ability to harness the power of the wind as wind speed changes.

Types of Wind Power Plants (WPPs)

A wind power plant is simply a collection of wind turbines in one area. There are several different
types of wind power plants. The following classification is based on their construction, size and usage.

Remote Wind Power Plants

Areas which are remote but are blessed with good wind speeds and frequency need a wind turbine
which is maintenance free or low-maintenance for long periods of time (just imagine a service technician
rushing across mountains and valleys on foot or bullock-cart to repair a turbine time and again). This means
that they should have the capability of standing against all odds of climate even if they are relatively smaller
in size than their conventional counterparts. These types of turbines are known as remote wind power
turbines and are specifically designed with these objectives in view.

Cumulative installed capacity of wind power (as on 31.10.2019) in India is 37,090.03 MW.
Hybrid Wind Power Plants
Wind is not fully reliable so we cannot depend on wind alone for generation of power. The best bet
would be to combine a wind power plant with some other renewable source of energy, like solar energy.
That would be certainly a better idea and you can imagine that when there is a lot of heat, the solar
generators would do their job and when the sky is overcast and winds are blowing, the wind power plants
would take over. Such an arrangement is known as hybrid arrangement and is useful in regions where there
is a lot of heat and wind.

Grid Connected Wind Power Plants

This concept is similar to a hybrid system. The wind power plant is used in conjunction with a main
grid which supplies most of the power. The main purpose of the wind turbines is to supplement the energy
supply for the grid, whereas the main function in the hybrid system is to complement the energy supply,
hence the minor difference in the set up.

Wind Farms
As the name itself suggests, a wind farm is a collection of wind turbines which collectively power a
given area or utility harnessing the wind force in a collective manner thereby amplifying the effect of a
single unit.
These configurations are used at various locations depending on the conditions of the region and the
presence of other sources of electrical supply. An optimum mix would consist of an ingenious combination
of the various sources in the best possible manner.

Types of wind turbines

Wind turbines can be separated into two basic types determined by which way the turbine spins.
Wind turbines that rotate around a horizontal axis are more common (like a wind mill), while vertical axis
wind turbines are less frequently used (Savonius and Darrieus are the most common in the group).

1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT)

Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) are the common style that most of us think of a wind turbine.
A HAWT has a similar design to a windmill, it has blades that look like a propeller that spin on the
horizontal axis
7
 Fig. 5. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
Horizontal axis wind turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower,
and they must be pointed into the wind. Small turbine are pointed by a simple wind vane placed square with
the rotor (blades), while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor to turn the
turbine into the wind. Most large wind turbines have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the rotor
into a faster rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the tower.
Wind turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high winds.
Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted up
a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence, because they don‘t need an
additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind. Additionally, in high winds the blades can be
allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since turbulence leads to
fatigue failures and reliability is so important, most HAWTs are upwind machines.

Important point to remember recording HAWT are

 Lift is the main force
 Much lower cyclic stress
 95% of the existing turbines are HAWTs
 Nacelle is placed at the top of the tower
 Yaw mechanism is required

HAWT Advantage
 The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind shear sites,
every ten meters up the wind speed can increase by 20% and the power output by 34%.
 High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicular to the wind, receiving power through
the whole rotation.

HAWT Disadvantages
 Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and generator.
 Components of horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted
into position.
 Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the appearance of the
landscape and sometimes creating local opposition.
 Download variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when a blade
passes through the tower‘s wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of HAWTs use an upwind
design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower).
 HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.
 HAWTs generally require a braking or yawing device in high winds to stop the turbine from
spinning and destroying or damaging itself.
8
2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT)
Vertical wind turbines (VAWTs), have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically .The main advantage
of this arrangement is that the wind turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind. This makes them
suitable in places where the wind direction is highly variable or has turbulent winds. With a vertical axis, the
generator and other primary components can be placed near the ground, so the tower does not need to
support it, also makes maintenance easier. The main drawback of a VAWT is that, it generally creates drag
when rotating into the wind.
It is difficult to mount vertical-axis turbines on towers, meaning they are often installed nearer to the
base on which they rest, such as the ground or a building rooftop. The wind speed is slower at a lower
altitude, so less wind energy is available for a given size turbine. Air flow near the ground and other objects
can create turbulent flow, which can introduce issues of vibration, including noise and bearing wear which
may increase the maintenance or shorten its service life. However, when a turbine is mounted on a rooftop,
the building generally redirects wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the
height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height, this is near the
optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence.

Fig. 6. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines –Darrieus type

Important points to remember for VAWT:

 Nacelle is placed at the bottom.
 Drag is the main force
 Yaw mechanism is not required
 Lower starting torque
 Difficulty in mounting the turbine
 Unwanted fluctuations in the power output

VAWT Advantages
 No yaw mechanisms is needed
 A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving parts.
 VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than the typical HAWTs.
 VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited.
 VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where rooftops, means hilltops,
ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind velocity.

VAWT Disadvantage
 In contrast to HAWT, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most proposed airborne wind turbine
designs, involve various types of reciprocating actions, requiring airfoil surfaces to the wind leads to
inherently lower efficiency.
9
  Most VAWTs have an average decreased efficiency from a common HAWT, mainly because of the
additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind. Versions that reduce drag produce
more energy, especially those that funnel wind into the collector area.
 Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower and do not take advantage of
higher wind speeds above.
 Because VAWTs are not commonly deployed due mainly to the serious disadvantage mentioned
above, they appear novel to those not familiar with the wind industry. This has often made them the
subject of wild claims and investment scams over the last 50 years.

Tamil Nadu with 9231.77 MW of installed wind capacity is well ahead of the rest and second
positioned Gujarat which has 7203.77 MW of wind generation capacity.

VAWT Subtypes
Darrieus Wind Turbine
Darrieus turbine has long, thin blades in the shape of loops connected to the top and bottom of the
axle; it is often called an ―eggbeater windmill‖ as shown in fig. 6. It is named after the French engineer
Georges Darrieus who patented the design in 1931. (It was manufactured by the US company FLoWind
which went bankrupt in 1997). The Darrieus turbine is characterized by its C-shaped rotor blades which give
it its eggbeater appearance. It is normally built with two or three blades.
Darrieus wind turbines are commonly called ―Eggbeater‖ turbines, because they look like a giant
eggbeater. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclic stress on the tower, which
contributes to poor reliability. Also, they generally require some external power source, or an additional
savonius rotor, to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using
three or more blades which results in a higher solidity for the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area over
the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not help up by guy-wires but have an external superstructure
connected to the top bearing.
The tip speed ratio (TSR) indicates the rotating velocity of the turbines to the velocity of the wind. In
this case, the TSR has a higher value than 1, meaning that the velocity rotation here is greater than the
velocity of wind and generates less torque. This makes Darrieus turbines excellent electricity generators.
The turbine blades have to be reinforced in order to sustain the centrifugal forces generated during rotation,
but the generator itself accepts a lower amount of force than the Savorius type. A drawback to the Darrieus
wind turbines is the fact that they cannot start rotation on their own. A small motor, or another Savonius
turbine, maybe needed to initiate rotation.

Advantages
 The rotor shaft is vertical. Therefore it is possible to place the load, like a generator or a centrifugal
pump at ground level. As the generator housing is not rotating, the cable to the load is not twisted
and no brushes are requires for large twisting angles.
 The rotor can take wind from every direction.
 The visual acceptation for placing of the windmill on a building might be larger than for an
horizontal axis windmill.
 Easily integrates into buildings.

Disadvantages
 Difficult start unlike the Savonius wind turbine.
 Low efficiency.

Savonius wind turbine

The Savonius wind turbine is a type of vertical-axis wind turbine. It is one of the simplest wind
turbine designs. It consists of two to three ―scoops‖ that employ a drag action to convert wind energy into
torque to drive a turbine. When looked at from above in cross-section, a two scoop Savonius turbine looks
like an S-shape. Due to the curvature of the scoops, the turbine encounters less drag
when moving against the wind than with it, and this causes the spin in any wind regardless of facing.

10
 Drag type wind turbines such as the Savonius turbine are less efficient at using the wind‘s energy
than lift-type wind turbines, which are the ones commonly used in wind farms. A Savonius is a drag type
turbine, they are commonly used in cases of high reliability in many things such as ventilation and
anemometers. Because they are a drag type turbine they are less efficiency than the common HAWT.
Savonius are excellent in areas of turbulent wind and self starting.

Fig. 7. Savonius wind turbine

Advantages
 Having a vertical axis, the Savonius turbine continues to work effectively even if the wind changes
direction.
 Because the Savonius design works well even at low wind speeds, there‘s no need for a tower or
other expensive structure to hold it in place, greatly reducing the initial setup cost.
 The device is quiet, easy to build, and relatively small.
 Because the turbine is close to the ground, maintenance is easy.

Disadvantages
 The scoop system used to capture the wind‘s energy is half as efficient as a conventional turbine,
resulting in less power generation.

Fig.8. Types of wind turbines

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 Classification of Wind Energy Conversion Systems and Wind Turbine Components

(1) Based on axis

(a) Horizontal axis machines
(b) Vertical axis machines
(2) According to size
(a) Small size machines (upto 2k W)
(b) Medium size machines (2 to 100k W)
(c) Large size machines (100k W and above)
i. Single generator at single site
ii. Multiple generators
(3) Types of output
(a) DC output
i. DC generator
ii. Alternator rectifier
(b) AC output
i. Variable frequency, variable or constant voltage AC.
ii. Constant frequency, variable or constant voltage AC
(4) According to the rotational speed of the area turbines
(1) Constant speed and variable pitch blades
(2) Nearly constant speed with fixed pitch blades
(3) Variable speed with fixed pitch blades
(a) Field modulated system
(b) Double output indication generator
(c) AC-DC-AC link
(d) AC commentator generator
(4) Variable speed constant frequency generating system.
(5) As per utilization of output
(a) Battery storage
(b) Direct conversion to an electro magnetic energy converter
(c) Thermal potential
(d) Inter convention with conventional electric utility guides

Mupandal wind farm in Tamilnadu with 3000 turbines and total nominal power of 1,500,000 kW
is India’s largest Onshore wind farm

Components of WPPs
There are three categories of components: mechanical, electrical, and control. The following is a
brief description of the main components:
 The tower is the physical structure that holds the wind turbine. It supports the rotor, nacelle, blades,
and other wind turbine equipment. Typical commercial wind towers are usually 50–120 m long and
they are constructed from concrete or reinforced steel.
 Blades are physical structures, which are aerodynamically optimized to help capture the maximum
power from the wind in normal operation with a wind speed in the range of about 3–15 m/s. Each
blade is usually 20m or more in length, depending on the power level.
 The nacelle is the enclosure of the wind turbine generator, gearbox and internal equipment. It
protects the turbine‘s internal components from the surrounding environment.
 The rotor is the rotating part of the wind turbine. It transfers the energy in the wind to the shaft. The
rotor hub holds the wind turbine blades while connected to the gearbox via the low-speed shaft.
 Pitch is the mechanism of adjusting the angle of attack of the rotor blades. Blades are turned in their
longitudinal axis to change the angle of attack according to the wind directions.
 The shaft is divided into two types: low and high speed. The low-speed shaft transfers mechanical
energy from the rotor to the gearbox, while the high-speed shaft transfers mechanical energy from
gearbox to generator.

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 Yaw is the horizontal moving part of the turbine. It turns clockwise or anticlockwise to face the
wind. The yaw has two main parts: the yaw motor and the yaw drive. The yaw drive keeps the rotor
facing the wind when the wind direction varies. The yaw motor is used to move the yaw.
 The brake is a mechanical part connected to the high-speed shaft in order to reduce the rotational
speed or stop the wind turbine over speeding or during emergency conditions.
 Gearbox is a mechanical component that is used to increase or decrease the rotational speed. In wind
turbines, the gearbox is used to control the rotational speed of the generator.
 The generator is the component that converts the mechanical energy from the rotor to electrical
energy. The most common electrical generators used in wind turbines are induction generators (IGs),
doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs), and permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs).
 The controller is the brain of the wind turbine. It monitors constantly the condition of the wind
turbine and controls the pitch and yaw systems to extract optimum power from the wind.
 Anemometer is a type of sensor that is used to measure the wind speed. The wind speed information
may be necessary for maximum power tracking and protection in emergency cases.
 The wind vane is a type of sensor that is used to measure the wind direction. The wind direction
information is important for the yaw control system to operate.

Fig. 9. Components of wind turbine

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Working of WPPs (Refer Fig.10 with the following serial no)
1. Wind (moving air that contains kinetic energy) blows toward the turbine's rotor blades.
2. The rotors spin around, capturing some of the kinetic energy from the wind, and turning the central
drive shaft that supports them. Although the outer edges of the rotor blades move very fast, the
central axle (drive shaft) turns quite slowly.
3. In most large modern turbines, the rotor blades can swivel on the hub at the front so they meet the
wind at the best angle (or "pitch") for harvesting energy. This is called the pitch control mechanism.
On big turbines, small electric motors or hydraulic rams swivel the blades back and forth under
precise electronic control. On smaller turbines, the pitch control is often completely mechanical.
However, many turbines have fixed rotors and no pitch control at all.
4. Inside the nacelle (the main body of the turbine sitting on top of the tower and behind the blades), the
gearbox converts the low-speed rotation of the drive shaft (perhaps, 16 revolutions per minute, rpm)
into high-speed (perhaps, 1600 rpm) rotation fast enough to drive the generator efficiently.
5. The generator, immediately behind the gearbox, takes kinetic energy from the spinning drive shaft
and turns it into electrical energy. Running at maximum capacity, a typical 2MW turbine generator
will produce 2 million watts of power at about 700 volts.
6. Anemometers (automatic speed measuring devices) and wind vanes on the back of the nacelle
provide measurements of the wind speed and direction.
7. Using these measurements, the entire top part of the turbine (the rotors and nacelle) can be rotated by
a yaw motor, mounted between the nacelle and the tower, so it faces directly into the oncoming wind
and captures the maximum amount of energy. If it is too windy or turbulent, brakes are applied to
stop the rotors from turning (for safety reasons). The brakes are also applied during routine
maintenance.
8. The electric current produced by the generator flows through a cable running down through the
inside of the turbine tower.
9. A step-up transformer converts the electricity to about 50 times higher voltage so it can be
transmitted efficiently to the power grid (or to nearby buildings or communities). If the electricity is
flowing to the grid, it is converted to an even higher voltage by a substation nearby.
10. The consumer enjoy clean, green energy: the turbine has produced no greenhouse gas emissions or
pollution as it operates.
11. Wind carries on blowing past the turbine, but with less speed and energy and more turbulence (since
the turbine has disrupted its flow).

Fig. 10. Working of wind power plant

Pitch control and yaw control
Suzlon Energy Limited, Regen Powertech private limited, Inox Wind limited, Orient Green Power
Limited, Vestas India, Enercon India Pvt limited, Gamesa wind turbines private limited.
Different control methods are used either to optimize or limit power output. You can control a
turbine by controlling the generator speed, blade angle adjustment and rotation of the entire wind turbine.
Blade angle adjustment and turbine rotation are also known as pitch and yaw control, respectively.

14
 The purpose of pitch control is to maintain the optimum blade angle to achieve certain rotor speeds
or power output. You can use pitch adjustment to stall and furl, two methods of pitch control. By stalling a
wind turbine, you increase the angle of attack, which causes the flat side of the blade to face further into the
wind. Furling decreases the angle of attack, causing the edge of the blade to face the oncoming wind. Pitch
angle adjustment is the most effective way to limit output power by changing aerodynamic force on the
blade at high wind speeds. This maintains the turbine‘s safety in the event of high winds, loss of electrical
load, or other catastrophic events.

Fig. 11. Pitch control

Yaw refers to the rotation of the entire wind turbine in the horizontal axis. Yaw control ensures that
the turbine is constantly facing into the wind to maximize the effective rotor area and, as a result, power.
Because wind direction can vary quickly, the turbine may misalign with the oncoming wind and cause
power output losses.

Fig. 12. Yaw control

Stall control
(Passive) stall controlled wind turbines have the rotor blades bolted onto the hub at a fixed angle.
The geometry of the rotor blade profile, however has been aerodynamically designed to ensure that the
moment the wind speed becomes too high, it creates turbulence on the side of the rotor blade which is not
facing the wind. This stall prevents the lifting force of the rotor blade from acting on the rotor. In other
words, as the actual wind speed in the area increases, the angle of attack of the rotor blade will increase,
until at some point it starts to stall.
If you look closely at a rotor blade for a stall controlled wind turbine you will notice that the blade is
twisted slightly as you move along its longitudinal axis. This is partly done in order to ensure that the rotor
blade stalls gradually rather than abruptly when the wind speed reaches its critical value (other reasons for
twisting the blade are mentioned in the previous section on aerodynamics).
The basic advantage of stall control is that one avoids moving parts in the rotor itself, and a complex
control system. On the other hand, stall control represents a very complex aerodynamic design problem, and
related design challenges in the structural dynamics of the whole wind turbine, e.g. to avoid stall-induced
vibrations. Around two thirds of the wind turbines currently being installed in the world are stall controlled
machines.
15
Siting of WPPs
The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed, hence wind energy conversion
machines should be located preferable in areas where the winds are strong and persistent. Although daily
winds at a given site may be highly variable, the monthly and especially annual average are remarkably
constant from year to year.
The major contribution to the wind power available at a given site is actually made by winds with
speeds above the average. Nevertheless, the most suitable sites for wind turbines would be found in areas
where the annual average wind speeds are known to be moderately high or high.
The site choice for a single or a spatial array of WECS is an important matter when wind electrics is looked
at from the systems point of view of aero turbine generators feeding power into a conventional electric grid.
If the WECS sites are wrongly or poorly chosen the net wind electrics generated energy per year may be sub
optimal with resulting high capital cost for the WECS apparatus, high costs for wind generated electric
energy, and low Returns on Investment. Even if the WECS is to be a small generator not tied to the electric
grid, the siting must be carefully chosen if inordinately long break even times are to be avoided. Technical,
economic, environmental, social and other factors are examined before a decision is made to erect a
generating plant on a specific site. Some of the main site selection consideration are given below:
1. High annual average wind speed
2. Availability of anemometry data
3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site
4. Wind structure at the proposed site
5. Altitude of the proposed site
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic
7. Local Ecology
8. Distance to road or railways
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users
10. Nature of ground
11. Favourable land cost
1. High annual average wind speed: The speed generated by the wind mill depends on cubic values of
velocity of wind, the small increases in velocity markedly affect the power in the wind. For example,
Doubling the velocity, increases power by a factor of 8. It is obviously desirable to select a site for
WECS with high wind velocity. Thus a high average wind velocity is the principle fundamental
parameter of concern in initially appraising WESCS site. For more detailed estimate value, one would
like to have the average of the velocity cubed.
2. Availability of anemometry data: It is another improvement sitting factor. The anemometry data
should be available over some time period at the precise spot where any proposed WECS is to be built
and that this should be accomplished before a sitting decision is made.
3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site: This important curve determines the maximum
energy in the wind and hence is the principle initially controlling factor in predicting the electrical
output and hence revenue return o the WECS machines.
It is desirable to have average wind speed ‗V‘ such that V>=12-16 km/hr (3.5 – 4.5 m/sec) which is
about the lower limit at which present large scale WECS generators ‗cut in‘ i.e., start turning. The V(t)
Curve also determines the reliability of the delivered WECS generator power, for if the V(t) curve goes
to zero there be no generated power during that time.
If there are long periods of calm the WECS reliability will be lower than if the calm periods are short. In
making such reliability estimates it is desirable to have measured V(t) Curve over about a 5 year period
for the highest confidence level in the reliability estimate.
4. Wind structure at the proposed site: The ideal case for the WECS would be a site such that the V(t)
Curve was flat, i.e., a smooth steady wind that blows all the time; but a typical site is always less than
ideal. Wind specially near the ground is turbulent and gusty, and changes rapidly in direction and in
velocity. This departure from homogeneous flow is collectively referred to as ―the structure of the
wind‖.
5. Altitude of the proposed site: It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind and hence the
useful WECS electric power output. Also, as is well known, the wind tend to have higher velocities at

16
 higher altitudes. One must be carefully to distinguish altitude from height above ground. They are not
the same except for a sea level WECS site.
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic: One should know about terrain of the site to be chosen. If the WECS is
to be placed near the top but not on the top of a not too blunt hill facing the prevailing wind, then it may
be possible to obtain a ‗speed-up‘ of the wind velocity over what it would otherwise be. Also the wind
here may not flow horizontal making it necessary to tip the axis of the rotor so that the aeroturbine is
always perpendicular to the actual wind flow.
It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains which channel the prevailing wind into a pass
region, thereby obtaining higher wind power.
7. Local Ecology: If the surface is base rock it may mean lower hub height hence lower structure cost. If
trees or grass or vegetation are present, all of which tend to destructure the wind, the higher hub heights
will be needed resulting in larges system costs that the bare ground case.
8. Distance to road or railways: This is another factor the system engineer must consider for heavy
machinery, structure, materials, blades and other apparatus will have to be moved into any choosen
WECS site.
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users: This obvious criterion minimizes transmission line length and
hence losses and cost. After applying all the previous string criteria, hopefully as one narrows the
proposed WECS sites to one or two they would be relatively near to the user of the generated electric
energy.
10. Nature of ground: Ground condition should be such that the foundation for a WECS are secured.
Ground surface should be stable. Erosion problem should not be there, as it could possibly later wash
out the foundation of a WECS, destroying the whole system.
11. Favourable land cost: Land cost should be favourable as this along with other siting costs, enters into
the total WECS system cost.
12. Other conditions such as icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should not present at the site,
as they may affect aeroturbine blades or environmental is generally adverse to machinery and electrical
apparatus.

Grid integration issues of WPPs.

The electrical grid is the electrical power system network comprised of the generating plant, the
transmission lines, the substation, transformers, the distribution lines and the consumer. Ideally the electric
grid is aimed to operate at constant voltage and frequency. However, the grid can take some fluctuation in
voltage and electrical equipment is designed for maximum and minimum allowable voltage levels, usually
about +/- 10%.
Wind power generation varies depending on how wind fluctuates. However, the variations in output
are smoothed when many wind power plants are aggregated over an area in a power system. To deal with
uncertainty, wind power output can be forecasted minutes, hours, and even days ahead. Aggregating wind
power plants over a wider geographic area will improve the forecast accuracy at all time frames.
Wind power as a generation source has specific characteristics, including variability, geographical
distribution, favourable economics. Large-scale integration of both onshore and offshore wind raises
challenges for the various stakeholders involved, ranging from generation, transmission and distribution to
power trading and consumers.
In order to integrate wind power successfully, a number of issues need to be addressed in the
following areas:
 Variability: Power plants that run on fuel (along with some hydro and geothermal plants) can be
ramped up and down on command. They are, in the jargon, "dispatchable." But Variable Renewable
Energy (VRE) plants produce power only when the wind is blowing or the sun is shining. Grid
operators don't control VRE, they accommodate it, which requires some agility.
 Uncertainty: The output of VRE plants cannot be predicted with perfect accuracy in day-ahead and
day-of forecasts, so grid operators have to keep excess reserve running just in case.
 Location-specificity: Sun and wind are stronger (and thus more economical) in some places than in
others — and not always in places that have the necessary transmission infrastructure to get the
power to where it's needed.

17
  Nonsynchronous generation: Conventional generators provide voltage support and frequency
control to the grid. VRE generators can too, potentially, but it's an additional capital investment.
 Low capacity factor: VRE plants only run when sun or wind cooperates. According to the Energy
Information Administration, in 2014 the average capacity factor — production relative to potential
— for utility-scale solar PV was around 28 percent; for wind, 34 percent. (By way of comparison,
the average capacity factor of US nuclear power was 92 percent; those plants are almost always
producing power.) Because of the low capacity factor of VRE, conventional plants are needed to take
up the slack, but because of the high output of VRE in peak hours, conventional plants sometimes
don't get to run as often as needed to recover costs.
 Design and operation of the power system: Reserve capacities and balance management, short-
term forecasting of wind power, demand side management and storage and optimisation of system
flexibility;
 Grid infrastructure issues: Optimisation of present infrastructure, extensions and reinforcements,
offshore grids and improved interconnection;
 Grid connection of wind power: Grid codes and power quality and wind power plant capabilities;
 Market redesign issues: Market aggregation and adapted market rules increase the market
flexibility particularly for cross-border exchange and operating the system closer to the delivery
hour;
 Institutional issues: Stakeholder incentives, non-discriminatory third party grid access and
socialisation of costs

The cost of a single 225 KW or 250 KW which is widely preferred is about Rs. 1 Crore.

Steps to integrate wind power to grid

Despite these issues, there are solutions for integrating solar and wind into the grid
 Improved planning and coordination: This is the first step, making sure that VRE is matched up
with appropriately flexible dispatchable plants and transmission access so that energy can be shared
more fluidly within and between grid regions.
 Flexible rules and markets: Most grids are physically capable of more flexibility than they exhibit.
Changes to the rules and markets that govern how plants are scheduled and dispatched, how
reliability is assured and how customers are billed, says NREL(National Renewable Energy
Laboratory), ―can allow access to significant existing flexibility, often at lower economic costs than
options requiring new sources of physical flexibility." This is the low-hanging fruit of grid
flexibility. Recent research from the Regulatory Assistance Project offers an overview of the changes
needed in "market rules, market design, and market operations." A new Department of Energy study
describes utility best practices in "time-of-use pricing," which varies the price of electricity
throughout the day to encourage demand shifting. In New York, utility regulations are being
fundamentally rewritten to optimize the management of distributed energy resources (DERs).
 Flexible demand and storage: To some extent, demand can be managed like supply. "Demand
response" programs aggregate customers willing to let their load be ramped up and down or shifted
in time. The result is equivalent, from the grid operator's perspective, to dispatchable supply. There is
a whole range of demand-management tools available and more coming online all the time.
Similarly, energy storage, by absorbing excess VRE at times when it is cheap and sharing it when it
is more valuable, can help even out VRE's variable supply. It can even make VRE dispatchable,
within limits.
 Flexible conventional generation: Though older coal and nuclear plants are fairly inflexible, with
extended shut-down, cool-off, and ramp-up times, lots of newer and retrofitted conventional plants
are more nimble — and can be made more so by a combination of technology and improved
practices. Grid planners can favor more flexible non-VRE options like natural gas and small-scale
combined heat and power (CHP) plants. Cycling conventional plants up and down more often does
come with a cost, but the cost is typically smaller than the fuel savings from increased VRE.

18
  Flexible VRE: New technology enables wind turbines to "provide the full spectrum of balancing
services (synthetic inertial control, primary frequency control, and automatic generation control),"
and both wind turbines and solar panels can now offer voltage control.
 Interconnected transmission networks: Wind and solar resources become less variable if
aggregated across a broader region. The bigger the geographical area linked up by power lines, the
more likely it is that the sun is shining or the wind is blowing somewhere within that area.
Grid Integration of wind farms and Power Quality Issues
The issue of power quality is of great importance to the wind turbines. The critical power quality
issues related to integration of wind farms are discussed below.
1. Issue of voltage variation: If a large proportion of the grid load is supplied by wind turbines, the output
variations due to wind speed changes can cause voltage variation, flicker effects in normal operation.
The voltage variation can occur in specific situation, as a result of load changes, and power produce
from turbine.
2. Issue of voltage dips: It is a sudden reduction in the voltage to a value between 1% & 90 % of the
nominal value after a short period of time, conventionally 1ms to 1min. This problem is considered in
the power quality and wind turbine generating system operation and computed according to the rule
given in IEC 61400-3-7 standard, ―Assessment of emission limit for fluctuating load‖.
3. Switching operation of wind turbine on the grid: Switching operations of wind turbine generating
system can cause voltage fluctuations and thus voltage sag, voltage swell that may cause significant
voltage variation. The acceptances of switching operation depend not only on grid voltage but also on
how often this may occur. The maximum number of above specified switching operation within 10-
minute period and 2-hr period are defined in IEC 61400-3-7 Standard.
4. Harmonics: The harmonics voltage and current should be limited to acceptable level at the point of
wind turbine connection in the system. This fact has lead to more stringent requirements regarding
power quality, such as Standard IEC 61000-3-2 or IEEE-519.
5. Flickers: Flicker is the one of the important power quality aspects in wind turbine generating system.
Flicker has widely been considered as a serious drawback and may limit for the maximum amount of
wind power generation that can be connected to the grid. Flicker is induced by voltage fluctuations,
which are caused by load flow changes in the grid. The flicker emission produced by grid-connected
variable-speed wind turbines with full-scale back-to-back converters during continuous operation and
mainly caused by fluctuations in the output power due to wind speed variations, the wind shear, and the
tower shadow effects.
6. Reactive power: Traditional wind turbines are equipped with induction generators. Induction generator
is preferred because they are inexpensive, rugged and requires little maintenance. Unfortunately
induction generators require reactive power from the grid to operate. The interactions between wind
turbine and power system network are important aspect of wind generation system.
7. Location of wind turbine: The way of connecting wind turbine into the electric power system highly
influences the impact of the wind turbine generating system on the power quality. As a rule, the impact
on power quality at the consumer‘s terminal for the wind turbine generating system (WTGS) located
close to the load is higher than WTGS connected away, that is connected to H.V. or EHV system.
8. Low voltage ride through capability: The impact of the wind generation on the power system will no
longer be negligible if high penetration levels are going to be reached. The extent to which wind power
can be integrated into the power system without affecting the overall stable operation depends on the
technology available to mitigate the possible negative impacts such as loss of generation for frequency
support, voltage flicker, voltage and power variation due to the variable speed of the wind and the risk
of instability due to lower degree of controllability.
9. IEC recommendation: For consistent and replicable documentation of power quality characteristic of
wind turbine, the international Electro-technical Commission IEC-61400-21 was developed and today,
most of the large wind turbine manufactures provide power quality characteristic data accordingly. IEC
61400-21 describe the procedures for determine the power quality characteristics of wind turbines.

Grid code for wind farms

Parameter Allowable limit
Voltage Rise < 2%
19
Voltage dips ≤ 3%
Flicker ≤ 0.4, for average time of 2 hours
Grid frequency 47.5-51.5 Hz

20
 Classification of Wind Energy Conversion Systems and Wind Turbine Components

(1) Based on axis

(a) Horizontal axis machines
(b) Vertical axis machines
(2) According to size
(a) Small size machines (upto 2k W)
(b) Medium size machines (2 to 100k W)
(c) Large size machines (100k W and above)
i. Single generator at single site
ii. Multiple generators
(3) Types of output
(a) DC output
i. DC generator
ii. Alternator rectifier
(b) AC output
i. Variable frequency, variable or constant voltage AC.
ii. Constant frequency, variable or constant voltage AC
(4) According to the rotational speed of the area turbines
(1) Constant speed and variable pitch blades
(2) Nearly constant speed with fixed pitch blades
(3) Variable speed with fixed pitch blades
(a) Field modulated system
(b) Double output indication generator
(c) AC-DC-AC link
(d) AC commentator generator
(4) Variable speed constant frequency generating system.
(5) As per utilization of output
(a) Battery storage
(b) Direct conversion to an electro magnetic energy converter
(c) Thermal potential
(d) Inter convention with conventional electric utility guides

Mupandal wind farm in Tamilnadu with 3000 turbines and total nominal power of 1,500,000 kW
is India’s largest Onshore wind farm

Components of WPPs
There are three categories of components: mechanical, electrical, and control. The following is a
brief description of the main components:
 The tower is the physical structure that holds the wind turbine. It supports the rotor, nacelle, blades,
and other wind turbine equipment. Typical commercial wind towers are usually 50–120 m long and
they are constructed from concrete or reinforced steel.
 Blades are physical structures, which are aerodynamically optimized to help capture the maximum
power from the wind in normal operation with a wind speed in the range of about 3–15 m/s. Each
blade is usually 20m or more in length, depending on the power level.
 The nacelle is the enclosure of the wind turbine generator, gearbox and internal equipment. It
protects the turbine‘s internal components from the surrounding environment.
 The rotor is the rotating part of the wind turbine. It transfers the energy in the wind to the shaft. The
rotor hub holds the wind turbine blades while connected to the gearbox via the low-speed shaft.
 Pitch is the mechanism of adjusting the angle of attack of the rotor blades. Blades are turned in their
longitudinal axis to change the angle of attack according to the wind directions.
 The shaft is divided into two types: low and high speed. The low-speed shaft transfers mechanical
energy from the rotor to the gearbox, while the high-speed shaft transfers mechanical energy from
gearbox to generator.

12
 Yaw is the horizontal moving part of the turbine. It turns clockwise or anticlockwise to face the
wind. The yaw has two main parts: the yaw motor and the yaw drive. The yaw drive keeps the rotor
facing the wind when the wind direction varies. The yaw motor is used to move the yaw.
 The brake is a mechanical part connected to the high-speed shaft in order to reduce the rotational
speed or stop the wind turbine over speeding or during emergency conditions.
 Gearbox is a mechanical component that is used to increase or decrease the rotational speed. In wind
turbines, the gearbox is used to control the rotational speed of the generator.
 The generator is the component that converts the mechanical energy from the rotor to electrical
energy. The most common electrical generators used in wind turbines are induction generators (IGs),
doubly fed induction generators (DFIGs), and permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs).
 The controller is the brain of the wind turbine. It monitors constantly the condition of the wind
turbine and controls the pitch and yaw systems to extract optimum power from the wind.
 Anemometer is a type of sensor that is used to measure the wind speed. The wind speed information
may be necessary for maximum power tracking and protection in emergency cases.
 The wind vane is a type of sensor that is used to measure the wind direction. The wind direction
information is important for the yaw control system to operate.

Fig. 9. Components of wind turbine

13
Working of WPPs (Refer Fig.10 with the following serial no)
1. Wind (moving air that contains kinetic energy) blows toward the turbine's rotor blades.
2. The rotors spin around, capturing some of the kinetic energy from the wind, and turning the central
drive shaft that supports them. Although the outer edges of the rotor blades move very fast, the
central axle (drive shaft) turns quite slowly.
3. In most large modern turbines, the rotor blades can swivel on the hub at the front so they meet the
wind at the best angle (or "pitch") for harvesting energy. This is called the pitch control mechanism.
On big turbines, small electric motors or hydraulic rams swivel the blades back and forth under
precise electronic control. On smaller turbines, the pitch control is often completely mechanical.
However, many turbines have fixed rotors and no pitch control at all.
4. Inside the nacelle (the main body of the turbine sitting on top of the tower and behind the blades), the
gearbox converts the low-speed rotation of the drive shaft (perhaps, 16 revolutions per minute, rpm)
into high-speed (perhaps, 1600 rpm) rotation fast enough to drive the generator efficiently.
5. The generator, immediately behind the gearbox, takes kinetic energy from the spinning drive shaft
and turns it into electrical energy. Running at maximum capacity, a typical 2MW turbine generator
will produce 2 million watts of power at about 700 volts.
6. Anemometers (automatic speed measuring devices) and wind vanes on the back of the nacelle
provide measurements of the wind speed and direction.
7. Using these measurements, the entire top part of the turbine (the rotors and nacelle) can be rotated by
a yaw motor, mounted between the nacelle and the tower, so it faces directly into the oncoming wind
and captures the maximum amount of energy. If it is too windy or turbulent, brakes are applied to
stop the rotors from turning (for safety reasons). The brakes are also applied during routine
maintenance.
8. The electric current produced by the generator flows through a cable running down through the
inside of the turbine tower.
9. A step-up transformer converts the electricity to about 50 times higher voltage so it can be
transmitted efficiently to the power grid (or to nearby buildings or communities). If the electricity is
flowing to the grid, it is converted to an even higher voltage by a substation nearby.
10. The consumer enjoy clean, green energy: the turbine has produced no greenhouse gas emissions or
pollution as it operates.
11. Wind carries on blowing past the turbine, but with less speed and energy and more turbulence (since
the turbine has disrupted its flow).

Fig. 10. Working of wind power plant

Pitch control and yaw control
Suzlon Energy Limited, Regen Powertech private limited, Inox Wind limited, Orient Green Power
Limited, Vestas India, Enercon India Pvt limited, Gamesa wind turbines private limited.
Different control methods are used either to optimize or limit power output. You can control a
turbine by controlling the generator speed, blade angle adjustment and rotation of the entire wind turbine.
Blade angle adjustment and turbine rotation are also known as pitch and yaw control, respectively.

14
 The purpose of pitch control is to maintain the optimum blade angle to achieve certain rotor speeds
or power output. You can use pitch adjustment to stall and furl, two methods of pitch control. By stalling a
wind turbine, you increase the angle of attack, which causes the flat side of the blade to face further into the
wind. Furling decreases the angle of attack, causing the edge of the blade to face the oncoming wind. Pitch
angle adjustment is the most effective way to limit output power by changing aerodynamic force on the
blade at high wind speeds. This maintains the turbine‘s safety in the event of high winds, loss of electrical
load, or other catastrophic events.

Fig. 11. Pitch control

Yaw refers to the rotation of the entire wind turbine in the horizontal axis. Yaw control ensures that
the turbine is constantly facing into the wind to maximize the effective rotor area and, as a result, power.
Because wind direction can vary quickly, the turbine may misalign with the oncoming wind and cause
power output losses.

Fig. 12. Yaw control

Stall control
(Passive) stall controlled wind turbines have the rotor blades bolted onto the hub at a fixed angle.
The geometry of the rotor blade profile, however has been aerodynamically designed to ensure that the
moment the wind speed becomes too high, it creates turbulence on the side of the rotor blade which is not
facing the wind. This stall prevents the lifting force of the rotor blade from acting on the rotor. In other
words, as the actual wind speed in the area increases, the angle of attack of the rotor blade will increase,
until at some point it starts to stall.
If you look closely at a rotor blade for a stall controlled wind turbine you will notice that the blade is
twisted slightly as you move along its longitudinal axis. This is partly done in order to ensure that the rotor
blade stalls gradually rather than abruptly when the wind speed reaches its critical value (other reasons for
twisting the blade are mentioned in the previous section on aerodynamics).
The basic advantage of stall control is that one avoids moving parts in the rotor itself, and a complex
control system. On the other hand, stall control represents a very complex aerodynamic design problem, and
related design challenges in the structural dynamics of the whole wind turbine, e.g. to avoid stall-induced
vibrations. Around two thirds of the wind turbines currently being installed in the world are stall controlled
machines.
15
Siting of WPPs
The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed, hence wind energy conversion
machines should be located preferable in areas where the winds are strong and persistent. Although daily
winds at a given site may be highly variable, the monthly and especially annual average are remarkably
constant from year to year.
The major contribution to the wind power available at a given site is actually made by winds with
speeds above the average. Nevertheless, the most suitable sites for wind turbines would be found in areas
where the annual average wind speeds are known to be moderately high or high.
The site choice for a single or a spatial array of WECS is an important matter when wind electrics is looked
at from the systems point of view of aero turbine generators feeding power into a conventional electric grid.
If the WECS sites are wrongly or poorly chosen the net wind electrics generated energy per year may be sub
optimal with resulting high capital cost for the WECS apparatus, high costs for wind generated electric
energy, and low Returns on Investment. Even if the WECS is to be a small generator not tied to the electric
grid, the siting must be carefully chosen if inordinately long break even times are to be avoided. Technical,
economic, environmental, social and other factors are examined before a decision is made to erect a
generating plant on a specific site. Some of the main site selection consideration are given below:
1. High annual average wind speed
2. Availability of anemometry data
3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site
4. Wind structure at the proposed site
5. Altitude of the proposed site
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic
7. Local Ecology
8. Distance to road or railways
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users
10. Nature of ground
11. Favourable land cost
1. High annual average wind speed: The speed generated by the wind mill depends on cubic values of
velocity of wind, the small increases in velocity markedly affect the power in the wind. For example,
Doubling the velocity, increases power by a factor of 8. It is obviously desirable to select a site for
WECS with high wind velocity. Thus a high average wind velocity is the principle fundamental
parameter of concern in initially appraising WESCS site. For more detailed estimate value, one would
like to have the average of the velocity cubed.
2. Availability of anemometry data: It is another improvement sitting factor. The anemometry data
should be available over some time period at the precise spot where any proposed WECS is to be built
and that this should be accomplished before a sitting decision is made.
3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site: This important curve determines the maximum
energy in the wind and hence is the principle initially controlling factor in predicting the electrical
output and hence revenue return o the WECS machines.
It is desirable to have average wind speed ‗V‘ such that V>=12-16 km/hr (3.5 – 4.5 m/sec) which is
about the lower limit at which present large scale WECS generators ‗cut in‘ i.e., start turning. The V(t)
Curve also determines the reliability of the delivered WECS generator power, for if the V(t) curve goes
to zero there be no generated power during that time.
If there are long periods of calm the WECS reliability will be lower than if the calm periods are short. In
making such reliability estimates it is desirable to have measured V(t) Curve over about a 5 year period
for the highest confidence level in the reliability estimate.
4. Wind structure at the proposed site: The ideal case for the WECS would be a site such that the V(t)
Curve was flat, i.e., a smooth steady wind that blows all the time; but a typical site is always less than
ideal. Wind specially near the ground is turbulent and gusty, and changes rapidly in direction and in
velocity. This departure from homogeneous flow is collectively referred to as ―the structure of the
wind‖.
5. Altitude of the proposed site: It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind and hence the
useful WECS electric power output. Also, as is well known, the wind tend to have higher velocities at

16
 higher altitudes. One must be carefully to distinguish altitude from height above ground. They are not
the same except for a sea level WECS site.
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic: One should know about terrain of the site to be chosen. If the WECS is
to be placed near the top but not on the top of a not too blunt hill facing the prevailing wind, then it may
be possible to obtain a ‗speed-up‘ of the wind velocity over what it would otherwise be. Also the wind
here may not flow horizontal making it necessary to tip the axis of the rotor so that the aeroturbine is
always perpendicular to the actual wind flow.
It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains which channel the prevailing wind into a pass
region, thereby obtaining higher wind power.
7. Local Ecology: If the surface is base rock it may mean lower hub height hence lower structure cost. If
trees or grass or vegetation are present, all of which tend to destructure the wind, the higher hub heights
will be needed resulting in larges system costs that the bare ground case.
8. Distance to road or railways: This is another factor the system engineer must consider for heavy
machinery, structure, materials, blades and other apparatus will have to be moved into any choosen
WECS site.
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users: This obvious criterion minimizes transmission line length and
hence losses and cost. After applying all the previous string criteria, hopefully as one narrows the
proposed WECS sites to one or two they would be relatively near to the user of the generated electric
energy.
10. Nature of ground: Ground condition should be such that the foundation for a WECS are secured.
Ground surface should be stable. Erosion problem should not be there, as it could possibly later wash
out the foundation of a WECS, destroying the whole system.
11. Favourable land cost: Land cost should be favourable as this along with other siting costs, enters into
the total WECS system cost.
12. Other conditions such as icing problem, salt spray or blowing dust should not present at the site,
as they may affect aeroturbine blades or environmental is generally adverse to machinery and electrical
apparatus.

Grid integration issues of WPPs.

The electrical grid is the electrical power system network comprised of the generating plant, the
transmission lines, the substation, transformers, the distribution lines and the consumer. Ideally the electric
grid is aimed to operate at constant voltage and frequency. However, the grid can take some fluctuation in
voltage and electrical equipment is designed for maximum and minimum allowable voltage levels, usually
about +/- 10%.
Wind power generation varies depending on how wind fluctuates. However, the variations in output
are smoothed when many wind power plants are aggregated over an area in a power system. To deal with
uncertainty, wind power output can be forecasted minutes, hours, and even days ahead. Aggregating wind
power plants over a wider geographic area will improve the forecast accuracy at all time frames.
Wind power as a generation source has specific characteristics, including variability, geographical
distribution, favourable economics. Large-scale integration of both onshore and offshore wind raises
challenges for the various stakeholders involved, ranging from generation, transmission and distribution to
power trading and consumers.
In order to integrate wind power successfully, a number of issues need to be addressed in the
following areas:
 Variability: Power plants that run on fuel (along with some hydro and geothermal plants) can be
ramped up and down on command. They are, in the jargon, "dispatchable." But Variable Renewable
Energy (VRE) plants produce power only when the wind is blowing or the sun is shining. Grid
operators don't control VRE, they accommodate it, which requires some agility.
 Uncertainty: The output of VRE plants cannot be predicted with perfect accuracy in day-ahead and
day-of forecasts, so grid operators have to keep excess reserve running just in case.
 Location-specificity: Sun and wind are stronger (and thus more economical) in some places than in
others — and not always in places that have the necessary transmission infrastructure to get the
power to where it's needed.

17
  Nonsynchronous generation: Conventional generators provide voltage support and frequency
control to the grid. VRE generators can too, potentially, but it's an additional capital investment.
 Low capacity factor: VRE plants only run when sun or wind cooperates. According to the Energy
Information Administration, in 2014 the average capacity factor — production relative to potential
— for utility-scale solar PV was around 28 percent; for wind, 34 percent. (By way of comparison,
the average capacity factor of US nuclear power was 92 percent; those plants are almost always
producing power.) Because of the low capacity factor of VRE, conventional plants are needed to take
up the slack, but because of the high output of VRE in peak hours, conventional plants sometimes
don't get to run as often as needed to recover costs.
 Design and operation of the power system: Reserve capacities and balance management, short-
term forecasting of wind power, demand side management and storage and optimisation of system
flexibility;
 Grid infrastructure issues: Optimisation of present infrastructure, extensions and reinforcements,
offshore grids and improved interconnection;
 Grid connection of wind power: Grid codes and power quality and wind power plant capabilities;
 Market redesign issues: Market aggregation and adapted market rules increase the market
flexibility particularly for cross-border exchange and operating the system closer to the delivery
hour;
 Institutional issues: Stakeholder incentives, non-discriminatory third party grid access and
socialisation of costs

The cost of a single 225 KW or 250 KW which is widely preferred is about Rs. 1 Crore.

Steps to integrate wind power to grid

Despite these issues, there are solutions for integrating solar and wind into the grid
 Improved planning and coordination: This is the first step, making sure that VRE is matched up
with appropriately flexible dispatchable plants and transmission access so that energy can be shared
more fluidly within and between grid regions.
 Flexible rules and markets: Most grids are physically capable of more flexibility than they exhibit.
Changes to the rules and markets that govern how plants are scheduled and dispatched, how
reliability is assured and how customers are billed, says NREL(National Renewable Energy
Laboratory), ―can allow access to significant existing flexibility, often at lower economic costs than
options requiring new sources of physical flexibility." This is the low-hanging fruit of grid
flexibility. Recent research from the Regulatory Assistance Project offers an overview of the changes
needed in "market rules, market design, and market operations." A new Department of Energy study
describes utility best practices in "time-of-use pricing," which varies the price of electricity
throughout the day to encourage demand shifting. In New York, utility regulations are being
fundamentally rewritten to optimize the management of distributed energy resources (DERs).
 Flexible demand and storage: To some extent, demand can be managed like supply. "Demand
response" programs aggregate customers willing to let their load be ramped up and down or shifted
in time. The result is equivalent, from the grid operator's perspective, to dispatchable supply. There is
a whole range of demand-management tools available and more coming online all the time.
Similarly, energy storage, by absorbing excess VRE at times when it is cheap and sharing it when it
is more valuable, can help even out VRE's variable supply. It can even make VRE dispatchable,
within limits.
 Flexible conventional generation: Though older coal and nuclear plants are fairly inflexible, with
extended shut-down, cool-off, and ramp-up times, lots of newer and retrofitted conventional plants
are more nimble — and can be made more so by a combination of technology and improved
practices. Grid planners can favor more flexible non-VRE options like natural gas and small-scale
combined heat and power (CHP) plants. Cycling conventional plants up and down more often does
come with a cost, but the cost is typically smaller than the fuel savings from increased VRE.

18
  Flexible VRE: New technology enables wind turbines to "provide the full spectrum of balancing
services (synthetic inertial control, primary frequency control, and automatic generation control),"
and both wind turbines and solar panels can now offer voltage control.
 Interconnected transmission networks: Wind and solar resources become less variable if
aggregated across a broader region. The bigger the geographical area linked up by power lines, the
more likely it is that the sun is shining or the wind is blowing somewhere within that area.
Grid Integration of wind farms and Power Quality Issues
The issue of power quality is of great importance to the wind turbines. The critical power quality
issues related to integration of wind farms are discussed below.
1. Issue of voltage variation: If a large proportion of the grid load is supplied by wind turbines, the output
variations due to wind speed changes can cause voltage variation, flicker effects in normal operation.
The voltage variation can occur in specific situation, as a result of load changes, and power produce
from turbine.
2. Issue of voltage dips: It is a sudden reduction in the voltage to a value between 1% & 90 % of the
nominal value after a short period of time, conventionally 1ms to 1min. This problem is considered in
the power quality and wind turbine generating system operation and computed according to the rule
given in IEC 61400-3-7 standard, ―Assessment of emission limit for fluctuating load‖.
3. Switching operation of wind turbine on the grid: Switching operations of wind turbine generating
system can cause voltage fluctuations and thus voltage sag, voltage swell that may cause significant
voltage variation. The acceptances of switching operation depend not only on grid voltage but also on
how often this may occur. The maximum number of above specified switching operation within 10-
minute period and 2-hr period are defined in IEC 61400-3-7 Standard.
4. Harmonics: The harmonics voltage and current should be limited to acceptable level at the point of
wind turbine connection in the system. This fact has lead to more stringent requirements regarding
power quality, such as Standard IEC 61000-3-2 or IEEE-519.
5. Flickers: Flicker is the one of the important power quality aspects in wind turbine generating system.
Flicker has widely been considered as a serious drawback and may limit for the maximum amount of
wind power generation that can be connected to the grid. Flicker is induced by voltage fluctuations,
which are caused by load flow changes in the grid. The flicker emission produced by grid-connected
variable-speed wind turbines with full-scale back-to-back converters during continuous operation and
mainly caused by fluctuations in the output power due to wind speed variations, the wind shear, and the
tower shadow effects.
6. Reactive power: Traditional wind turbines are equipped with induction generators. Induction generator
is preferred because they are inexpensive, rugged and requires little maintenance. Unfortunately
induction generators require reactive power from the grid to operate. The interactions between wind
turbine and power system network are important aspect of wind generation system.
7. Location of wind turbine: The way of connecting wind turbine into the electric power system highly
influences the impact of the wind turbine generating system on the power quality. As a rule, the impact
on power quality at the consumer‘s terminal for the wind turbine generating system (WTGS) located
close to the load is higher than WTGS connected away, that is connected to H.V. or EHV system.
8. Low voltage ride through capability: The impact of the wind generation on the power system will no
longer be negligible if high penetration levels are going to be reached. The extent to which wind power
can be integrated into the power system without affecting the overall stable operation depends on the
technology available to mitigate the possible negative impacts such as loss of generation for frequency
support, voltage flicker, voltage and power variation due to the variable speed of the wind and the risk
of instability due to lower degree of controllability.
9. IEC recommendation: For consistent and replicable documentation of power quality characteristic of
wind turbine, the international Electro-technical Commission IEC-61400-21 was developed and today,
most of the large wind turbine manufactures provide power quality characteristic data accordingly. IEC
61400-21 describe the procedures for determine the power quality characteristics of wind turbines.

Grid code for wind farms

Parameter Allowable limit
Voltage Rise < 2%
19
Voltage dips ≤ 3%
Flicker ≤ 0.4, for average time of 2 hours
Grid frequency 47.5-51.5 Hz

20
 Wind Characteristics

Wind characteris cs refer to the proper es and behaviors of the wind as it flows through the
atmosphere. These characteris cs play a crucial role in determining the feasibility and efficiency
of wind energy genera on. The important wind characteris cs are as follows:

1. Wind Speed:

Wind speed is the measurement of the velocity at which the air is moving in the atmosphere. It's
a fundamental parameter used to characterize the intensity of wind at a specific loca on and
me. It's typically measured in meters per second (m/s). It can change rapidly due to

weather conditions, time of day, and geographic features.

Wind speed is influenced by factors like pressure gradients, temperature differences, terrain
features, and local geographic condi ons. It is a primary factor influencing the amount of energy
that can be captured from the wind by wind turbines.

Cut-in wind speed: The speed at which turbine start genera ng power.

Rated wind speed: The speed at which turbine produce their maximum rated power.

Cut-out wind speed: The wind speed above which turbines may shut down to avoid damage from
excessive forces.

2. Wind Direc on:

Wind direc on indicates the compass direc on from which the wind is coming. It's typically
measured in degrees clockwise from true north. Wind direc on is cri cal for aligning wind
turbine arrays to face into the prevailing wind, maximizing energy capture.

Wind Rose: It is a graphical representa on that displays the frequency and distribu on of wind
direc ons at a specific loca on over a given me period. It provides valuable informa on about
prevailing wind pa erns, which is useful for various applica ons, including urban planning,
agriculture, and wind energy site selec on.
 3. Wind Shear

Wind shear refers to the change in wind speed and/or direc on over a short distance in the
atmosphere, typically in the ver cal direc on. It can occur at various al tudes and is o en
associated with changes in weather pa erns, topography, and atmospheric condi ons.

There are two main types of wind shear:

Horizontal and ver cal wind shear.

Wind shear affects the performance of wind turbines.

Turbulence caused by wind shear can create uneven loading on the turbine blades, leading to
increased wear and fa gue.

4. Turbulence:

Turbulence refers to irregular fluctua ons in wind speed and direc on caused by factors like
terrain, buildings, and atmospheric condi ons. Turbulence affects the load distribu on on wind
turbine blades and can contribute to wear and fa gue.

Turbulence disrupts the smooth airflow over the blades, reducing their efficiency in capturing
wind energy. This phenomenon is o en referred to as "turbine aerodynamic performance
degrada on. "Reduced efficiency can lead to lower power output and decreased overall energy
genera on.

5. Wind Dura on:

Wind dura on refers to the length of me during which a certain wind speed or range of wind
speeds is sustained. Longer dura ons of strong and consistent wind are ideal for wind energy
genera on. Wind dura on is used in frequency analysis to determine the probability of specific
wind speeds occurring over different me periods.

It is used to calculate the amount of energy generated at different wind speeds and the
corresponding dura on.
 6. Frequency Distribu on:

Wind speed frequency distribu on represents how o en different wind speeds occur over a
specific period at a par cular loca on. The collected wind speed data is analyzed to create a
frequency distribu on. The data is categorized into bins or intervals of wind speed ranges.

The shape of the frequency distribu on curve provides insights into the prevailing wind pa erns
at the loca on. The Weibull distribu on is a probability distribu on commonly used in the field
of wind energy to model the frequency distribu on of wind speeds at a specific loca on.

It provides a sta s cal representa on of how wind speeds vary over me, which is essen al for
assessing the wind energy poten al of a site, designing wind turbines, and op mizing opera onal
strategies. The Weibull distribu on is par cularly well-suited for modeling wind speed frequency
distribu ons because of its flexibility and ability to fit a wide range of wind data.

Key characteris cs of the Weibull distribu on are:

Shape Parameter (k):

The shape parameter of the Weibull distribu on determines the shape of the distribu on curve.

A lower shape parameter results in a broader distribu on with lower wind speeds being more
frequent, while a higher shape parameter leads to a narrower distribu on with higher wind
speeds being more frequent.

Scale Parameter (c):

The scale parameter of the Weibull distribu on represents the wind speed at which the
probability density func on reaches its maximum value.

It provides an indica on of the typical wind speed at the site.

By integra ng the product of wind speed and power curve over the distribu on, the average
annual energy output can be calculated.
 7. Wind Power Density:

Wind power density is the amount of energy available in the wind per unit area.

The formula to calculate wind power density is:

Wind Power Density (W/m²) = 0.5 * Air Density (kg/m³) * Wind Speed (m/s)^3

8. Annual Energy Produc on

The total amount of electrical energy generated by a wind turbine or a wind farm over the course
of a year. It is a key metric used to evaluate the performance and economic viability of a wind
energy project. AEP takes into account factors such as the wind resource at the location, the
efficiency of the wind turbine(s), and any downtime or maintenance periods.

AEP (kWh) = Wind Power Density (W/m²) * Area (m²) * Capacity Factor * Hours in a Year

Capacity Factor: It represents the efficiency of the wind turbine in converting the available wind
energy into electricity. It's the ratio of actual energy output to the maximum possible output if the
turbine operated at its rated capacity continuously. It's expressed as a decimal (0 to 1).

9. Tip Speed Ra o

It is used to describe the performance and efficiency of a wind turbine. It's a dimensionless ratio
that compares the speed of the tip of the wind turbine blade to the speed of the wind. The tip
speed ratio helps in determining the optimal rotational speed of the wind turbine for maximum
energy capture. It can be calculated using

Tip Speed Ra o (TSR) = (Blade Tip Speed) / Wind Speed

10. Gus ness

Gusts are rapid and temporary increases in wind speed. Gus ness is caused by weather
phenomena like squalls or changes in atmospheric stability. Wind turbines are designed to
withstand gusts without compromising their structural integrity.
 11. Seasonal and Annual Wind Pa erns:

Seasonal Wind Pa erns:

Wind pa erns varies across different seasons of the year due to changes in atmospheric
condi ons and pressure systems. Cold air from polar regions can lead to more frequent low-
pressure systems and stronger winds. Summer winds are influenced by temperature differen als
between land and sea.

Annual wind pa erns consider the wind behavior over the en re year, encompassing all seasons.
Analyzing annual pa erns helps in understanding the long-term wind resource poten al.

Analyzing both seasonal and annual wind pa erns is essen al for comprehensive wind resource
assessment and effec ve project management in wind energy.

Wind energy simula on tools:

Simulation tools help engineers design and optimize wind turbine components for maximum
efficiency and durability. These tools simulate the aerodynamic behavior of turbine blades, the
mechanical dynamics of components like the gearbox and generator, and overall turbine
performance.

Simulation tools model the structural behavior of wind turbine components under various loads,
including wind, gravity, and mechanical forces. This ensures that the components are designed to
withstand the stresses they will encounter over their operational lifetime.

Simulation tools are used to develop, test, and fine-tune these control algorithms before
implementation in real turbines. They are also used to study the interactions between wind farms
and the grid, including power quality, voltage stability, and grid behavior during various scenarios.

The important aspects of simula on tools are:

 They provide a pla orm for hands-on learning without the need for physical prototypes.
 Simula on tools, combined with financial models, help in assessing the economic
feasibility of wind energy projects.
  They es mate the expected energy produc on, opera onal costs, and revenue genera on
over the project's life me.
 Maintenance and Condi on Monitoring: Simula on tools can be used to predict
maintenance needs and assess the health of wind turbine components.

The widely used simula on tools in the wind energy sector are as follows:

WAsP (Wind Atlas Analysis and Applica on Program): WAsP is a widely used so ware for wind
resource assessment. It helps in analyzing wind data to determine the wind energy poten al of a
par cular site. WAsP uses a Gaussian model to simulate the wind flow based on the input data.
Run the model to calculate the wind flow at various heights and loca ons across the site.

WindPRO: WindPRO is a so ware suite used for wind farm design, site assessment, and energy
produc on es ma on. It combines wind resource data with turbine specifica ons to provide
insights into project feasibility and op miza on. WindPRO provides visualiza on tools to help you
see how the turbines will be posi oned on the site.

OpenFAST: OpenFAST is an open-source engineering simula on tool developed by the Na onal

Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). It's designed for the detailed analysis of wind turbines,
including both aerodynamics and structural dynamics. It's commonly used for turbine design and
performance evalua on.

FAST (Fa gue, Aerodynamics, Structures, and Turbulence): FAST is another so ware developed
by NREL. It's used for simula ng the behavior of land-based and offshore wind turbines under
various condi ons, including wind and wave loading.

Bladed: Bladed, simula on tool is used for wind turbine design and analysis. It provides detailed
modeling of aerodynamics, structural dynamics, control systems, and other factors influencing
wind turbine performance.

SIMPACK: SIMPACK is a mul -body simula on so ware used for analyzing the dynamics of
complex mechanical and mechatronic systems, including wind turbines. It can be used to model
the interac ons between various components of a wind turbine, such as the rotor, gearbox, and
tower.
ANSYS Wind Energy: The ANSYS suite includes tools for computa onal fluid dynamics (CFD)
simula ons, which are valuable for understanding the complex flow pa erns around wind
turbines and assessing their aerodynamic performance.

SAM (System Advisor Model): SAM, developed by NREL, is a free so ware tool used for modeling
renewable energy systems, including wind farms. It helps in evalua ng the financial and technical
feasibility of wind energy projects.

HAWC2: HAWC2, developed by the Technical University of Denmark (DTU), is a simula on tool
focused on the dynamic behavior of wind turbines. It's used for studying the complex interac ons
between the turbine components and the surrounding environment.

WindSim: WindSim specializes in wind farm design, op miza on, and layout simula ons by
modeling flow over complex terrain and considering wake effects.

*************
 Wind control and forces

Wind Energy Technology:

Wind energy technology refers to a various methods, systems, and equipment used to harness
the kine c energy from the wind and convert it into usable electricity.

Wind Turbine:

A wind turbine is a device that converts the kine c energy from the wind into mechanical energy,
which is then further transformed into electrical energy for various applica ons. Wind turbines
are a key technology in the field of wind energy, allowing us to harness the power of the wind to
generate electricity. They come in various sizes and designs, from small residen al turbines to
large u lity-scale installa ons.

Wind turbines can be classified into two main types based on their axis of rota on:

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWT): These turbines have blades that rotate around a
horizontal axis, like the blades of an airplane propeller. They are the most common type of wind
turbine. It consists of several key components that work together to capture wind energy and
convert it into electrical power.

Ver cal Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT): These turbines have blades that rotate around a ver cal
axis. They are less common, they have advantages in terms of easier maintenance and less
sensi vity to wind direc on changes.

The important components of a horizontal axis wind turbine:

Rotor Blades: The rotor blades are aerodynamically designed structures that capture the kine c
energy of the wind. They are usually made of composite materials or fiberglass and come in
various lengths and shapes. The number of blades can vary, with most turbines having two or
three blades.

Hub: The hub is the central component to which the rotor blades are a ached. It transfers the
rota onal energy from the blades to the main sha .
Main Sha : The main sha is a sturdy metal sha that runs ver cally from the hub down to the
nacelle. It transfers the rota onal mo on generated by the spinning blades to the generator.

Gearbox: In some wind turbine designs, a gearbox is used to increase the rota onal speed of the
main sha before it reaches the generator. This allows the generator to operate at a higher speed
and efficiency, op mizing power genera on. However, many modern turbines use direct-drive
generators, elimina ng the need for a gearbox.

Generator: The generator is a crucial component that converts the mechanical energy from the
spinning main sha into electrical energy. This process is achieved through electromagne c
induc on. Generators in wind turbines are o en synchronous or asynchronous types, depending
on the turbine design and applica on.

Nacelle: The nacelle is a protec ve housing that contains various cri cal components of the wind
turbine, including the generator, gearbox (if present), drive train, and control systems. It is usually
located at the top of the tower and can rotate to face the wind direc on.

Yaw System: The yaw system allows the nacelle and rotor to rotate around a ver cal axis to face
the wind. This system includes yaw motors, sensors, and controls that ensure the turbine is
properly aligned with the wind direc on for op mal energy capture.

Tower: The tower is a tall, cylindrical structure that supports the en re turbine assembly. The
tower height can vary depending on the turbine's size and loca on. Taller towers allow turbines
to access higher and more consistent wind speeds.

Anemometer and Wind Vane: These instruments are o en mounted at the top of the nacelle to
measure wind speed and direc on. The data they provide helps the turbine's control system
adjust its yaw angle to align with the wind direc on.

Controller and Sensors: Modern wind turbines are equipped with sophis cated control systems
that monitor various parameters, such as wind speed, power output, and temperature. These
systems make real- me adjustments to op mize the turbine's performance, protect it from
extreme condi ons, and ensure safe opera on.
Founda on: The founda on anchors the turbine to the ground and provides stability to the tower.
It needs to be strong enough to support the weight of the en re turbine and withstand the forces
generated by wind and other environmental factors.

Controlling of Wind Turbine

Wind turbine control systems involve a combina on of hardware, so ware, and sensors to
manage the turbine's performance and interac ons with the grid. The various aspects and
methods of controlling wind turbines:

1. Pitch Control:

Pitch control involves adjus ng the angle of the turbine's rotor blades to op mize energy capture
and prevent overspeeding during high winds. The Sensors installed measures the wind speed and
other parameters to determine the appropriate blade pitch angle. Control systems automa cally
adjust blade pitch angles individually or collec vely based on real- me data.

2. Yaw Control

Yaw control adjusts the orienta on of the turbine's nacelle to ensure that the rotor blades face
into the wind for op mal energy capture. Wind direc on sensors provide input to the control
system, which adjusts the yaw mechanism to align the turbine with the wind.

3. Generator Control:

Generator control ensures that the electrical output of the turbine matches the grid's
requirements. It regulates the generator's rota onal speed and output voltage to maintain grid
stability and prevent overloading.

4. Power Limita on:

Wind turbines are equipped with mechanisms to limit power output during extreme wind
condi ons to protect the turbine from damage and prevent grid instability. This can include pitch
adjustments, par al blade feathering, or braking systems.

5. Braking and Shutdown Systems:

Braking systems, including mechanical and aerodynamic brakes, are used to bring the turbine to
a stop when needed, such as during maintenance or emergencies. In case of severe wind
condi ons or system malfunc ons, turbines can be shut down completely to ensure safety.

6. Remote Monitoring and Control:

Wind turbines are o en equipped with remote monitoring systems that allow operators to
monitor performance, diagnose issues, and make adjustments remotely. Remote control enables
efficient management of mul ple turbines across different loca ons.

7. Turbine Communica on and Integra on:

Wind turbines communicate with each other and with a central control center to coordinate their
opera on and respond to grid demands.

8. Grid Interac on:

Wind turbines can provide auxiliary services to the grid, such as frequency regula on and voltage
control, to enhance grid stability. Grid codes and regula ons dictate how wind turbines interact
with the grid, including requirements for voltage and frequency control.

9. Advance Control System:

Advanced control systems use op miza on algorithms to predict wind condi ons, turbine
performance, and grid requirements. These algorithms adjust turbine se ngs in real- me to
maximize energy produc on and revenue.

Different forces involved in wind turbines

Angle of a ack (AOA): It is the angle between the oncoming air or rela ve wind and line
connec ng the leading edge and trailing edge at some average point on the wing.

Leading edge: It is the side of the blade that faces the wind first as the blade rotates. It is the edge
that encounters the air first and experiences the ini al impact of the wind.

Trailing edge: It is the edge that follows the leading edge as the blade moves through the air. It is
the edge that trails behind and experiences the airflow a er it has passed over the airfoil's curved
surface.

The chord: It is the width of the airfoil measured from one side to the other, perpendicular to the
direc on of the airflow.

Camber: It refers to the curvature or asymmetry of an airfoil's shape, specifically the curvature of
its upper and lower surfaces. (Please refer figure shown).

Posi ve Camber:

Posi ve camber means that the airfoil's upper surface is curved more than its lower surface.
Posi ve camber generates li by crea ng a pressure difference between the upper and lower
surfaces, pushing the airfoil upward.

Nega ve Camber:
Nega ve camber means that the airfoil's lower surface is curved more than its upper surface.
Nega ve camber can also generate li , albeit typically to a lesser extent than posi ve camber.

Li Force:

Li force is generated by the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the
rotor blades. It is responsible for the upward mo on of an aircra wing or a wind turbine blade.

In wind turbines, li force is harnessed to create rota onal mo on. The shape of the blade (airfoil)
and its angle of a ack determine the li generated.

When the wind passes over the blade, the pressure difference between the front and back of the
blade causes the li forces. A major component of the li force acts in the ever-changing
tangen al direc on as the rotor rotates.

Li forces have a can lever beam effect on the blade, causing the maximum stress at the joint
between the blade and the hub which is connected to the main sha of the wind turbine. The
drag forces and the li forces are perpendicular to each other; and act as a can lever beam effects
on the blades.
Drag Force:

Drag force is a resistance force exerted by the air on the surface of a blade. Drag force opposes
the forward mo on of the blades. While it's an undesirable force in most applica ons, some drag
is necessary to generate li . Drag forces have a can lever beam effect on the blade, causing the
maximum stress at the joint between the blade and the hub which is connected to the main sha
of the wind turbine.

Centrifugal Force:

centrifugal force is exerted on the rotor blades as they rotate. It puts stress on the blades and
requires them to be strong enough to withstand the force. The velocity of each par cle inside the
blade changes direc on as the rotor rotates. This change of direc on is a form of accelera on of
the par cle toward the center, or axis, that the blade revolves around. This accelera on is caused
by the centripetal force. The centrifugal forces vary with the size, shape, and mass density of the
blade, as well as the angular speed of the rotor. Centrifugal forces increase rapidly as the rotor
gains speed.
Gravity Force:

In wind turbines, gravity force affects the en re structure, including the tower and blades.
Structural integrity is crucial to counteract the gravita onal force.

Torsional Force:

Wind turbine blades experience torsional forces due to wind fluctua ons. These forces can lead
to fa gue and wear on the blades over me.

Wind Load:

Wind load refers to the forces exerted by the wind on the surface of the turbine, including the
blades, nacelle, and tower. Wind load can put stress on the structure and influence the turbine's
overall stability.
Cyclic Loading:

Cyclic loading occurs due to fluctua ons in wind speed and direc on, causing the turbine
components to experience repe ve loading and unloading. Cyclic loading can lead to fa gue
and wear on materials over me, affec ng the lifespan of the turbine.

The maximum stress caused by the drag forces, the li forces, the centrifugal forces, and the
gravita onal forces, concentrates at the joint between the blade and the hub.

**********
 Wind Resource Assessment
Wind Resource Assessment- it can be understood as the process of evaluating the
potential energy that can be harnessed from the wind in a particular geographic
area. Overall, wind resource assessment is a multidisciplinary process that
combines meteorology, statistics and engineering analysis to provide critical
information for decision-making in wind energy projects. The wind resource
assessment can be classified into two techniques

1. Traditional techniques
2. Advance Technique (which consist of remote sensing techniques such as)

The traditional techniques or tower-based techniques uses a tall meteorological

mast equipped with sensors for the measurements. It is a standalone and point
measurement technique used worldwide from a several past decades, using
common cup anemometer for measuring wind speed, wind vanes for measuring
wind direction, temperature and pressure sensor for measuring temperature and
pressure. The cup anemometer assembly (three or four cups) is centrally connected
to a vertical shaft for rotation. At least one cup always faces the upstream wind. The
aerodynamic shape of the cups converts wind pressure force to a rotational torque.
A transducer inside the anemometer converts this rotational movement into an
electrical signal, which is sent to a data logger through a wire.

The wind vane uses a potentiometer type transducer that outputs an electrical
signal relative to the location of the vane. This electrical signal is transmitted by
means of wire to a data logger and relates the vane's position to a known reference
point (usually north).

The flow of air near the anemometers is significantly affected by the masts used in
wind resource measurement. This effect is known as the “tower shadow”.

Tower shadow effect can be reduced by selecting the higher reading of two
anemometers at each height as the value of the measured wind speed for each
averaging period.

The meteorological mast measurement is rarely located precisely where wind

turbines are constructed, cannot be moved once constructed, cup anemometers
are fixed or static – only measure a relatively small, fixed point at a time, not capable
of measuring the complete area utilized by the wind turbine blades.
The key components and methods involved in wind resource assessment are:

Wind data collection

Data Analysis

Wind Speed Frequency Distribution

Weibull Distribution and Parameters

Wind Resource Mapping

Wind Energy Yield Estimation

Wind Farm Layout and Micrositing

Uncertainty Analysis

Validation and Calibration

1. Wind Data Collection: Accurate wind resource assessment begins with

collecting reliable wind data. This is usually done using meteorological
 instruments like anemometers and wind vanes. Data collection can take place
over a period of months or years to capture the variability of wind patterns.
2. Data Analysis: Once wind data is collected, it is analyzed to understand the
wind speed, direction, and frequency distribution. Statistical methods are
used to identify the average wind speed, wind direction trends, and
variations over different time scales (e.g., hourly, seasonal, annual).
3. Wind Speed Frequency Distribution: Wind speed frequency distribution,
often represented as a histogram or probability density function, provides
insight into the likelihood of encountering different wind speeds at the
assessment site. This distribution helps estimate the energy production
potential of wind turbines.
4. Weibull Distribution and Parameters: The Weibull distribution is commonly
used to model wind speed probability distributions. The shape and scale
parameters of the Weibull distribution are determined from the collected
wind data and are used to estimate the long-term average wind speed and
its variability.
5. Wind Energy Yield Estimation: Wind resource assessment calculates the
potential energy production of wind turbines based on the assessed wind
speeds. This estimation is crucial for determining the economic feasibility of
wind energy projects.
6. Wind Resource Mapping: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are used to
create wind resource maps that illustrate the wind energy potential across a
region. These maps take into account factors like terrain, topography, and
local wind patterns.
 7. Wind Farm Layout and Micrositing: Accurate wind resource assessment
guides the layout and placement of wind turbines within a wind farm.
Turbines are sited to optimize energy capture while considering wake effects
(the turbulence generated by upstream turbines that can affect downstream
ones).
8. Uncertainty Analysis: Wind resource assessment involves addressing
uncertainties associated with the data and modeling techniques used.
Sensitivity analysis and Monte Carlo simulations are often employed to
assess the impact of these uncertainties on energy production estimates.
9. Validation and Calibration: Wind resource assessments are validated and
calibrated using historical wind energy production data from existing wind
farms. This process helps refine the accuracy of future assessments.

Traditionally or old assessment techniques consist instrument like cup anemometer,

wind vanes mounted on tall mast are used for measurements but this mast provides
point measurement and are unable to provide volume measurements, have
inherent complexity and cost issues. The wind energy sector is moving towards the
installation of the wind turbine in hilly, forested and complex mountainous terrain
as well as in offshore sites and the modern wind turbine are gaining heights and
size generally employs blades with diameters of 60 to 110 m attached to their hub
at heights of 70 to 100 m. The measurement of the wind at higher heights cannot
be represented by met mast techniques which usually employs cup anemometer
and wind vanes. As the turbine height increases correspondingly met mast
instrumentation, erection and maintenance become expensive and cumbersome.
Therefore the wind industry is moving towards alternative state of art techniques
and instrument to conduct measurements at higher height and at complex terrain.
The remote sensing technique for ex. SODAR (Sound Detection and Ranging) and
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) can be used as an alternative technique to
measure wind speed and direction due to their ability to correctly measure the wind
speed at higher heights and at complex terrain. Because of its portability and its 3-
dimension scanning capability has encouraged its deployment and popularity in
wind energy industry.

More quantitative and accurate remote sensing techniques for wind energy
applications include sound and light wave propagation and backscatter detection-
based devices such as SODAR, LiDAR and Satellite-based Sea surface wave
scatterometry.

SODAR is based on probing the atmosphere by sound propagation, LIDAR (Light

Detection and Ranging) is based on probing the atmosphere by electromagnetic
radiation (microwaves or laser light) and satellite remote sensing is based on
microwave scatterometry on the sea surface and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
methods.

SODAR:

SODAR, stands for "Sonic Detection and Ranging" or "Sonic Ranging and Detection,"
is a remote sensing technology used in various applications, including wind energy.
In wind energy, SODAR systems are employed to gather information about vertical
wind profiles, which is valuable for wind resource assessment, wind turbine
micrositing, and wind farm optimization. SODAR plays a crucial role in wind energy
applications by providing detailed vertical wind profiles, optimizing turbine
placement and layout, assisting in wind resource assessment, and contributing to
the operational efficiency of wind farms
SODAR devices are employed to assess the wind resource at potential wind farm
sites. These devices use sound waves to measure wind speed and direction at
different altitudes above the ground. SODAR systems typically consist of multiple
microphones that emit sound waves vertically into the atmosphere. By measuring
the time it takes for the sound waves to be reflected back by atmospheric
turbulence, SODAR can determine wind speed profiles up to several hundred
meters above the ground.

It also measures the vertical profiles of wind speed and direction, which is crucial
for understanding how wind conditions change with altitude. This information helps
in identifying the optimal hub height for wind turbines within a wind farm.

SODAR data assists in determining the optimal layout of wind turbines within a wind
farm. By understanding the vertical wind profile, developers can arrange turbines
to minimize wake effects, where one turbine's wake affects the performance of
downstream turbines.

SODAR measurements aid in micrositing, which involves selecting precise locations

for individual turbines within a wind farm. By considering the vertical wind profile,
terrain, and wake effects, turbines can be positioned optimally for maximum energy
production. It can also be used in the operation and maintenance of existing wind
farms. By continuously monitoring wind conditions at different heights, operators
can adjust turbine settings to match changing wind profiles, improving efficiency
and prolonging the lifespan of the turbines.

SODAR is particularly useful for offshore wind energy projects, where accessing and
maintaining meteorological towers can be challenging. SODAR systems mounted on
buoys or platforms can provide valuable wind data for designing, operating, and
maintaining offshore wind farms.

LiDAR
LiDAR, stands for "Light Detection and Ranging," is a remote sensing technology
that uses laser light to measure distances and create detailed 3D maps of the
environment. In the context of wind energy, LiDAR technology has found numerous
applications for wind resource assessment, turbine performance optimization, and
operational monitoring in both onshore and offshore wind farms.
LiDAR devices can be deployed on meteorological masts or on standalone platforms
to measure wind characteristics at different heights above the ground. LiDAR
provides accurate and comprehensive wind speed and direction data, enabling the
creation of detailed vertical wind profiles. This data is crucial for assessing the wind
resource potential of a site, including variations with altitude.
Traditional meteorological towers have limitations in capturing wind data at higher
altitudes. LiDAR technology allows for accurate measurements at hub height and
beyond, which is essential for optimizing turbine placement and determining the
most suitable hub height for maximum energy capture.
LiDAR data helps in optimizing the layout and placement of wind turbines within a
wind farm. By analyzing wind patterns and wake effects, developers can
strategically position turbines to minimize the impact of one turbine's wake on the
performance of neighboring turbines.
Data measured by LiDAR assists in designing the overall layout of a wind farm by
considering factors such as terrain, topography, and wind conditions. This ensures
that turbines are situated in locations that provide optimal energy production and
operational efficiency.
LiDAR data can be used to create high-resolution wind resource maps that depict
wind speed and direction across a specific area. These maps offer valuable insights
into the spatial distribution of wind energy potential.
LiDAR technology is particularly valuable for offshore wind farms where installing
traditional meteorological masts is challenging and expensive. Floating LiDAR units
placed on buoys or platforms provide accurate wind data for offshore wind resource
assessments and operational monitoring.
Operational Monitoring: LiDAR devices can be installed on individual wind turbines
to continuously monitor their performance. By tracking changes in wind conditions
and turbine behavior, operators can optimize energy production, predict
maintenance needs, and extend the lifespan of the turbines.

Wind Turbine Control: LiDAR data can be integrated into wind turbine control
systems to adjust turbine settings in real-time based on the detected wind
conditions. This enables turbines to operate efficiently and safely in varying wind
regimes.
Lidar-Assisted Lidar: Some advanced LiDAR systems use multiple units in tandem,
with one acting as a reference and the others as measurement devices. This
approach can enhance data accuracy and provide redundancy.
Data Validation and Calibration: LiDAR measurements can be used to validate and
calibrate data from other remote sensing technologies and meteorological towers,
ensuring the accuracy of wind resource assessments.
Short-Term and Long-Term Forecasting: LiDAR data can contribute to short-term
and long-term wind forecasting, aiding wind farm operators in making informed
decisions about energy production and grid integration.

***********
 Biomass Conversion Technologies
(BCT)

Biomass has always been an important energy source for the country considering the benefits
it offers. It is renewable, widely available, carbon-neutral and has the potential to provide
significant employment in the rural areas. Biomass is also capable of providing firm
energy. About 32% of the total primary energy use in the country is still derived from biomass
and more than 70% of the country’s population depends upon it for its energy needs. Ministry
of New and Renewable Energy has realized the potential and role of biomass energy in the
Indian context and hence has initiated a number of programmes for promotion of efficient
technologies for its use in various sectors of the economy to ensure derivation of maximum
benefits. For efficient utilization of biomass, bagasse-based cogeneration in sugar mills and
biomass power generation have been taken up under biomass power and cogeneration
programme.
Biomass power & cogeneration programme is implemented with the main objective of
promoting technologies for optimum use of country’s biomass resources for grid power
generation. Biomass materials used for power generation include bagasse, rice husk, straw,
cotton stalk, coconut shells, soya husk, de-oiled cakes, coffee waste, jute wastes, groundnut
shells, saw dust etc.

POTENTIAL

As per a recent study sponsored by MNRE, the current availability of biomass in India is
estimated at about 750 million metric tonnes per year. The Study indicated estimated surplus
biomass availability at about 230 million metric tonnes per annum covering agricultural
residues corresponding to a potential of about 28 GW. This apart, about 14 GW additional
power could be generated through bagasse-based cogeneration in the country’s 550 Sugar
mills, if these sugar mills were to adopt technically and economically optimal levels of
cogeneration for extracting power from the bagasse produced by them.

Bioenergy is a source of energy from the organic material that makes up plants, known as
biomass. Biomass contains carbon absorbed by plants through photosynthesis. When this
biomass is used to produce energy, the carbon is released during combustion and simply returns
to the atmosphere, making modern bioenergy a promising near zero-emission fuel.
Modern bioenergy is the largest source of renewable energy globally, accounting for 55% of
renewable energy and over 6% of global energy supply. The Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario sees a rapid increase in the use of bioenergy to displace fossil fuels by 2030. Use of
modern bioenergy has increased on average by about 7% per year between 2010 and 2021, and
is on an upward trend.
More efforts are needed to accelerate modern bioenergy deployment to get on track with the
Net Zero Scenario, which sees deployment increase by 10% per year between 2021 and 2030,
while simultaneously ensuring that bioenergy production does not incur negative social and
environmental consequences. Bioenergy is an important pillar of decarbonisation in the energy
transition as a near zero-emission fuel. Bioenergy is useful because there is flexibility in the

1
contexts and sectors it can be used in, from solid bioenergy and biogases combusted for power
and heat in homes and industrial plants to liquid biofuels used in cars, ships and airplanes.
Furthermore, it can often take advantage of existing infrastructure – for instance, biomethane
can use existing natural gas pipelines and end-user equipment, while many drop-in liquid
biofuels can use existing oil distribution networks and be used in vehicles with only minor
alterations.
Generation and Installed Capacity of Biomass Power
The Government of India has set an ambitious target of 175 GW renewable power installed
capacity by the end of 2022, therefore making it one of the most progressive renewable energy
policies in the world. This target aims to install a total of 10 GW worth of Bioenergy capacity.
India’s Bioenergy potential is tremendously high and driven largely by overpopulation and vast
agricultural pastures. Experts estimate peg this at a total of 25 GW. India is one of the biggest
economies with a growing population, big capacities of field and plantation biomass, industrial
biomass, forest biomass, urban waste biomass and aquatic biomass. In addition, the demand
for electricity is growing every year due to economic growth, increasing prosperity and
urbanization, rise in per capita consumption and massive rural electrification infrastructure.
Another critical factor to consider is that India is highly dependent on crude oil imports, with
an approximately 82 percent of total crude oil imports used to fulfil the domestic consumption
demand, which makes this susceptible to price shocks due unforeseen escalations in crude oil
prices. Therefore, it seems to be only logical to combine the potential in Bioenergy as a cheaper,
greener source of power, with the increasing demand for electricity across the country.
Bioenergy so far is especially prominent in rural India since agricultural residues such as straw
and cow dung are easily available. As per the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(“MNRE”), about 32 percent of the total primary energy use in the country is derived from
biomass and more than 70 percent of the country’s population, in one way or the other, depends
upon it for their energy needs in the rural regions.

Fig.- 1. Global biomass generation capacity at a glance in 2022

2
 Fig.- 2. Installed capacity in MW of grid connected biomass

Global Market of Biomass Power

The global biomass power market size was valued at USD 121,340.76 million in 2021 and is
projected to exhibit a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.0% from 2022 to 2030. The
market has been witnessed growth with the rise in environmental concerns, which has forced
various countries to increase the share of renewable energy in their power mix. Countries, such
as India, China, Germany, the U.K., and France, have announced renewable energy targets and
are aiming at becoming carbon-neutral nations in the future. Moreover, rising adoption owing
to favorable policies and regulations drives the market.
Furthermore, the European Union countries are looking for a coal phase-out, which is expected
to boost the demand for biomass power. In addition, in countries, such as India, the U.S., and
China, co-firing of coal-based power plants is done with biomass feedstock to limit carbon
emissions from the plants. These factors will boost the growth of the market in the forecast
period. The U.S. witnessed biomass power capacity addition of 177 MW in 2019 through 14
projects. The new project commissioned in 2019 was done in locations, such as Florida,
Georgia, California, and Hawaii. Furthermore, over 384 MW of biomass power projects are
under different development phases in the country. These factors are anticipated to boost the
market growth in the country over the forecast period.
The U.S. and Canada dominate the North America regional market. The North America region
is majorly dependent on coal for power generation. The recent discovery of shale gas reserves
in the region has resulted in gas-based power generation, which is gaining higher growth over

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coal-based power generation in the region in the past decade. Installers and system providers
usually hold stock of major equipment in inventory. However, manufacturers faced bottlenecks
and shortages owing to limited production in countries during the COVID-19 crisis.
Furthermore, upcoming biomass power projects witnessed delays in commissioning due to the
disruption in the supply chain and halt of on-site construction activities caused by the
imposition of lockdowns in severely affected areas.

Fig.- 3. Global Biomass power market forecast 2022-2030

Technology Insights

On the basis of technologies, the global market for biomass power has been further categorized
into combustion, gasification, and anaerobic digestion. In terms of revenue, the combustion
segment dominated the market in 2021 and accounted for the maximum share of more than
88.0% of the global revenue. The trend is expected to continue in the future with the segment
registering a steady growth rate over the forecast period. Biomass feedstock is directly

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combusted in a furnace with air, to convert water into steam. The produced steam is used to
drive a steam turbine to generate electricity.
The combustion technology has a non-complex operation and operates at a lesser cost
compared to other advanced biomass power technologies. This is expected to drive the demand
for combustion technology in the market over other available technologies. Biomass power can
be used for power generation, lighting, heating, and cooking gas applications. These factors
are expected to boost the growth of the anaerobic digestion technology segment over the
forecast period. However, the gasification technology segment is estimated to register the
fastest CAGR over the forecast period.

Feedstock Insights

On the basis of feedstock, the global market has been further segmented into solid
biofuel, liquid biofuel, and biogas. In terms of revenue, the solid biofuel segment accounted
for the maximum revenue share of 85.5% in 2021. The segment will expand further at a steady
CAGR retaining its leading position throughout the forecast period. The easy availability and
low cost of solid biofuel shave resulted in their higher adoption over liquid biofuels and biogas
for power generation applications. On the other hand, the liquid biofuel segment is projected
to record the fastest growth rate during the forecast period.
The biogas segment accounted for the second-largest market share, in terms of revenue, in 2021
owing to its higher calorific value and ability to be produced and utilized in remote areas. The
segment is expected to grow at a steady growth rate during the forecast period. Biogas is
majorly composed of methane and carbon dioxide, which is produced by the process of
anaerobic digestion and it can be also produced through the thermal process of solid biofuel.
Biomass power can be utilized for various applications, such as power generation, heating, and
cooking.

India Market of Biomass Power

India is a major force in the global energy economy. Energy consumption has more than
doubled since 2000, propelled upwards by a growing population – soon to be the world’s
largest – and a period of rapid economic growth. Near-universal household access to electricity
was achieved in 2019, meaning that over 900 million citizens have gained an electrical
connection in less than two decades. India’s continued industrialization and urbanization will
make huge demands of its energy sector and its policy makers. Energy use on a per capita basis
is well under half the global average, and there are widespread differences in energy use and
the quality of service across states and between rural and urban areas. The affordability and
reliability of energy supply are key concerns for India’s consumers.

The Covid-19 pandemic has disrupted India’s energy use; our updated assessment shows an
estimated fall of about 5% in the country’s energy demand in 2020 due to lockdowns and
related restrictions, with coal and oil use suffering the biggest falls. The pandemic has also hit
investment in the energy sector, which fell by an estimated 15% in 2020, exacerbating financial
strains across the board, in particular among India’s electricity distribution companies. How
long the impacts last will depend on how quickly the spread of the virus is brought under
control, and on the policy responses and recovery strategies that are put in place.

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Over 80%of India’s energy needs are met by three fuels: coal, oil and solid biomass. Coal has
underpinned the expansion of electricity generation and industry, and remains the largest single
fuel in the energy mix. Oil consumption and imports have grown rapidly on account of rising
vehicle ownership and road transport use. Biomass, primarily fuelwood, makes up a declining
share of the energy mix, but is still widely used as a cooking fuel. Despite recent success in
expanding coverage of LPG in rural areas, 660 million Indians have not fully switched to
modern, clean cooking fuels or technologies.
India is the third-largest global emitter of CO2, despite low per capita CO2 emissions. The
carbon intensity of its power sector in particular is well above the global average. Additionally,
particulate matter emissions are a major factor in air pollution, which has emerged as one of
India’s most sensitive social and environmental issues: in 2019, there were well over
one million premature deaths related to ambient and household air pollution.

Fig.- 4. Biomass market at India level

Origin of Biomass
Biomass is a term used in several contexts: in the context of ecology it means living organisms,
and in the context of bioenergy it means matter from recently living (but now dead) organisms.
In the latter context, there are variations in how biomass is defined, e.g. only from plants,[2] or
from plants and algae, or from plants and animals. The vast majority of biomass used for

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bioenergy does come from plants. Bioenergy is a type of renewable energy with potential to
assist with climate change mitigation.

Fig.- 5. Origin of Biomass

Uses in different contexts
Ecology

Biomass (ecology), the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or ecosystem at a
given time. This can be the biomass of particular species or the biomass of a
particular community or habitat.

Energy

Biomass (energy), biomass used for energy production or in other words: biological mass used
as a renewable energy source (usually produced
through agriculture, forestry or aquaculture methods). Bioenergy, energy sources derived from
biological material

 Solid fuel, forms of bioenergy that are solid

 Biofuel
 Energy crops

Biotechnology
Biomass is also used as a term for the mass of microorganisms that are used to produce
industrial products like enzymes and medicines.
Bioproducts
Examples of emerging bioproducts or biobased products include biofuels, bioenergy, biochar,
starch-based and cellulose-based ethanol, bio-based adhesives, biochemicals, bioplastics, etc.
Biological wastewater treatment

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In biological wastewater treatment processes, such as the activated sludge process, the term
"biomass" is used to denote the mass of bacteria and other microorganisms that break down
pollutants in wastewater. The biomass forms part of sewage sludge.
Others

 Biomass (satellite) - an Earth observation satellite

What is Biomass?
Organic matter produced by “recently living” plants and their derivatives – includes forest
residues, crops, crop residues, energy crops, animal manure etc. Plants produce their own
energy to sustain their day-to-day lives through a process called photosynthesis. Energy from
sunlight is used to convert water from the soil and CO2 from the atmosphere into simple sugars
(sucrose and glucose), which are then converted into complex starches for energy storage or
into cellulose and hemicellulose. Hence, biomass can be classified as indirectly stored solar
energy. There are three plant elements of plant growth: photosynthesis, respiration, and
transpiration, Photorespiration might occur at times under high light and heat conditions.

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis, the process by which green plants and certain other organisms
transform light energy into chemical energy. During photosynthesis in green plants,
light energy is captured and used to convert water, carbon dioxide, and minerals
into oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds. It would be impossible to overestimate the
importance of photosynthesis in the maintenance of life on Earth. If photosynthesis ceased,
there would soon be little food or other organic matter on Earth. Most organisms would
disappear, and in time Earth’s atmosphere would become nearly devoid of gaseous oxygen.
The only organisms able to exist under such conditions would be the chemosynthetic bacteria,
which can utilize the chemical energy of certain inorganic compounds and thus are not
dependent on the conversion of light energy. energy produced by photosynthesis carried out by
plants millions of years ago is responsible for the fossil fuels (i.e., coal, oil, and gas) that
power industrial society. In past ages, green plants and small organisms that fed on plants
increased faster than they were consumed, and their remains were deposited in Earth’s crust by
sedimentation and other geological processes. There, protected from oxidation, these organic
remains were slowly converted to fossil fuels. Mean energy efficiency of photosynthesis is
about 6.8%.

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 Fig.- 6. Process of Photosynthesis

Respiration
Respiration is a metabolic process that occurs in all organisms. It is a biochemical process that
occurs within the cells of organisms. In this process, the energy is produced by the breakdown
of glucose which is further used by cells to perform various functions. Every living species,
from a single-celled organism to dominant multicellular organisms, performs respiration. It
is the opposite of photosynthesis, where the stored carbohydrates are oxidized to produce
energy. This energy is used for cell growth and building new tissues.

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 Fig. – 7. Process of Respiration

Types of Respiration

There are two types of respiration:

Aerobic respiration
It is a type of cellular respiration that takes place in the presence of oxygen to produce energy.
It is a continuous process that takes place within the cells of animals and plants. This process
can be explained with the help of the chemical equation:
Glucose(C6H12O6) + Oxygen(6O2) → Carbon dioxide (6CO2) + Water (6H2O)+ Energy (ATP)
Anaerobic respiration
It is a type of cellular respiration that takes place in the absence of oxygen to produce energy.
The chemical equation for anaerobic respiration is
Glucose(C6H12O6) → Alcohol 2(C2H5O H) + Carbon dioxide 2(CO2) + Energy (ATP )

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Transpiration
Transpiration is the biological process by which water is lost in the form of water vapour from
the aerial parts of the plants.” Like all living organism, plants also require an excretory system
to discharge excess water from their body. This process of elimination of excess water from
the plant body is known as transpiration. It is generally the evaporation of water from the
surface of the leaves.
During the process of transpiration, water molecules in the plant tissues are removed from the
aerial parts of the plants. Only a small amount of water absorbed by the plants is utilized in
growth and development. The rest is eliminated in the form of transpiration.

Fig.- 8. Process of Transpiration

It is responsible for:
 Transporting minerals from soil throughout the plant
 Cooling the plant through evaporation
 Moving sugars and plant chemicals
 Maintaining the cell pressure (pressure exerted by fluids in a plant cell)
There needs to be a delicate balance between the three processes for a plant to grow and be
healthy.

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Factors Affecting Transpiration in Plants
Different factors affecting the rate of transpiration are:
Cellular Factors
The cellular factors affecting the rate of transpiration are:

1. The orientation of leaf,

2. The water status of the plant,
3. Structural Peculiarities of the leaf,
4. Total number and distribution of stomata in a leaf.

Environmental Factors

The environmental factors affecting the rate of transpiration are:

1. Light,
2. Humidity,
3. Temperature,
4. Atmospheric pressure,
5. Wind speed or velocity.

Relative Humidity

The amount of water vapour present in the air at a particular time and temperature is expressed
as a percentage of the amount required for saturation at the same temperature. The rate of
transpiration is inversely proportional to relative humidity. More the relative humidity less is
the transpirate rate.
Temperature
A high temperature lowers the relative humidity and opens the stomata even in darkness. As a
result, the rate of transpiration increases.
Light
The stomata open during the day and close in the dark. Presence of light is directly proportional
to the rate of transpiration.
Air
If the air is still, the transpiration rate is low. This is because the water vapour accumulates
around the transpiring organs and reduce the diffusion pressure deficit of the air.
If the air is moving, the saturated air around the leaves is removed and the transpiration rate
increases.
Water Availability
The transpiration rate is directly proportional to the absorption of water by the roots from the
soil. A decrease in water absorption causes the closure of stomata and wilting, thereby reducing
the rate of transpiration.
Surface Area of the Leaves

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A leaf having more surface area will show more transpiration rate than the leaf with a lesser
surface area.
Biomass Sources
Biomass comes from a variety of sources. Some of the different types of biomass example are:

Fig.- 9. Sources of biomass

Agricultural Residues
These are the Biomass sources or materials that are left in an agricultural field or orchard after
the crop harvesting. The residues include stubble like leaves, stems, stalks, and seed pods.
These residues are used as biomass for bioenergy production.

Animal Waste
Animal waste is an important source of nutrients and renewable energy and is a valuable
biomass feedstock. Animal waste has chemical energy stored in it just like plants and when it
is burnt, it releases bioenergy in the form of heat and fuel. Animal wastes are generally the
excreted materials from living animals and can also include hay, straw, organic debris and
wood shavings.
Forestry Residues
It is the residue which is left over from logging operations that may include branches, tree tops,
sawdust and stumps. These can be obtained in two forms including primary forestry residues

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and secondary forestry residues. Forest residues comprise of branches, tops and
unmerchantable wood left after cleaning, final felling or thinning of forest stands.
Wood Wastes
It is the portion of the waste stream which comprises discarded wood products, stumps, whole
trees or pruned branches obtained during park or street maintenance. Therefore, a vast portion
of wood waste can be collected to use as biomass and bioenergy production.
Industrial Wastes
It is defined as the waste which is generated by manufacturing or industrial processes. It
includes a variety of waste including dirt, gravel, cafeteria garbage, concrete and masonry,
scrap metals, oil solvents, trash, chemicals, wood, weed grass, trees, etc. A careful selection of
the industrial waste to generate bioenergy is advised for prevention to bad impact on human
health.

Municipal Solid Wastes and Sewage

Also known as trash or garbage, it is the everyday items that we use and throw away such as
grass clippings, furniture, clothing, newspapers, appliances, paint, batteries, product
packaging, kitchen waste, etc. Sewage sludge is a type of wastewater produced from a sewer
or treatment plant. All of these are used as biomass feedstock for bioenergy production.

Biomass conversion process

Biomass conversion means the controlled combustion, when separated from other solid waste
and used for producing electricity or heat. In general, biomass-to-energy conversions
technologies have to deal with a feedstock that can be highly variable in mass & energy density,
size, moisture content & intermittent supply. Therefore, modern industrial technology is often
hybrid fossil-fuel/biomass technologies that use fossil fuels for drying, preheating, &
maintaining fuel supply when the biomass supply is interrupted. It can also convert into other
forms that are beneficial, such as methane gas and transportation fuels such as biodiesel &
ethanol. Methane gas is an important component of biogas & is obtained from agricultural
waste, garbage, and other organic waste, which is decomposed in specially designed digesters.
It can also be obtained from landfills.
Biomass conversion is a shared area between hydrogen production and biogas production. It is
similar to coal gasification in terms of converting the original resource to a hydrogen-
containing gas at high temperatures without combustion. The research in this direction is
mostly concentrated on steam gasification, entrained flow gasification, application
of thermochemical cycles, or conversion of ethanol and bio-oil.
Generally, biomass gasification is not as easy as coal and has side products that include
hydrocarbon compounds. To reduce the emission of carbon compounds, an extra step is
required to catalytically capture the generated hydrocarbons through the biomass conversion.

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 Fig. – 10. Conversion Cycle of Biomass Energy

Advantages

1.Renewable sources

For the last couple of centuries, the world has heavily relied on fossil fuels such as coal and oil
for industry, transport, and to power our homes. These resources are finite: simply put, once
we exploit the world’s fossil fuel resources, it will be impossible to get any more.

Furthermore, this point may be closer than you think: scientists predict that at our current rates
of consumption, we’ll run out of known reserves of oil by 2052, gas by 2060, and coal by 2090.

Clearly, this is not sustainable, so we need to find renewable sources of energy. One of the
advantages of biomass is the fact that it is renewable.

Biomass, whether wood, plant, or animal material, can be sourced over and over again, making
it a renewable resource. Biomass is considered a renewable source of energy as compared to
other forms of energy. This is mainly due to the raw material that is used, which is available
throughout. Its purchase and redevelopment are easy.

2.Cheaper

Productions of biomass energy are comparatively cheaper than fossil fuels. The raw material
is available cheaply. Hence the low cost of electricity generation reduces the bills of the
common man. This makes biomass energy more attractive.

3.Variety of Products

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Biomass can be used to create different products, such as methane gas and biodiesel, among
other types of fuels. It can also be used to produce secondary forms of energy, such as heating
steam turbines to generate electricity.

Biomass energy is versatile as it produces so many products. Biomass can be converted into
various forms, presence & absence of oxygens. Some of the byproducts are ethanols, biogas,
syngas, bio-oil, and bio-char.

Additionally, biomass is a more reliable source of energy than fossil fuels, especially as the
latter are getting more and more scarce. While the international community is increasingly
relying on exploratory drilling and mining to find new sources of coal and oil.

4.It’s carbon neutral (maybe)

Another one of the advantages of biomass is that, when used for fuel, it is a carbon-neutral
process. Although carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are emitted through combusting,
processing or otherwise using biomass, this is believed to be offset by the carbon absorbed by
the plants forests grown to create the raw materials.

This claim relies heavily on the European Union (EU) classifying biomass as a carbon-neutral
form of energy under their Emissions Trading System (ETS).

However, there is a growing argument, including within the European scientific community,
that biomass is not carbon neutral. Even industry leaders have admitted that not all types of
biomass are carbon neutral.

Others argue that although biomass is often not carbon-neutral when used for fuel, it is a low-
carbon fuel that produces less carbon pollution than fossil fuels. However, even if biomass can
be favorably compared to fossil fuels in this regard, there’s no contest when it comes to cleaner
forms of renewable energy.

Furthermore, unregulated burning and dumping of organic materials can cause land, water,
and air pollution. For example, wood will break down quickly and cleanly in a natural
environment, but in landfill it takes longer to decompose, and when it does, it gives off the
greenhouse gas methane.

You can recycle wood and other organic materials, but it’s not always easy to do. Using these
materials as a fuel is another way to keep them out of landfill by giving people an economic
incentive to do so, which is yet another of the advantages of biomass

5.It’s more efficient than fossil fuels

Biomass typically doesn’t require too much processing to turn it into fuel. Furthermore, it is
much easier to extract than fossil fuels, an expensive and intensive process.

While converting organic materials into higher-grade materials can be pretty intensive, there
are cheap and relatively easy ways to harness biomass as a fuel, namely through combustion.

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Through combustion, whether in a home fireplace or an industrial power plant, the biomass
generates heat, light, or electricity. Not only is this a form of renewable energy that can be used
at home, but it’s also an affordable and accessible way for small-scale industry to access
renewable energy.

6.Clean Gas

Biomass energy is a clean gas as compared to other forms of energy. Greenhouse gases are not
emitted during the combustion of organic matter—minimal pollution results. During the
process, less amount of carbon is emitted, which plants absorb for their survival and life cycle.

These practices have uncertain returns, as you cannot be certain how much fuel you will find,
if any at all. On the other hand, planting crops gives almost guaranteed returns.

Biomass power plants are often dispatchable, meaning they can be activated or shut down in
response to demand. This makes them ideal for use in parallel to renewable energy plants: we
can use them to supplement solar, wind, or hydroelectric power at times of low production or
peak demand, yet another of the many advantages of biomass.

This could help to mitigate concerns around other forms of renewable energy such as wind and
solar, which are often seen as unreliable.

Disadvantages of Using Biomass

1.It generates harmful emissions

For biomass to be used as fuel, it usually needs to be processed first. These processes generate
varying amounts of carbon dioxide, a damaging greenhouse gas.

Further harmful emissions are generated when using the biofuel. In particular, biofuels tend to
generate methane, a greenhouse that is even worse for the climate than CO2.

Therefore, biomass is not really a viable alternative to fossil fuels if we want to curb global
warming. Arguably, we’d be better off investing in clean, renewable forms of energy such as
solar, wind, and hydroelectricity.

2. It causes air pollution

Along with carbon dioxide and methane, converting and using biomass into fuel can generate
a range of polluting gasses, including:

 Carbon monoxide (CO)

 Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
 Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
 Mercury
 Lead
 Particular matter (PM)
 Styrene

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  Acrolein formaldehyde
 Hydrochloric acid
 Hydrofluoric acid
 Other hazardous air pollutants (HAPs)

HAPs are a group of 187 toxins that have been closely linked to cancer as well as reproductive
problems and birth defects. Furthermore, these materials can be very damaging to the natural
environment, poisoning land and marine animals.

3. It contributes to deforestation

Although wood is a renewable resource, it is also a precious one. In the US, we’ve already cut
down 94% of our old-growth forests, partly because we’ve cleared land for other purposes, and
partly because we’ve harvested the wood for fuel, paper, and other uses.

Today, we’re still clearing old growth forests for quick-growing monocultures such as pine and
eucalyptus. These plantations cannot replicate the diverse ecosystems they replace, displacing
animals and leading to species extinction.

Additionally, they’re much less efficient as carbon sinks than the forests they replace, so have
a negative impact on the climate.

Deforestation has a range of devastating impacts on the environment, notably:

 It contributes to climate change by removing carbon sinks

 It reduces rainfall, which in turn leads to drought and famine
 It destroys habitats, driving plants and animals to extinction

Furthermore, wood is not the only type of biomass that can contribute to deforestation.

Growing crops like corn or beets for biofuels needs space – and lots of it, if we want to use
biofuels on a large scale. In our already overcrowded planet, this translates into clearing forests
and other natural habitats.

4.Biomass production uses a lot of water

Growing crops to produce biomass typically involves heavy water usage. Common energy
crops such as corn, beets, and sugar cane need to be irrigated with large amounts of water when
grown on an industrial scale. Add to this that clearing forests contributes to reduced rainfall,
and bioenergy production on a large scale could not only cause local droughts, but also wide
water issues, potentially on a global scale. Given that water shortages are predicted to be one
of the planet’s biggest challenges in the 21st century and beyond thanks to climate change, this
is an issue that we should take very seriously.

5.Biomass energy production takes a lot of space, money, and effort

Biomass is not really a viable method of generating electricity on a mass scale because of the
space, money, and effort required to set up the necessary infrastructure. The cost of gathering
resources required for biofuels is very high compared to the amount of energy generated. If we

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wanted to use biomass to power homes, energy plants would need to be set up in urban centers
for ease of energy use. This would generate significant amounts of traffic and pollution,
arguably creating more problems than it solves. What’s more, these biomass energy plants
would take up large footprints within our towns and cities – a planning nightmare for new
population centers, and virtually impossible in existing ones!

Furthermore, biomass energy plants would need to be located close to sources of biomass
material production to make them viable. Otherwise, this would mean transporting organic
materials long distance, and potentially using more energy to do so than the plant generates.

6.Biodiesel is less efficient than gasoline

When it comes to biodiesel products such as ethanol, these are arguably less efficient that
gasoline, meaning that many people are reluctant to use them. There is also some evidence that
using ethanol can damage combustion engines over the long term. Furthermore, most ethanol-
based fuels contain some proportion of gasoline. So, although this is a way to reduce our
reliance on fossil fuels and make our current supplies last longer, it’s not a long-term
alternative.

To conclude, biomass energy is created by burning or allowing organic matter to decompose.

So, in this process, the carbon released into the atmosphere is minimal, which is ultimately
used by the plants for their life cycle. This is how biomass energy works. It has more benefits
as it is a renewable source of energy that can be easily refilled. If biomass energy is used
appropriately and effectively, electricity will soon become a cheap source of energy. More
research and technology should be developed to develop biomass energy. The government
should give incentives to start biomass plants. Thus, this eco-friendly should be made more
popular, which can prove beneficial in the future.

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 Maintenance of Biogas Plant

What is biogas?
 How is biogas produced?
 Biogas plant
 Biogas production steps
 How to maintain biogas production
 Fuel properties
 Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages
Introduction
The Biogas Industry has started flourishing and will play an important role in the energy mix of
India’s renewable energy portfolio. We proudly want to say that we have succeeded with different
phases to ensure the sustainable growth of the Biogas industry for the past 8 years. And, we hope
to continue doing that for years to come and make our family bigger and make biogas industry a
frontrunner of the renewable energy sector.

Biogas is produced when bio-degradable organic materials/wastes such as cattle-dung, biomass

from farms, gardens, kitchens, industry, poultry droppings, night soil and municipals wastes are
subjected to a scientific process, called Anaerobic Digestion (A.D.) in a Biogas Plants. Biogas
Plant designs depend upon several factors and the feed stock to be processed is of paramount
importance. Biogas is the mixture of gases (primarily methane (CH4) and Carbon di-oxide (CO2)
and traces of Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S), Moisture) produced by the decomposition/breakdown of
bio-degradable organic matter in the absence of oxygen from raw materials such as agricultural
waste, cattle dung, poultry droppings, municipal waste, plant material, sewage, green waste or
food/kitchen waste. Biogas has a calorific value of about 5000 kcal per m 3. The digested slurry
produced from Biogas Plants as a by-product is a better source of nutrient enriched organic manure
for use in Agriculture. It not only helps in improving the crop yield but also maintain soil health.

There is ample potential of setting up biogas plants considering the livestock population of 512.06
million, which includes about 300 million (299.98 million) total population of bovines (comprising
of cattle, buffalo, Mithun and yak). The livestock sector contributes about significantly to India’s
GDP and will continue to increase. The dissemination of biogas technology is a boon for Indian
farmers with its direct and collateral benefits.

Biogas is a mixture of methane, CO2 and small quantities of other gases produced by anaerobic
digestion of organic matter in an oxygen-free environment. The precise composition of biogas
depends on the type of feedstock and the production pathway; these include the following main
technologies:
 Fig.1- Process of Biogas Production and Uses

Biodigesters
These are airtight systems (e.g., containers or tanks) in which organic material, diluted in water, is
broken down by naturally occurring micro-organisms. Contaminants and moisture are usually
removed prior to use of the biogas.
Landfill gas recovery systems
The decomposition of municipal solid waste (MSW) under anaerobic conditions at landfill sites
produces biogas. This can be captured using pipes and extraction wells along with compressors to
induce flow to a central collection point.
Wastewater treatment plants
These plants can be equipped to recover organic matter, solids, and nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus from sewage sludge. With further treatment, the sewage sludge can be used as an input
to produce biogas in an anaerobic digester.
The methane content of biogas typically ranges from 45% to 75% by volume, with most of the
remainder being CO2. This variation means that the energy content of biogas can vary; the lower
heating value (LHV) is between 16 (MJ/m3) and 28 MJ/m3. Biogas can be used directly to produce
electricity and heat or as an energy source for cooking.
Biomethane (also known as “renewable natural gas”) is a near-pure source of methane produced
either by “upgrading” biogas (a process that removes any CO 2 and other contaminants present in
the biogas) or through the gasification of solid biomass followed by methanation:
Upgrading biogas
This accounts for around 90% of total biomethane produced worldwide today. Upgrading
technologies make use of the different properties of the various gases contained within biogas to
separate them, with water scrubbing and membrane separation accounting for almost 60% of
biomethane production globally today.

Thermal gasification of solid biomass followed by methanation

Woody biomass is first broken down at high temperature (between 700-800°C) and high pressure
in a low-oxygen environment. Under these conditions, the biomass is converted into a mixture of
gases, mainly carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane (sometimes collectively called syngas).
To produce a pure stream of biomethane, this syngas is cleaned to remove any acidic and corrosive
components. The methanation process then uses a catalyst to promote a reaction between the
hydrogen and carbon monoxide or CO2 to produce methane. Any remaining CO2 or water is
removed at the end of this process.

Biomethane has an LHV of around 36 MJ/m3. It is identical from natural gas and so can be used
without the need for any changes in transmission and distribution infrastructure or end-user
equipment, and is fully compatible for use in natural gas vehicles.

Biogas Consumption and Installed Capacity

Global direct consumption of biogas was around 35 (Million Tonne of oil equivalent) in 2018.
Currently, over 60% of biogas production capacity lies in Europe and North America. As the
leading biogas-producing region, Europe has around 20 000 biogas plants, with the majority
situated in Germany. Most are built for on-site electricity generation and co-generation, with
around 500 plants dedicated to the upgrading of biogas 2019.
In the STEPS, projected production of biogas for direct consumption more than doubles, reaching
around 75 (Million Tonne of oil equivalent) in 2040. Most of this growth comes from centralized
plants that are fed by agricultural and municipal solid waste sources in order to meet local power
and heating demand. The share of biogas used for power and heat rises from around 70% today to
85% by 2040.

Providing a renewable and reliable source of power has typically been the easiest route to market
for biogas, given incentives such as feed-in-tariffs, subsidy grants and tax relief schemes that can
also support the development of rural areas. The economic case for biogas improves when
biodigesters are favourably located – e.g., close to feedstock sources, electricity networks and local
heat offtake – or where co-benefits, such as the ability of biogas plants to treat wastewater with
high levels of organic pollutants, are recognized and remunerated.

Such co-benefits from biogas production can address a suite of sustainability priorities in
developing economies, which are set to capture three-quarters of the growth in global biogas
production. China, already producing almost a third of the global total, is seeking to expand rural
biogas production to reduce air pollution from coal use while improving waste management
practices, with plans to reach a level of nearly 17 (Million Tonne of oil equivalent) by 2030 (from
around 7 (Million Tonne of oil equivalent) today. India has offered to provide financial support to
local biogas co-generation plants and has overseen the deployment of more than 5 million
household biogas units for clean cooking. The prospects for biogas are further galvanized by wider
bioenergy targets in countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. These countries are
seeking to develop a biogas market by leveraging vast quantities of available residues produced
from certain industry sectors, such as the palm oil industry.
Biogas also provides an important option to support clean energy commitments at community
level, especially where access to national electricity grids is more challenging, or where there is a
large requirement for heat that cannot be met by renewable electricity. There is also a considerable
push to develop biogas for clean cooking. By 2030, around 200 million people move away from
the traditional use of biomass through biogas, half of whom are in Africa.
Biogas production in the SDS ultimately comes from thousands of local, small-scale facilities,
compared with the traditional large-scale centralized infrastructure that meets most energy service
demand today. While this has several co-benefits for rural communities, it also creates challenges
for scaling up output, as larger plants require more sophisticated co-operative models and are also
more exposed to the variability of different waste streams. It is also less certain that biogas
digesters can undergo the type of factory-style modular fabrication that has driven down the
manufacturing costs of other renewable technologies, such as solar PV.

Fig. 2- Biogas consumption by end use of 2018 and Biogas installed power capacity 2010-2018

Biogas is produced by microorganisms, such as methanogens and sulfate-reducing bacteria,

performing anaerobic respiration. Biogas can refer to gas produced naturally and industrially.
Natural
In soil, methane is produced in anaerobic environments by methanogens, but is mostly consumed
in aerobic zones by methanotrophs. Methane emissions result when the balance favors
methanogens. Wetland soils are the main natural source of methane. Other sources include oceans,
forest soils, termites, and wild rumina.

Industrial
The purpose of industrial biogas production is the collection of biomethane, usually for fuel.
Industrial biogas is produced either;

1. As landfill gas (LFG), which is produced by the decomposition of biodegradable

waste inside a landfill due to chemical reactions and microbes, or
2. As digested gas, produced inside an anaerobic digester.

Biogas plants are reliable source of decentralized Renewable Energy for heating, cooking as well
as generating electricity/ power generation and thermal energy application alternatives in our
country. In order to promote this Decentralized Renewable Energy Source (DRES)
of power generation, specifically in the small capacity range (3 kW to 250 kW) and thermal
energy for heating/cooling from the biogas produced from Biogas plants of 30 M3 to 2500 M3 size,
operated based on the availability of required quantity of biodegradable organic waste(s).
The organic bio-degradable wastes from various sources such as cattle dung/ animal wastes, food
& kitchen waste, poultry dropping waste, agro-industry waste etc. are the feed stock for Biogas
plants. These plants are especially beneficial for meeting Off-grid Power requirements for
individual dairy and poultry plants, dairy co-operatives for operation of dairy equipment and other
electrical, thermal and cooling energy requirements for plant operation. The installations of such
biogas systems replace diesel in DG sets and also reduce the electricity bills of the individual
farmers/ beneficiary, entrepreneurs, dairy farmer, dairy co-operatives thereby helping to increase
the income of farmers/ end users. The nutrient enriched organic bio-manure is another stream of
income generation from biogas projects and at the same time saving in the expenditure of chemical
fertilizers by reduction of use of chemical fertilizers and other profitable ventures like organic
farming.
Biogas in India has been traditionally based on dairy manure as feed stock and these "gobar" gas
plants have been in operation for a long period of time, especially in rural India. In the last 2–3
decades, research organizations with a focus on rural energy security have enhanced the design of
the systems resulting in newer efficient low-cost designs such as the Deenabandhu model.
The Deenabandhu Model is a new biogas-production model popular in India. (Deenabandhu means
"friend of the helpless".) The unit usually has a capacity of 2 to 3 cubic meters. It is constructed
using bricks or by a ferrocement mixture. In India, the brick model costs slightly more than the
ferrocement model; however, India's Ministry of New and Renewable Energy offers some subsidy
per model constructed.

Global Market of Biogas Power

The global biogas market size was USD 24.03 billion in 2020 and is projected to grow from USD
25.61 billion in 2021 to USD 37.02 billion in 2028, growing at a CAGR of 5.4% during the 2021-
2028 forecast period.
The global biogas market size was valued at USD 62.72 billion in 2022 and is projected to grow
at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 4.3% from 2023 to 2030. The global biogas industry
is expected to witness growth on account of the rising product demand from various applications
such as electricity, heat, vehicle fuel, upgraded biogas, and cooking gas. Shifting focus toward the
use of renewable energy, particularly in the electric power sector, have significantly driven the
demand for biogas in electricity application. In addition, the increasing need to reduce dependency
on fossil fuels is creating lucrative opportunities for biogas in vehicle fuel applications.
The U.S. is one of the largest markets for biogas in North America in 2022 and is projected to
grow at a significant growth rate in terms of value over the forecast period. The United States
government has introduced several regulations to lessen its dependency on conventional fuels and
meet the goal of zero carbon emissions. Significant factors that are influencing market growth such
as favorable regulatory & political support, environmental support, and customer support,
geopolitical support, agricultural and economic support.
The demand for biogas in North America is primarily driven by the U.S. The growing demand for
the product in applications, such as cooking gas, electricity, vehicle fuel, heat, and others, is
expected to have a positive impact on the industry growth over the forecast period. Major factors
supporting the growth of the market in the region include high demand for green fuels, stringent
environmental regulations, and increased investment for the development of refineries.
The abrupt onset of the COVID-19 pandemic caused an industrial lockdown that brought all
manufacturing activity to a grinding halt in most industries around the world. Hence, it has also
impacted product demand in heat generation applications. Sluggish industrial activities have
reduced the demand for heat consumption, thereby negatively affecting the demand for biogas.

Fig-3 Biogas market at global level

Source Insights
The municipal source segment led the market and accounted for 41.45% revenue share in 2022.
The growing usage of these municipal solid waste (MSW) in the production of biogas to reduce
landfills and greenhouse emissions is expected to support the market demand over the forecast
period.
The industrial segment is expected to witness significant growth over the estimated period. The
growing interest in finding effective means to obtain bio-products and biofuel from industrial food
waste coupled with an increasing need for wastewater treatment in the industrial sector is expected
to fuel the market demand over the forecast period.
Application Insights
The electricity application segment led the market and accounted for about 30% revenue share in
2022. The growing attention to the use of renewable energy, particularly in the electric power
sector, has significantly increased the use of biogas for electricity generation.
In 2019, approximately 220 million kWh of electricity was generated using biogas (from 24
livestock and dairy operations) and from industrial and sewage wastewater treatment facility
approx. 1 billion kWh of electricity was produced. Biogas in the country qualifies as a renewable
energy fuel to generate electricity as per the state renewable electricity standards (RES).
Upgrade biogas application is expected to grow significantly over the forecast period owing to the
rising demand for biofuel in various end-use industries including automotive, which is expected
to fuel the market demand. Upgrade biogas is produced by converting biogas into biomethane by
removing hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, water, and contaminants from the biogas.
Regional Insights
Europe was the dominant regional segment in 2021 and accounted for about 41% of the revenue
share in 2022. The European biogas industry is growing owing to technological developments and
increasing investments in the region's refinery industry. Companies across Europe are investing
huge capital in research and development of biogas production from existing sources and planning
to increase the share of feedstock over the next few years. This will fuel the market growth of
biogas across the region.
In Italy, the market is driven by the efforts of the government to move toward decarbonization. For
instance, in March 2021, Eni SpA (BIT: ENI) agreed to buy an Italian biogas company from FRI-
EL Greenpower, a Gostner family holding, through its circular economy subsidiary, ‘Eco fuel’.
The acquisition, however, is yet to be approved by the relevant antitrust authorities.
India Market of Biogas Power
India biogas market size was valued at USD 1.40 billion in 2021. The market is expected to grow
from USD 1.47 billion in 2022 to USD 2.25 Billion in 2029 at a CAGR of 6.3% in the 2022-2029
period. The potential for compressed biogas production from various sources in India is estimated
at about 62 million tonnes per annum and also help bring down dependency on crude oil imports.
India biogas market is expected to grow from $1.47 billion in 2022 to $2.25 Billion in 2029 at a
CAGR of 6.3% in forecast period, 2022-2029.
In India, Nepal, Pakistan and Bangladesh biogas produced from the anaerobic digestion
of manure in small-scale digestion facilities is called gobar gas; it is estimated that such facilities
exist in over 2 million households in India, 50,000 in Bangladesh and thousands in Pakistan,
particularly North Punjab, due to the thriving population of livestock. The digester is an airtight
circular pit made of concrete with a pipe connection. The manure is directed to the pit, usually
straight from the cattle shed. The pit is filled with a required quantity of wastewater. The gas pipe
is connected to the kitchen fireplace through control valves. The combustion of this biogas has
very little odour or smoke. Owing to simplicity in implementation and use of cheap raw materials
in villages, it is one of the most environmentally sound energy sources for rural needs. One type
of these system is the Sintex Digester. Some designs use vermiculture to further enhance the slurry
produced by the biogas plant for use as compost.
 Fig-4 Biogas CBG plants and production capacity
In Nepal, the government provides subsidies to build biogas plant at home.

What is Biogas? (Slide 6, 7)

Biogas is a renewable energy source produced by the breakdown of organic matter by certain
bacteria under anaerobic conditions. It is a mixture of methane, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. It
can be produced by agricultural waste, food waste, animal dung, manure, and sewage. The process
of biogas production is also known as anaerobic digestion. Biogas recycles the waste products
naturally and converts them into useful energy, thereby, preventing any pollution caused by the
waste in the landfills, and cutting down the effect of the toxic chemicals released from the sewage
treatment plants. Biogas converts the harmful methane gas produced during decomposition, into
less harmful carbon dioxide gas. The organic material decomposes only in a wet environment. The
organic matter or the waste dissolves in water and forms a sludge which is rich in nutrients and
used as a fertilizer.
Biogas, naturally occurring gas that is generated by the breakdown of organic matter by
anaerobic bacteria and is used in energy production. Biogas differs from natural gas in that it is
a renewable energy source produced biologically through anaerobic digestion rather than a fossil
fuel produced by geological processes. Biogas is primarily composed of methane gas, carbon
dioxide, and trace amounts of nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide. It occurs naturally
in compost heaps, as swamp gas, and as a result of enteric fermentation in cattle and
other ruminants. Biogas can also be produced in anaerobic digesters from plant or animal waste or
collected from landfills. It is burned to generate heat or used in combustion engines to
produce electricity.
Animal and plant wastes can be used to produce biogas. They are processed in anaerobic
digesters as a liquid or as a slurry mixed with water. Anaerobic digesters are generally composed
of a feedstock source holder, a digestion tank, a biogas recovery unit, and heat exchangers to
maintain the temperature necessary for bacterial digestion. Small-scale household digesters
containing as little as 757 liters (200 gallons) can be used to provide cooking fuel or electric
lighting in rural homes. Millions of homes in less-developed regions, including China and parts of
Africa, are estimated to use household digesters as a renewable energy source.

Fig-5 Biogas is a Renewable resource

How is Biogas Produced

Biogas a renewable fuel that's produced when organic matter, such as food or animal waste is
broken down by microorganisms in the absence of oxygen. This process is called anaerobic
digestion. For this to take place, the waste material needs to be enclosed in an environment where
there is no oxygen. Biogas can occur naturally or as part of an industrial process to intentionally
create it as a fuel.
Biogas is produced through the processing of various types of organic waste. It is a renewable and
environmentally friendly fuel made from 100% local feedstocks that is suitable for a diversity of
uses including road vehicle fuel and industrial uses. The circular-economy impact of biogas
production is further enhanced by the organic nutrients recovered in the production process.
Biogas can be produced from a vast variety of raw materials (feedstocks). The biggest role in the
biogas production process is played by microbes feeding on the biomass.
Digestion carried out by these microorganisms creates methane, which can be used as it is locally
or upgraded to biogas equivalent to natural gas quality, enabling the transport of the biogas over
longer distances. Material containing organic nutrients is also produced in the process, and this
can be utilized for purposes such as agriculture.

Stages in Biogas Production

The biogas production process, known as anaerobic digestion, is a recognized sustainable
technique. It provides renewable methane from plant photosynthesis. In principle, the idea is to
convert organic materials (biomass – usually waste matter) created by the sun’s energy, into
renewable energy for use by mankind. Plus, it also recycles the nutrients such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, to sustain the process in future years.
Biogas is produced using well-established technology in a process involving several stages:
1. Biowaste is crushed into smaller pieces and slurrified to prepare it for the anaerobic
digestion process. Slurrifying means adding liquid to the biowaste to make it easier to
process.
2. Microbes need warm conditions, so the biowaste is heated to around 37 °C.
3. The actual biogas production takes place through anaerobic digestion in large tanks for
about three weeks.
4. In the final stage, the gas is purified (upgraded) by removing impurities and carbon dioxide

After this, the biogas is ready for use by enterprises and consumers, for example in a liquefied
form or following injection into the gas pipeline network.
Steps

Hydrolytic fermentative
The hydrolysis stage is the first in biogas production. It is the one that simplifies the obtaining
of carbon to the microorganisms present in the biological consortium of the biological reactor.
Making organic matter accessible to microorganisms accelerates the process of obtaining biogas,
as well as its greater purity.
Acidogenesis
In The Production Of Biogas The next step of anaerobic digestion involves acidogenic bacteria.
They break down the sugars, fatty acids, and amino acids from the previous step into acids such
as acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, and alcohols, ammonia, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen sulfide.
Acetogenic
Acetogenesis is the process whereby acetate, a derivative of acetic acid, is created by acetogenic
organisms from carbon and energy sources.
During this stage, acetogenic microbes catabolize most breakdown products from acidogenesis
into acetic acid, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. Acetogenic bacteria, therefore, digest the biomass
to products that methanogenic bacteria can utilize to create methane.
Methanogenesis

In this step, obligate anaerobic methane producing bacteria produce Methane gas as the major end
product along with Carbon dioxide, Hydrogen and traces of other gases. Methanogenesis has six
major pathways, each converting a different substrate into Methane gas.

The six major substrates used are Carbon dioxide, Formic acid, Acetic acid, Methanol,
Methylamine, and Dimethyl sulphate.
The acetic acid produced in the previous stages is converted into methane and carbon dioxide by
a group of microorganisms called “Methanogens”. In other words, it is process of production of
methane by methanogens. They are obligatory anaerobic and very sensitive to environmental
changes. Methanogens utilize the intermediate products of the preceding stages and convert them
into methane, carbon dioxide, and water. It is these components that make up the majority of the
biogas emitted from the system. Methanogenesis is sensitive to both high and low pH’s and occurs
between pH 6.5 and pH 8.
Methanogenesis is the final step of anaerobic decomposition, in which methanogenic bacteria
create methane, using the products of acetogenesis, as well as some of the products of hydrolysis
and acidogenesis.
There are two ways acetic acid and carbon dioxide, the two major products of the first three stages
of anaerobic decomposition, come together to form methane in methanogenesis.

In the first, carbon dioxide reacts with hydrogen to form methane and water. Acetic acid breaks
down into methane and carbon dioxide in the second and more critical way. This stage results in
methane and carbon dioxide forming. These are the two major products of anaerobic digestion and
two significant components of biogas.
 Fig.6 Stages of biogas production
How to Maintain Biogas Production
The Optimization of Biogas Production
pH Balance Maintenance
Microorganisms are all sensitive to pH and in a biogas digester, each group lives most healthily at
different pH ranges. maintaining the pH balance within certain ranges aids in the optimization of
biogas production.
To maintain a constant supply of gas, it is necessary to maintain a suitable pH range in the digester.
pH of the slurry changes at various stages of the digestion. In the initial acid formation stage in the
fermentation process, the pH is around 6 or less and much of CO2 is given off. In the latter 2-3
weeks times, the pH increases as the volatile acid and N2 compounds are digested and CH4 is
produced. The digester is usually buffered if the pH is maintained between 6.5 and 7.5. In this pH
range, the micro – organisms will be very active and digestion will be very efficient. If the pH
range is between 4 and 6 it is called acidic. If it is between 9 and 10 it is called alkaline. Both these
are detrimental to the methanogenic (Methane production) organisms.
Temperature Control
Temperature affects the rate of reaction happening inside the digester. Increase in the ambient
temperature increases the rate of reaction thus increasing the biogas production as well. Methane
bacteria work best at a temperature of 350 – 380 C. The fall in gas production starts at 200C and
stops at a temperature of 10 0C. Studies showed that 2.25 m3 of gas was produced from 4.25m3 of
cattle dung every day when the digester temperature was 250C. When the temperature rose to
28.30C the gas production was increased by 50 per cent to 3.75 m3 per day
1. Temperature is a very important factor in any process as it influences the rate of reaction.
Anaerobic digestion microbial activity is sensitive to temperature.
2. The rate of metabolism for microorganism growth falls into 3, temperature ranges, these
being
(a) Psychrophilic,
(b) Mesophilic, and
(c) Thermophilic
.

C: N Ratio
It is generally accepted that microorganisms use carbon 25 to 30 times more rapidly than nitrogen.
As a result, it is required that care is taken by carefully balancing the C: N ratio in the feedstock
when the digester is fed. The composition of the feed should be maintained so as to keep the C: N
ratio in the digester tank within the desired range. A low C: N ratio may result in ammonium
inhibition, especially for nitrogen-rich substrates. The optimum C: N ratio quoted online is
generally thought to be in the range of 20 to 30.
The ratio of carbon to nitrogen present in the feed material is called C:N ratio. It is a crucial factor
in maintaining perfect environment for digestion. Carbon is used for energy and nitrogen for
building the cell structure. Optimum condition for anaerobic digestion to take place ranges from
20 to 30:1. This means the bacteria use up carbon about 20 to 30 times faster than they use up
nitrogen. When there is too much carbon in the raw wastes, nitrogen will be used up first and
carbon left over. This will make the digestion slow down and eventually stops. On the other hand
if there is too much nitrogen, the carbon soon becomes exhausted and fermentation stops. The
nitrogen left over will combine with hydrogen to form ammonia. This can kill or inhibit the growth
of bacteria specially the methane producers
Feed rate
One of the prerequisites of good digestion is the uniform feeding of the digester so that the micro
– organisms are kept in a relatively constant organic solids concentration at all times. Therefore,
the digester must be fed at the same time every day with a balanced feed on the same quality and
quantity.
Organic Loading Rate
The organic loading rate is the amount of solids (rate of feeding) added into the digester per unit
volume per day and is normally described as the OLR, in units of kg VS/L.day.
Hydraulic Retention Time
Hydraulic retention time (HRT) is the average time a solids or slurry particle spends in the digester
during the anaerobic digestion process. HRT differs depending on the type of substrate and climate
condition with which the anaerobic digestion is performed.
For example, tropical climate countries have shorter HRT between 30 and 50 days, whereas, in
colder climates and cooler digesters, the necessary HRT can rise to as much as 100 days. CSTR
HRTs are seldom less than 15 days.
It is the theoretical time that particular volume of feedstock remains in the digester. In other words,
retention time describes the length of time the material is subjected to the anaerobic reaction. It is
calculated as the volume of digester divided by the feedstock added per day and it is expressed in
days. Under anaerobic condition, the decomposition of the organic substances is slow and hence
need to keep for long time to complete the digestion. In case of Indian digesters, where the feed
stock is diluted with equal composition, so demarcation prevails between solid and liquid. In this
case, biomass in the form of bacteria is washed out; hence the solid retention time (SRT) is equal
to hydraulic retention time (HRT).
Nutrients
Under certain circumstances, nutrients can play a vital role when considering the optimization of
biogas production. The bioreactor microorganisms require very small quantities of some elements
known as “micronutrients” for their growth. Their presence can be crucial to maintaining a stable
population within the microorganisms which perform anaerobic digestion.
Food waste digesters, solely fed with food waste, were found to run for a long period, maybe 1 to
2 years before mysteriously slowing down. Ultimately, most failed altogether and had to be
emptied and restarted.
The major nutrients required by the bacteria in the digester are, C, H2, O2, N2, P and S, of these
nutrients N2 and P are always in short supply and therefore to maintain proper balance of nutrients
an extra raw material rich in phosphorus (night soil, chopped leguminous plants) should be added
along with the cow dung to obtain maximum production of gas.
Surface Area/ Particle Size
Particle sizes of the substrate and the presence of some fibrous materials may also have a
significant influence on the gas production rate. It is, therefore, necessary that the particle size of
the substrate be not too large as it may result in the digester clogging and difficulty experienced
by the microbes in breaking down the substrate.
Toxicity
Though small quantities of mineral ions like sodium, potassium stimulates the growth of bacteria,
the high concentration of heavy metals and detergents have negative impact in gas production rate.
Detergents like soap, antibiotics, and organic solvents are toxic to the growth of microbes inside
the digester. Addition of these substances along with the feed stock should be avoided.
Degree of mixing
Bacteria in the digester have very limited reach to their food, it is necessary that the slurry is
properly mixed and bacteria get their food supply. It is found that slight mixing improves the
fermentation, however a violent slurry agitation retards the digestion.
Diameter to depth ratio
Studies reveal that gas production per unit volume of digester capacity was maximum, when the
diameter to depth ratio was in the range of 0.66 to 1.00. One reason may be that because in a simple
unstirred single stage digester the temperature varies at different depths. The most activity
digesting sludge is in the lower half of the digester and this is less affected by changes in night and
day temperature.
Total solid content
The raw cow dung contains 80-82% of moisture. The balance 18-20% is termed as total solids.
The cow dung is mixed usually in the proportion of 1:1 in order to bring the total solid content to
8-10%. This adjustment of total solid content helps in digesting the materials at the faster rate and
also in deciding the mixing of the various crop residues as feed stocks in biogas digester.

Fuel Properties
Biogas is a mixture of different components and the composition varies depending upon
the characteristics of feed materials, amount of degradation, etc. Biogas predominantly
consists of 50 to 70 per cent methane, 30 to 40 per cent carbon dioxide and low amount
of other gases. Methane is a combustible gas. The energy content of biogas depends on
the amount of methane it contains. Methane content varies from about 50 percent to 70
percent.

Name of the gas Composition in biogas (%)

Methane (CH4) 50-70
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 30-40
Hydrogen (H2) 5-10
Nitrogen (N2) 1-2
Water vapour (H2O) 0.3
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) Traces

Table 1. Composition of biogas

Properties Range

Net calorific value (MJ/m3 ) 20

Air required for combustion (m3 /m3 ) 5.7
Ignition temperature (0C) 700
Density (kg/m3 ) .94
Table 2- Properties of biogas

Applications
1. Biogas used as fuel Used to generate electricity
2. Biogas is used to run any type of heat engine in order to generate electrical and mechanical
power.
3. Producing high quality fertilizer.
4. Reducing water and air pollution.
Advantages of Biogas
Biogas is very advantageous which we will study below:
1. Non-polluting: Biogas burns without smoke; therefore, it evolves no harmful gas such as
CO2, CO, NO2, and SO2.
2. Reduces Landfills: The slurry which produces after the production of biogas, we can use
it as manure in fields. The technique of disposal is safe and effective and henceforth, no
space gets wasted in the form of landfills.
3. Inexpensive technology: A Biogas plant does not require an expensive installation cost
and become self-sufficient within a time span of 3-4 months.
4. Creates employment: It also creates work opportunity for thousands of people, especially
in rural areas.
5. Renewable source of energy: We consider it to be a renewable source of energy as the
production depends on the production of waste which is an endless process.
 Disadvantages of Biogas
In addition to having many advantages, there are also some disadvantages of biogas. They
are as follows:
1. Inefficient on a large scale: As it is difficult to boost the efficiency of biogas, it is not
economically feasible to use biogas on a large scale.
2. Contains impurities: It comprises a lot of impurities which are difficult to control even
after putting it through many rounds of purification. When we compress biogas to use as
fuel, it proves to be extremely corrosive to the container.
3. Unstable and hazardous: When methane comes in contact with oxygen it reacts violently
to create carbon dioxide. As a result, the highly inflammable nature of methane makes it
susceptible to explosions.
 Biofuels

Biofuels are the fuels which are derived from biomass that is, plant or algae material or animal
waste. Since such feedstock material can be replenished readily, biofuel is considered to be a
source of renewable energy, unlike fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal and natural gas. Biofuels
are commonly advocated as a cost-effective and environmentally benign alternative to
petroleum and other fossil fuels, particularly within the context of rising petroleum prices and
increased concern over the contributions made by fossil fuels to global warming. Many critics
express concerns about the scope of the expansion of certain biofuels because of the economic
and environmental costs associated with the refining process and the potential removal of vast
areas of arable land from food production.

Fig.1- Cycle of Biofuel

Classification of Biofuels: -Biofuels are categorized based on various parameters, namely
physical state, technology maturity, generation of feedstock.
Classification Based on the Physical State: -Any renewable and biological substance can be
utilized as fuel thus, various raw materials can be considered as biofuels and can exist in the
following three physical states.

Fig.2- Classification of Biofuels based on physical state

Solid Biofuels: - Generally, any solid biomass material can be described as solid biofuel. Solid
biomass is principally any solid feedstock that can be converted into biofuel. Examples of such
solid biomass include lignocellulosic biomass and various types of solid waste. Ideally, these
raw solid biomasses can be used directly as solid biofuels or as feedstock for other forms of
biofuel production.

Liquid Biofuels :-Liquid biofuels refer to any renewable fuel in liquid form. They are mainly
used as transport fuels. Notable examples of liquid biofuels are biodiesel, bio methanol,
bioethanol, biobutanol, bio propanol, bio-oil, jet fuel, etc. Some of the features and benefits
that have escalated research and helped popularize the application of liquid biofuels include
the following : (i) their high combustibility, (ii) they are safer and easy to store, (iii) they are
easy to transport with pipelines, (iv) they are safer to transport compared to petrol, (v) they
are relatively inexpensive, (v) they have a high energy to mass ratio, (vi) their storage
stability, and (vii) they are reasonably nonexplosive.

Gaseous Biofuels :-Biogas/biomethane, biohydrogen, and bio syngas are the commonest
examples of gaseous biofuels. They have a wide variety of applications, including for thermal,
transport, and heat uses and electricity/power generation. Over the years, gaseous biofuels have
been extensively studied and utilized due to the many benefits derivable from them, which
include: (i) higher reactivity, (ii) generation of less waste when applied, (iii) the fewer oxidants
required, (iv) the simplicity of the reactors, and (v) ease of control.

Classification Based on Technology Maturity

According to the degree of technology maturity or status of the commercialization

technologies, biofuels are often categorized as conventional biofuels and advanced biofuels.

Fig.3- Classification of Biofuels based on Technology maturity

Conventional Biofuels: -Conventional biofuels are produced through already commercially
available technologies. Such technologies continue to be developed for economic viability and
profitability. Examples of conventional biofuels include bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas
which are produced through fermentation, transesterification, and anaerobic digestion,
respectively. These technologies have been developed, commercialized, and adapted for local
or household deployment. Common feedstocks for conventional biofuels include sugarcane
and sugar beet, corn, wheat, vegetable oil, animal fat, recovered household fat, waste frying
oil, etc. The commercialization of these categories of renewable fuel is hampered by high
production costs and unprofitable retail prices.

Advanced Biofuels :-The conversion technologies for most advanced biofuels are still
generally at the research and development, demonstration, or early commercial stages. Major
examples include hydrotreated vegetable oil, lignocellulosic bioethanol, biomass-generated
esters, microalgae biodiesel, and biohydrogen. Bearing in mind the challenges of shortages of
feedstock, the interference of some feedstocks with the food chain, and the poor cost
competitiveness associated with conventional biofuels, investment in and production of
advanced biofuels from inedible feedstocks has become an encouraging alternative. However,
the adaptation and commercialization of advanced biofuel are hampered by poor fuel
economy.

Classification Based on the Generation of Feedstock

Feedstocks for biofuel production are divided into three categories in terms of their
generation: first-generation feedstock, second-generation feedstock, and third-generation
feedstock. The choice of feedstock has a huge influence on the development and utilization of
biofuel as a substitute for FB fuels. Feedstocks are chosen based on price, hydrocarbon content,
and biodegradability. For example, edible feedstocks and those containing pure sugars are
relatively expensive. Simple sugars are preferred as feedstocks because they are easy to
decompose with microbes while lignocellulosic biomasses are selected based on their relative
affordability.

Fig.4- Classification of Biofuels based on Feedstock Generations

First-Generation Feedstock :-The first sets of raw materials that were converted to biofuels are
referred to as first-generation feedstock (1GF). Major examples of 1GF include rapeseed oil,
soybean oil, palm oil, sunflower oil, corn, sugarcane, wheat, and sugar beet. The extracted oils
are converted to biodiesel through the transesterification process while ethanol, a form of bio
alcohol, is produced from corn, sugarcane, etc., by direct fermentation. Due to the low
production cost, good cost/yield ratio, and a large number of carbohydrates in starch or
saccharose form in corn and sugarcane, the use of these feedstocks has gained prominence and
become an industrial standard. However, the need for large tracts of arable land to cultivate the
plants, deforestation, exploitation of natural ecosystems, bush burning, drastic changes to the
ecosystem as a result of increased farming activities, the food vs. energy debate, and spikes in
the prices of the edible oils used for biodiesel are major drawbacks of the use of this generation
of feedstock. Also, the feedstock conversion processes are influenced by the physical attributes
of the biomass. The products of 1GF generate a larger carbon footprint compared to other
generations of biofuel. These shortcomings prompted researchers to look for microorganisms
and other forms of feedstock to respond to the escalated requests for biodiesel and ethanol.

Second-Generation Feedstock :- Lignocellulosic biomasses are generally referred to as second-

generation feedstock (2GF) and are converted to bioethanol and biodiesel. The lignocellulosic
biomasses are always pre-treated before conversion. For this purpose, four pre-treatment
processes, namely, physical, biological, chemical, and combinatorial (physicochemical and
biochemical), are commonly adopted. Apart from the pre-treatment processes, other
procedures implemented for the transformation of lignocellulosic biomass to bioethanol
include hydrolysis, fermentation, and distillation. 2GF biofuels include cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin. Cellulose and hemicellulose are polysaccharides and are converted
to monomeric sugars by fractionalization while monomeric sugars are used for the production
of bioethanol through microbial fermentation. Lignin is a complex aromatic polymer of
polyphenols and not only forms a bond between hemicellulose and cellulose but also functions
as an obstacle to the saccharification of hemicellulose and cellulose. Though lignocellulosic
biomass does not affect food chains and is seen as an economically feasible feedstock for
producing renewable fuels, its product also has several limitations. The conversion of 2GF to
biofuel suffers from many technical challenges and lacks a mature conversion technology,
which makes its conversion uneconomical and unsustainable.

Third-Generation Feedstock :-Third-generation feedstock (3GF) originates from non-food

sources. Algae, which are subdivided into macroalgae and microalgae, are a major example of
3GF. Microalgae are microscopic unicellular photosynthetic microorganisms from which a
larger amount of biomass can be generated than from terrestrial plants. They are usually over
400 μm in size, between 1 μm to 30 μm in diameter, and can convert algal biomass, waste, and
CO2 into diverse bioenergy products by photosynthesis. Microalgae grow rapidly with small
quantities of water per kg of biomass, produce a large number of lipids and starch for biofuel
synthesis, and are capable of sequestering CO2 from flue gas. Macroalgae are multicellular
marine organisms with low concentrations of cellulose and lipid and high levels of structural
polysaccharides but no lignin content [64]. Macroalgae, also called seaweed, are capable of
growing to up to 60 m in length. Microalgae are categorized according to their availability
while macroalgae are grouped in terms of their photosynthetic pigmentations. Algal biomass
derives CO2 from power plant emissions and uses CO2 for its growth. The biomass is converted
to CO2 by photosynthesis, which emits oxygen into the atmosphere. The cultivation and
utilization of algae as a feedstock for biofuel production is one of the strategies for achieving
CO2 mitigation. Algae are organisms that grow quickly in salty water, municipal wastewater,
and coastline water and on land that is not useful for farming. Algal biomass can be grown
naturally or artificially. The strategies for artificial microalgae and macroalgae biomass
production include open pond cultivation, photobioreactors (phototrophic reactors), and
heterotrophic aerobic fermenters. Algae has been widely used as a sustainable biofuel feedstock
due to its fast rate of acclimatization to potentially challenging environments, the increased
popularity of algae-based biofuels, and the derivation of other associated bio-products,
including natural cosmetics, aquaculture, oils, pigments, pharmaceuticals, and nutritional
supplements.

The following are some of the characters for the efficient bio-fuels:
a) Kinematic viscosity
b) Density
c) Calorific value
d) Melt or pour point
e) Cloud point
f) Flash point
g) Acid value
h) Iodine value
i) Cetane number
j) Stability – oxidative, storage and thermal
k) Carbon residue
l) Ash percentage
m) Sulphur percentage
Kinematic viscosity

Viscosity represents flow characteristics and the tendency of fluids to deform with
stress. Viscosity affects injector lubrication and fuel atomization. Fuels with low viscosity may
not provide sufficient lubrication for the precision fit of fuel injection pumps, resulting in
leakage or increased wear. Fuel atomization is also affected by fuel viscosity. Diesel fuels with
high viscosity tend to form larger droplets on injection which can cause poor combustion,
increased exhaust smoke and emissions.
Density
It’s the mass of the substance per unit volume. Oils that are denser contain more energy.
For example, petrol and diesel fuels give comparable energy by weight, but diesel is denser
and hence gives more energy per litre. Biodiesel is generally denser than diesel fuel with sample
values ranging between 877 kg/m3 to 884 kg/m3 compared with diesel at 835 kg/m3. Thus,
density of the final product depends mostly on the feedstock used.
Calorific Value
Heat of combustion Heating Value or Heat of Combustion, is the amount of heating energy
released by the combustion of a unit value of fuels. One of the most important determinants of
heating value is moisture content. Liquid biofuels however have bulk densities comparable to
those for fossil fuels.
Melt point or Pour point Melt or pour point
It refers to the temperature at which the oil in solid form starts to melt or pour. In case where
the temperatures fall below the melt point, the entire fuel system including all fuel lines and
fuel tank will need to be heated.
Cloud point
The temperature at which an oil starts to solidify is known as the cloud point. While operating
an engine at temperatures below an oil’s cloud point, heating will be necessary in order to avoid
waxing of the fuel.
Flash point (FP)

The flash point temperature of diesel fuel is the minimum temperature at which the fuel will
ignite (flash) on application of an ignition source. Flash point varies inversely with the fuel’s
volatility. Minimum flash point temperatures are required for proper safety and handling of
diesel fuel. The flash point determines the flammability of the material. Neat biodiesel has a
flash point (150°C) well above the flash point of petroleum-based diesel fuel (±70°C).
Acid value
The total acid number is an indication of the presence of free fatty acids formed due to oil
degradation and combustion. It can also result from improper manufacturing, through
remaining catalyst or excessive neutralization.
Iodine value
It is an index of the number of double bonds in biodiesel, and therefore is a parameter that
quantifies the degree of unsaturation of biodiesel. It is reported in terms of the grams of iodine
that will react with 100 grams of a fat or oil under specified condition. It is a value of the
amount of iodine, measured in grams, absorbed by 100 grams of given oil. It is commonly used
as a measure of the chemical stability properties of different biodiesel fuels against such
oxidation.
Aniline point/Cetane number (CN)
It is a relative measure of the interval between the beginning of injection and auto-ignition of
the fuel. The higher the cetane number, the shorter the delay interval and the greater its
combustibility. Fuels with low Cetane Numbers will result in difficult starting, noise and
exhaust smoke. In general, diesel engines will operate better on fuels with Cetane Numbers
above 50. Cetane number is usually measured directly using a test engine. Cetane tests provide
information on the ignition quality of a diesel fuel. No.2 diesel fuel usually has a cetane rating
between 45 and 50 while vegetable oil is 35 to 45. Biodiesel is usually have in between 50 to
60.
Stability
Biodiesel ages more quickly than petroleum diesel fuel due to the chemical structure of fatty
acids and methyl esters present in biodiesel. Typically, there are fourteen types of fatty acid
methyl ester in the biodiesel. The individual proportion of presence of these esters in the fuel
affects the final properties of biodiesel. Poor oxidation stability can cause fuel thickening,
formation of gums and sediments which in turn can cause filter clogging and injector fouling.
Thermal degradation occurs at high temperature and degrades hyper peroxide in the fuel more
rapidly than oxidative degradation. Biodiesel and biodiesel blends are much more thermally
stable than diesel. Biodiesel and its blends should not be stored in a storage tank or vehicle tank
more than 6 months. Depending upon the storage temperature and other conditions suggest the
use of appropriate antioxidants.
Carbon residue
This indicates the tendency of fuel to form carbon deposits in an engine. An important indicator
of the quality of biodiesel is the carbon residue, which corresponds to the content of glycerides,
free fatty acids, soaps, polymers and remaining catalyst.
Ash Percentage
Ash is a measure of the amount of metals contained in the fuel. High concentrations of these
materials can cause injector tip plugging, combustion deposits and injection system wear. The
ash content is important for the heating value, as heating value decreases with increasing ash
content. Ash content for bio-fuels is typically lower than for most coals, and sulphur content is
much lower than for many fossil fuels.
Sulfur percentage
The percentage by weight, of sulfur in the fuel sulfur content is limited by law to very small
percentages for diesel fuel used in on-road applications. First use vegetable oil and animal fat-
based biodiesel has less than 15 ppm sulphur. Many researchers claim that pure biodiesel is
essentially sulphur free and therefore biodiesel is an ultra-low sulphur fuel.
Application of biofuels
Biofuels have a wide range of applications,

 Transportation: Biofuels can be used as a substitute for gasoline or diesel fuel in

vehicles. They can be used in existing vehicles with minimal modifications, and they
can help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
 Electricity generation: Biofuels can be used to generate electricity in power plants. They
can be burned directly, or they can be converted into biogas or bioethanol, which can
then be used to generate electricity.
 Heating: Biofuels can be used to heat homes and businesses. They can be burned
directly, or they can be converted into biogas or bioethanol, which can then be used to
heat water or air.
 Cooking: Biofuels can be used for cooking. They can be burned directly, or they can be
converted into biogas or bioethanol, which can then be used to cook food.
 Industrial applications: Biofuels can be used in a variety of industrial applications, such
as manufacturing, agriculture, and construction. They can be burned directly, or they
can be converted into biogas or bioethanol, which can then be used in industrial
processes.
 Other applications: Biofuels can also be used for a variety of other applications, such
as cleaning oil spills, producing lubricants, and making plastics.

The specific application of biofuels will depend on the availability of feedstocks, the cost of
production, and the environmental regulations in the region. However, biofuels have the
potential to play a major role in reducing our reliance on fossil fuels and combatting climate
change.

Here are some of the most common types of biofuels and their applications:

 Ethanol: Ethanol is a biofuel that is produced from corn, sugarcane, or other crops. It
can be used as a substitute for gasoline in vehicles, and it can also be used to make
alcoholic beverages.
 Biodiesel: Biodiesel is a biofuel that is produced from vegetable oils or animal fats. It
can be used as a substitute for diesel fuel in vehicles, and it is also a good lubricant.
 Biogas: Biogas is a gaseous biofuel that is produced from the anaerobic digestion of
biomass. It can be used to generate electricity, heat homes, and cook food.
 Hydrogen: Hydrogen is a clean-burning fuel that can be produced from biomass. It
can be used in fuel cells to generate electricity, and it can also be used to power
vehicles.

The use of biofuels is growing rapidly, and it is expected to continue to grow in the coming
years. As the technology continues to develop, biofuels are becoming more affordable and
efficient, making them a more attractive option for transportation, electricity generation, and
heating.

There are many reasons why we need biofuels. Here are some of the most important ones:
To reduce our reliance on fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are a finite resource that is becoming
increasingly expensive and difficult to extract. Biofuels, on the other hand, are renewable and
can be produced from a variety of sources, such as corn, sugarcane, and wood.

To combat climate change. Biofuels produce fewer greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuels.
This is because the carbon dioxide that is released when biofuels are burned is the same carbon
dioxide that was absorbed by the plants that were used to produce the biofuel.

To improve energy security. Biofuels can help to reduce our dependence on foreign oil. This
is because biofuels can be produced domestically, from a variety of sources.

To create jobs. The production and use of biofuels can create jobs in the agricultural,
transportation, and energy sectors.

To improve air quality. Biofuels can help to improve air quality by reducing emissions of
pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.

Overall, biofuels have the potential to make a significant contribution to reducing our reliance
on fossil fuels, combating climate change, improving energy security, and creating jobs. As the
technology continues to develop, biofuels are likely to become even more important in the
years to come.

Here are some additional benefits of biofuels:

Biofuels can help to reduce rural poverty. The production of biofuels can create jobs in rural
areas, which can help to reduce poverty and improve the standard of living.

Biofuels can help to protect the environment. Biofuels can help to reduce deforestation and
land degradation, as they can be produced from agricultural waste and other non-food crops.

Biofuels can help to improve food security. Biofuels can be produced from food crops, but they
can also be produced from non-food crops. This means that biofuels can be produced without
competing with food production.

Despite the benefits, there are also some challenges associated with biofuels. These challenges
include:

The production of biofuels can have a negative impact on land use and water resources. If
biofuels are produced from food crops, it can lead to deforestation and land degradation. If
biofuels are produced from non-food crops, it can lead to competition for water resources.

The cost of biofuels can be high. The cost of biofuels is still higher than the cost of fossil fuels.
This is due to the high cost of production and the limited availability of feedstocks.

The environmental impact of biofuels is still being debated. Some studies have shown that
biofuels can have a negative impact on the environment, while other studies have shown that
they can have a positive impact. The environmental impact of biofuels is likely to vary
depending on the type of biofuel, the feedstock used, and the production process.

Overall, biofuels have the potential to be a valuable part of the energy mix. However, it is
important to carefully consider the challenges and potential risks associated with biofuels
before making a decision about their use.

What is biogas.
Biogas is a mixture of gases, primarily consisting of methane, carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide, produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal
waste, plant material, sewage, green waste, wastewater, and food waste. It is a renewable
energy source. Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion with anaerobic
organisms or methanogen inside an anaerobic digester, biodigester or a bioreactor. Biogas is
primarily methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon
monoxide (CO) can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows biogas
to be used as a fuel; it can be used in fuel cells and for any heating purpose, such as cooking.
It can also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat.
Biogas can be compressed after removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide, the same
way as natural gas is compressed to CNG, and used to power motor vehicles. It qualifies for
renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world. Biogas can be cleaned and upgraded to
natural gas standards, when it becomes bio-methane. Biogas is considered to be a renewable
resource because its production-and-use cycle is continuous, and it generates no net carbon
dioxide. As the organic material grows, it is converted and used. It then regrows in a continually
repeating cycle. From a carbon perspective, as much carbon dioxide is absorbed from the
atmosphere in the growth of the primary bio-resource as is released, when the material is
ultimately converted to energy. Biogas can also be a source of atmospheric carbon capture
when combined with thermal decomposition.
Energy can be obtained from biomass.

The three main processes by which energy can be obtained from biomass are:

1. Direct consumption by burning solid fuel to power generators.

2. Bacterial decomposition, which is also called anaerobic digestion. In this process,
bacteria digest wet waste without being exposed to oxygen to create methane gas.
3. Conversion to liquid or gaseous fuels.
 Fig.5- Classification of Biofuels based on physical state

Both direct consumption and bacterial decomposition make energy that can be used to generate
heat to power generators. To make biomass into liquid or gaseous fuels, biofuels must be
converted from their original form. The most basic way to do this is through fermentation of
crops that are high in sugar (starch) or fat into ethanol, which can be mixed directly with
gasoline to power cars. Oilseed crops like canola or sunflowers are used to make biofuels. For
a more advanced process that requires breaking down the cell walls of plants into their most
basic chemical form, energy producers use a two-step process: deconstruction followed
by synthesis and upgrading. The first step, deconstruction, breaks the biomass down into its
most simple components and can happen at either low or high temperatures. High temperature
deconstruction includes:

 Pyrolysis

In which biomass is broken down without oxygen to make bio-oil and biochar.

 Hydrothermal liquefaction

In this wet biomass, such as algae, sewage, or a liquid slurry of feedstock, to make bio-
oil.

 Gasification

In this biomass is cooked at a high temperature in the presence of oxygen or steam to

make hydrogen gas, then cleaned up and conditioned to make it into a usable fuel.

Low temperature deconstruction includes:

  Hydrolysis

In this biomass is first pre-treated chemically or mechanically to open the structure of

plant cell walls and then broken down with either chemicals or special proteins to make
fuels or products that can then be made into fuels.

The second step, synthesis and upgrading, then rebuilds these components into usable fuel
(either liquid or gas). There are many types of synthesis and upgrading, and they vary based
on which products come out of deconstruction and what types of compounds are being made.

Various methods of production of biogas

Fig.6- Production Methods of Biogas

Biogas is produced by microorganisms, such as methanogens and sulphate-reducing bacteria,
performing anaerobic respiration. Biogas can refer to gas produced naturally and industrially.
Natural
In soil, methane is produced in anaerobic environments by methanogens, but is mostly
consumed in aerobic zones by methanotrophs. Methane emissions result when the balance
favours methanogens. Wetland soils are the main natural source of methane. Other sources
include oceans, forest soils, termites, and wild ruminants.
Industrial
The purpose of industrial biogas production is the collection of biomethane, usually for fuel.
Industrial biogas is produced either;

 As landfill gas (LFG), which is produced by the decomposition of biodegradable

waste inside a landfill due to chemical reactions and microbes, or
 As digested gas, produced inside an anaerobic digester.
The composition of biogas.
The composition of biogas varies depending upon the substrate composition, as well as the
conditions within the anaerobic reactor (temperature, pH, and substrate concentration). Landfill
gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%. Advanced waste treatment technologies
can produce biogas with 55–75% methane, which for reactors with free liquids can be increased
to 80–90% methane using in-situ gas purification techniques. As produced, biogas contains
water vapor. The fractional volume of water vapor is a function of biogas temperature;
correction of measured gas volume for water vapour content and thermal expansion is easily
done via simple mathematics which yields the standardized volume of dry biogas. For 1000 kg
(wet weight) of input to a typical biodigester, total solids may be 30% of the wet weight
while volatile suspended solids may be 90% of the total solids. Protein would be 20% of the
volatile solids, carbohydrates would be 70% of the volatile solids, and finally fats would be
10% of the volatile solids.

Name of the gas Composition in biogas (%)

Methane (CH4) 50-70
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 30-40
Hydrogen (H2) 5-10
Nitrogen (N2) 1-2
Water vapour (H2O) 0.3
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) Traces
Table 1- Composition of biogas

Various properties of biogas.

Properties Range

Net calorific value (MJ/m3 ) 20

Air required for combustion (m3 /m3 ) 5.7
Ignition temperature (0C) 700
Density (kg/m3 ) .94
Table 2- Properties of biogas

Calorific Value
The calorific value of LFG can be defined as the amount of heat produced on combusting a
unit volume of gas and can be expressed in kcal/m3, kJ/m3, or BTU/ft3. Calorific value
depends directly on the methane content of LFG, i.e., the higher the methane content, the
greater the calorific value. Average heating value of biogas= 22.6 MJ/m3.
Flash Point
Flash point is the minimum temperature at which the gas can be ignited. It is measured in °C.
Density
The density of a gas usually involves combining the formula for density (mass divided by
volume) and the ideal gas law (PV = nRT). ρ = PM/RT, where M is molar mass. The ideal gas
law is a good approximation of the behavior of real gases.
Lower Explosive Limit (LEL)
The Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) is the lowest concentration of a gas or vapor that will burn
in air. The Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) varies from gas to gas, but for most flammable gases
it is less than 5% by volume.
Critical Temperature and Pressure
The critical temperature of a substance is the temperature at and above which vapor of the
substance cannot be liquefied, no matter how much pressure is applied. It is measured in °C.
The critical pressure of a substance is the pressure required to liquefy a gas at its critical
temperature.
Difference between Biofuel and biogas
Biofuel and biogas are both renewable energy sources that are produced from biomass, but they
have some key differences.

 Biofuel is a liquid or gaseous fuel that is produced from biomass through a variety of
processes, such as fermentation, pyrolysis, and gasification. Ethanol, biodiesel, and
biogas are all examples of biofuels.
 Biogas is a gaseous fuel that is produced from the anaerobic digestion of biomass.
Anaerobic digestion is a process in which microorganisms break down biomass in the
absence of oxygen. The main components of biogas are methane (CH4), carbon dioxide
(CO2), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S).

Biofuels are typically used as transportation fuels, while biogas is more commonly used for
electricity generation, heating, and cooking. Biogas can also be upgraded to produce
biomethane, which is a clean-burning fuel that can be used in natural gas pipelines and vehicles.

Both biofuels and biogas are considered to be renewable energy sources, but they have different
environmental impacts. Biofuels typically have lower greenhouse gas emissions than fossil
fuels, but they can also have a negative impact on land use and water resources. Biogas has
lower greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuels and does not require land for cultivation, but
it can produce air pollution if it is not properly managed.
Ultimately, the best choice of renewable energy source will depend on the specific application
and environmental concerns. Biofuel may be a better choice for transportation, while biogas
may be a better choice for electricity generation or heating. It is important to weigh the
advantages and disadvantages of each option carefully before making a decision.

Biogas can be used for a variety of applications, including:

 Cooking: Biogas can be used as a cooking fuel. It is a clean-burning fuel that produces
less pollution than traditional fuels such as wood or kerosene.
 Heating: Biogas can be used to heat homes and businesses. It can be burned directly, or
it can be converted into electricity or heat.
 Electricity generation: Biogas can be used to generate electricity. It can be burned
directly in a generator, or it can be converted into biomethane, which can then be used
in natural gas pipelines and vehicles.
 Transportation: Biogas can be used to power vehicles. It can be compressed into
biomethane, which can then be used in vehicles that are designed to run on natural gas.
 Industrial applications: Biogas can be used in a variety of industrial applications, such
as manufacturing, agriculture, and construction. It can be burned directly, or it can be
converted into biomethane or other products.
 Waste treatment: Biogas can be used to treat wastewater. It can be used to generate
methane, which can then be used to fuel a digester that treats wastewater.
Here are some of the advantages and disadvantages of biofuel and biogas:

Biofuel

 Advantages:
o Renewable energy source
o Lower greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuels
o Can be produced from a variety of biomass feedstocks, such as corn, sugarcane,
and wood
o Can be used in existing vehicles and infrastructure
o Can help to reduce dependence on foreign oil
 Disadvantages:
o Can have a negative impact on land use and water resources
o Can be more expensive than fossil fuels
o Can require significant upfront investment
o Can be less energy-efficient than fossil fuels
Biogas

 Advantages:
o Renewable energy source
o Lower greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuels
o Does not require land for cultivation
o Can be used for electricity generation, heating, and cooking
o Can be upgraded to produce biomethane, which is a clean-burning fuel that can
be used in natural gas pipelines and vehicles
 Disadvantages:
o Can produce air pollution if not properly managed
o Can be more expensive than fossil fuels
o Can require significant upfront investment
o Can be less energy-efficient than fossil fuels

Here are some additional considerations for biofuel and biogas:

 Biofuel:
o The production of biofuel can have a negative impact on land use and water
resources, especially if it is produced from food crops.
o Biofuel can be more expensive than fossil fuels, especially if it is made from
non-food crops.
o The upfront investment in biofuel production can be significant.
o Biofuel can be less energy-efficient than fossil fuels.
 Biogas:
o Biogas can produce air pollution if it is not properly managed.
o Biogas can be more expensive than fossil fuels, especially if it is produced from
non-food crops.
o The upfront investment in biogas production can be significant.
o Biogas can be less energy-efficient than fossil fuels.

Despite the challenges, biofuel and biogas are both promising renewable energy sources that
have the potential to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and combat climate change. As the
technology continues to develop, these sources of energy are likely to become more affordable
and efficient, making them even more attractive options for the future.
 Biogas plant Site Selection

Biogas Digester :- A biogas digestor uses natural anaerobic decomposition of organic matter
under controlled conditions. The digestor is usually a large, sealed container for the organic
matter. For example: manure from livestock or poultry, green waste from agriculture, sewage
or food waste. This is digested by bacteria in the absence of oxygen to produce a gas containing
methane and carbon dioxide. The gas is piped away from the digestor and burnt to produce
heat energy.

Anaerobic decomposition & organic matter :- Anaerobic Decomposition: Anaerobic digestion

is a process through which bacteria break down organic matter such as animal manure,
wastewater biosolids, and food wastes—in the absence of oxygen.

Organic Matter: Organic matter, organic material, or natural organic matter refers to the large
source of carbon-based compounds found within natural and engineered, terrestrial, and aquatic
environments.

Site for setting up of a Biodigester Plant.

As we know that the sunlight is the primary requirement for a biodigester plant to start
producing biogas as it supplies the necessary heat to raise the temperature of the organic matter
and start the fermentation process. Next requirement is the availability of a source of water
near the biodigester unit (should be situated at about 20 minutes from the biodigester unit). The
biodigester unit should be situated close to the kitchen, so that the biomass can be continuously
charged to the biodigester unit and biogas can be constantly produced from the digester. The
biodigester should have enough space to make a compost pit where the decay process can be
done continuously to produce biogas intermittently. The site selection for a biogas plant is an
important decision that can have a significant impact on the success of the project. There are a
number of factors to consider when choosing a site, including:

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 Sunny Place Water Source within 20 Closeness to Kitchen
minutes

10 m away from well

Adequate space to make
compost pit

Fig.1 Site selection parameters for constructing a Biodigester Plants

 Availability of feedstock: The biogas plant will need a steady supply of feedstock, such as
manure, agricultural waste, or food waste. The site should be located in an area where there is
a plentiful supply of feedstock that is easily accessible. The availability of feedstock for biogas
plants varies depending on the location of the plant. In general, there are four main types of
feedstock that can be used for biogas production:

i. Animal manure: Manure from livestock, such as cattle, pigs, and chickens, is a good
source of feedstock for biogas plants. It is readily available in many areas and has a
high methane content.

2
 ii. Agricultural waste: Crop residues, such as corn stalks and wheat straw, can also be
used as feedstock for biogas plants. They are a good source of cellulose, which can be
converted into biogas by anaerobic bacteria.

iii. Food waste: Food waste from restaurants, grocery stores, and homes can also be used
as feedstock for biogas plants. It is a good source of carbohydrates, which can be
converted into biogas by anaerobic bacteria.

iv. Wastewater sludge: Wastewater sludge from wastewater treatment plants is a good
source of feedstock for biogas plants. It contains a variety of organic materials that
can be converted into biogas by anaerobic bacteria.

 Land availability: The site will need to be large enough to accommodate the biogas plant and
its associated infrastructure, such as digesters, storage tanks, and pipelines. The site should also
be level and has good drainage. The land availability for biogas plants varies depending on the
location of the plant. In general, the amount of land required for a biogas plant will depend on
the size of the plant and the type of feedstock that will be used. For example, a small biogas
plant that uses animal manure as feedstock may only require a few acres of land. However, a
large biogas plant that uses agricultural waste or food waste as feedstock may require several
hundred acres of land. The land required for a biogas plant should be level and have good
drainage. It should also be located near a source of feedstock and have access to water and
electricity. In some cases, it may be possible to co-locate a biogas plant with other agricultural
or industrial facilities. This can help to reduce the amount of land required for the biogas plant
and can also help to reduce the environmental impact of the plant.

Some factors to consider when evaluating land availability for a biogas plant:

i. Size of the plant: The amount of land required for a biogas plant will depend on its size.
A small biogas plant may only require a few acres of land, while a large biogas plant
may require several hundred acres of land.

ii. Type of feedstock: The type of feedstock that will be used for the biogas plant will also
affect the amount of land required. Animal manure is a relatively compact feedstock,
so it requires less land than agricultural waste or food waste.

3
 iii. Location: The location of the biogas plant will also affect the amount of land required.
Land in rural areas is generally less expensive than land in urban areas.

iv. Zoning: The land must be zoned for industrial or agricultural use.

v. Permits: The necessary permits must be obtained before construction can begin.

By carefully considering all of these factors, it is possible to identify land that is suitable for a
biogas plant.

 Access to utilities: The biogas plant will need access to water, electricity, and natural gas (if it
will be used to generate electricity). The site should be located near these utilities to minimize
the cost of construction and operation. Biogas plants require access to a number of utilities in
order to operate, including:

i. Water: Water is used to clean the biogas plant, to cool the digesters, and to produce
biomethane.

ii. Electricity: Electricity is used to power the pumps, fans, and other equipment in the
biogas plant.

iii. Natural gas: Natural gas may be used to heat the digesters or to generate electricity.

iv. Telecommunications: Telecommunications are needed to monitor the biogas plant and
to communicate with the control centre.

The availability of these utilities is an important factor to consider when planning a biogas
plant. It is important to ensure that there is a reliable supply of water, electricity, and natural
gas (if needed). If the utilities are not available or are too expensive, the biogas plant may not
be economically viable. In some cases, it may be possible to co-locate a biogas plant with other
facilities that require the same utilities. This can help to reduce the cost of utilities and can also
help to reduce the environmental impact of the biogas plant. Here are some factors to consider
when evaluating access to utilities for a biogas plant:

i. Availability: The utilities must be available and reliable.

ii. Cost: The cost of the utilities must be affordable.

4
 iii. Infrastructure: The necessary infrastructure, such as pipelines and power lines, must be
in place.

iv. Permits: The necessary permits must be obtained before construction can begin.

 Zoning and permitting: The site should be zoned for industrial or agricultural use and the
necessary permits should be obtained before construction can begin. Zoning and permitting are
important considerations for any biogas plant project. The specific requirements will vary
depending on the location of the plant, but in general, the following steps will need to be taken:

i. Check the zoning regulations: The first step is to check the zoning regulations for the
proposed site. Biogas plants are typically classified as industrial or agricultural
facilities, so they will need to be located in a zoned area that allows for that type of use.

ii. Obtain a zoning permit: Once the zoning regulations have been checked, a zoning
permit will need to be obtained from the local government. This permit will allow the
biogas plant to be constructed and operated in the proposed location.

iii. Obtain environmental permits: In addition to zoning permits, environmental permits

may also be required. These permits may be issued by the state or federal government
and will vary depending on the type of biogas plant and the location of the plant.

iv. Obtain construction permits: Once the zoning and environmental permits have been
obtained, construction permits will need to be obtained from the local government. This
permit will allow the biogas plant to be constructed in accordance with the approved
plans and specifications.

v. Obtain operating permits: Once the biogas plant is constructed, operating permits will
need to be obtained from the local government. These permits will allow the biogas
plant to operate and will typically include requirements for emissions control, odour
control, and safety.

The zoning and permitting process can be complex and time-consuming, so it is important to
start the process early. It is also important to work with a qualified engineer and attorney to
ensure that all of the necessary permits are obtained. Here are some additional tips for
navigating the zoning and permitting process for a biogas plant:

5
 i. Consult with a qualified engineer: An engineer can help you assess the zoning and
permitting requirements for a biogas plant on a particular site and can provide guidance
on the design criteria.

ii. Work with a qualified attorney: An attorney can help you navigate the zoning and
permitting process and can represent you in front of the local government.

iii. Start the process early: The zoning and permitting process can take several months or
even years, so it is important to start the process early.

iv. Be prepared to provide information: The local government will require you to provide
information about the biogas plant, such as the size of the plant, the type of feedstock
that will be used, and the emissions that will be generated.

v. Be prepared to make changes: The local government may require you to make changes
to the biogas plant design or operating plan in order to comply with the zoning and
permitting requirements.

By following these tips, We can increase the chances of successfully navigating the zoning and
permitting process for our biogas plant. Here are some specific zoning and permitting
requirements that may apply to biogas plants:

i. Zoning: Biogas plants are typically classified as industrial or agricultural facilities, so

they will need to be located in a zoned area that allows for that type of use. The local
zoning ordinance may also have specific requirements for biogas plants, such as
minimum setbacks from property lines or maximum noise levels.

ii. Environmental permits: Environmental permits may be required for biogas plants,
depending on the type of feedstock that will be used and the size of the plant. The state
or federal government may issue these permits, and they will typically address air
emissions, water quality, and noise pollution.

iii. Construction permits: Construction permits will be required from the local government
before any construction can begin on the biogas plant. These permits will ensure that
the plant is constructed in accordance with the approved plans and specifications.

6
 iv. Operating permits: Operating permits will be required from the local government before
the biogas plant can begin operating. These permits will typically address emissions
control, odour control, and safety.

The specific zoning and permitting requirements for biogas plants will vary depending on the
location of the plant. It is important to check with the local government to determine the
specific requirements for your project.

 Environmental impact: The site should be selected in a way that minimizes the environmental
impact of the biogas plant. This includes considering factors such as air quality, water quality,
and noise pollution. The environmental impact of biogas plant site selection can be significant.
The site should be selected in a way that minimizes the environmental impact of the plant,
including air emissions, water quality, and noise pollution.

Here are some factors to consider when selecting a site for a biogas plant:

i. Air emissions: Biogas plants can emit methane, a greenhouse gas that is 25 times more
potent than carbon dioxide. The site should be selected in an area with good air quality
and away from sensitive receptors, such as schools and hospitals.

ii. Water quality: Biogas plants can produce wastewater, which can contain pollutants
such as ammonia and nitrates. The site should be selected in an area with good water
quality and away from surface water bodies.

iii. Noise pollution: Biogas plants can be noisy, especially during construction and
operation. The site should be selected in an area with low noise levels and away from
residential areas.

Meanings of various terms used:

Fermentation Process: It is a process whereby organisms convert starch or sugar to alcohol or

an acid anaerobically releasing energy.

Compost Pit: Compost pits are used to make manures and fertile compounds by dumping
decaying biodegradable items.

7
Steps involved in construction of a biodigester plant.

Layout Soling Round Wall Digester Dome Inlet

Constructi Construc Constru

Water Drain Pit Construction

Outlet Construction Pipeline Construction
Compost Pit Stove

Dome Plastering

Pipe and Valves Construction

Top filling of dome Biodigester
Unit
Fig.2 Steps to construct a Biodigester Plant

Step 1: Layout plan making

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So, the first step in construction of a biodigester unit is the layout plan making. The layout plan
tells us about the division or proposed division of land into plots, roads, open spaces, amenities,
etc. Layout plan of digester plant is made using lime or ash. The inlet, digester, outlet and
compost units should be fixed properly in a layout plan. After making of layout, the digging of
pits for inlet, digester, outlet and compost units should be done as per the measurement.

Step 2: Soling

The second step is soling which basically means arranging or hand packing of rubble stones or
bricks one adjacent to another, to provide a cushion and a stable strong subbase to the
foundation and footing, before concreting work. Soling of the digester floor should be done on
a stable and compact floor. Pour a layer of concrete over stone or brick layer formed by soling.

Step 3: Construction of a round wall

The third step is construction of a round wall which means we need to construct a wall having
a circular shape. For constructing a round wall, place a ½ inch GI pipe vertically at the centre.
Now, place another pipe horizontally and tie it with the vertical pipe. Now, we can construct
the round wall using the tied pipes by taking measurement from the centre.

Step 4: Construction of the digester

After constructing the round wall, the next step is to construct the digester. Once the pit is
completed the level of the digester floor should be in hard or natural soil. Take the radius with
1 cm more for plastering. The first layer of the round wall should be from the width where as
others from the length of the brick. There should be proper back filling by adding little water
and gentle tapping. Stone wall should be as close as the mud wall. The concrete ratio should
be from 1:4 to 1:6 depending on the quality of the sand. The inlet pipe should be placed 35cm.
above from the floor of the digester. After completing the brick wall, it should be plastered
with 1:3 concrete and should be 10 mm thick.

Step 5: Construction of the digester dome

Next construct the dome of the digester which is a rounded shape forming the roof of a building
or structure, typically with a circular base. There should be proper back filling before making
mud dome. Measure the height from the bottom of the digester to the top of the dome, mark
them and fill mud up to that level. Now replace ½ inch GI pipe 50 cm. buried in the mud dome.
Use template for making proper shape of the dome. Put thin layer of sand on top of the dome.

9
½ inch GI pipe to be replaced with main gas pipe. The dome should be casted with 1:3:3
concrete. The thickness of the dome should be 6 – 8 cm. at the centre and 25 cm. at the edges.
Protect it from the sun and pour water 4-5 times a day for about a week. Make turret on the
second day of casting dome. Remove mud from the digester after about a week.

Step 6: Inlet Construction

The sixth step is inlet construction. Inlet of biodigester is a place used to charge organic matter
into the digester. For constructing inlet, place mixing machine in the inlet tank. The surface of
the floor of inlet should be 5 cm above from the overflow of the slurry level. The height of the
inlet pit should be 50 – 100 cm. If mixing machine is placed the blade of the machine to the
wall should be not more than 2 cm gap.

Step 7: Outlet Construction

Seventh step is outlet construction, which is used to discharge the biogas out from the digester
plant. For outlet construction, the floor of the outlet should be stable. The size of the outlet
should be as given in the drawing. It should be plastered with 1:3 cement sand ratio. The wall
should be properly back filling. It should be slightly above the ground. The cover of the outlet
can be made at the time of casting dome. These slabs should also be cured properly. The
thickness of the slab should be 3 inch and should be casted on plain floor or on top of plastic
sheets.

Step 8: Compost pit construction

After outlet comes the compost pit construction. There should be 2 compost pits about 1 m far
from the outlet chamber. It should not be more than 1 m. depth and the distance of two pits
should be minimum of 50 cm.

Step 9: Construction of stove

In the ninth step, we will construct the stove which is an apparatus for cooking or heating that
operates by burning fuel. The stove should be placed in a convenient place. It should be cleaned
every day. Air adjusting hole should be easily opened. Rubber hose pipe should be changed if
it is damaged.

Step 10: Pipeline Construction

10
The tenth step is pipeline construction. While constructing pipeline, all the pipe fittings should
be done using Teflon tape. Avoid unnecessary fitting and union. The pipe line should be 1 foot
below the ground level.

Step 11: Water drain pit construction

The next step is water drain pit construction. Water drain pit is constructed to drain out water
from the biodigester unit. It should be placed at the lowest level of the pipe line. The wall of
the drain pit should be 40 cm x 40 cm. (inside) and 50 cm. depth. The wall should be about 5
cm. above the ground level. The water drain should be placed 30 cm. below the ground level.
The cover of the pit should be 66 cm. x 66 cm. The twelfth step is dome plastering. For
plastering dome, it should be cleaned with water and wire brush. Once we remove mud from
the dome, apply a layer of cement water solution. Plaster 10 mm thick with 1:2 cement sand
ratio. Plaster 5 mm thick with 1:1 cement sand ratio on the next day. Mix 1.5 portion of paint
with 20 portion of cement and apply inside the dome. Mix 1 portion of acrylic plastic emulsion
paint with 2 portion of cement and apply inside the dome with the help of brush.

Step 12: Gas pipe, main gas valve and turret construction

The second last step involves placing a gas pipe, main gas valve and turret construction. Gas
pipe is a passage to carry gas from inside the digester to the desired location. Main gas valve
is attached to alter the gas flow from the digester. Turret is a pipe attached from the dome,
which is connected to the outlet section to discharge gas from the dome to the outlet. ½ inch
pipe placed at the centre of the dome should be replaced with main gas pipe while casting
dome. Turret should be constructed next day on the top of the dome and should be 50 cm high
and 36 cm radius. Main gas valve should be placed right after the main gas pipe. There should
not be any unnecessary fittings between main gas pipe and gas valve. Main gas valve should
be closed when gas is not using.

Step 13: Top filling of dome

The last step is to fill the top portion of the dome. Top filling of the dome is done to protect the
dome from cold and get more gas. This is done by covering it with mud (40 cm high).

Important considerations and assumptions in construction of a biodigester plant.

11
 Fig.3 Constructional details of Biogas Plant

 Inlet, outlet and turret should be in straight line.

 Toilet pipe should be placed as close as possible with the inlet pipe.
 The floor of the digester should be in stable and compact ground.
 The cement sand ratio for making wall should be 1:4.
 The inside digester wall should be plastered with 1:3 cement sand ratio concrete.
 Stone wall should be as close as the pit wall.
 All the brick wall should be compacted with mud externally.
 While making mud dome appropriate size of the template should be used.

12
  For concreting dome, the ratio should be 1:3:3. Should not use concrete older than
two hours.
 Dome should be protected from sun and needs about 6 days for setting.
 The plastering of the dome is very important.
 The gobar gas is not competed unless, these is no top filling, no slab on outlet and
no compost pit.

Fill a biodigester plant to start biogas production.

Method 1: Starting with inoculum or seed

In this method, we take a 200 liters drum to develop slurry required to be fed into the
biodigester. pH value of the drum is first determined before adding any material to the drum.
Once the pH value is determined, fill the drum with one-part manure and one-part water and
allow it to develop an anaerobic digestion community of microorganisms. Monitor the pH of
the drum after adding slurry. Once required pH is obtained transfer slurry from drum to
biodigester.

Fig.4 Filling a Biodigester plant for starting with inoculum or seed

Meanings of various terms used:

pH value: pH is a measure of how acidic/basic a sample is. The range goes from 0 - 14, with
7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a

13
base. pH is really a measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the
water.

Method 2: Water start method

In this method, the biodigester is filled with water and loaded with manure regularly at a
constant loading rate. The reason for adding water is that, it dilutes the acidity of the slurry
thereby easing the process of biogas formation. Lack of water or insufficient water would have
led to formation of inhibitory intermediates (acids) and byproducts which otherwise would
have prevented methane formation (biogas). The process is time consuming and is limited
really to substrates with a large population of methane-producing organisms like fresh manures.
Once the biodigester begins producing methane (test this by igniting the gas) begin feeding
food waste at a lower rate slowly building up to the designed feeding rate.

Method 3: Culture enrichment and starting with a rumen

In this method, the contents of rumen are removed to fill 10% of the volume of the biodigester
and the other 90% with tap water (any water except distilled or deionized). The biodigester is
fed at the calculated rate and within a few days, one would expect biogas to be produced.

Meanings of various terms used:

Rumen: It is a part in the stomach region of animals such as cows, goats, sheep, buffalos, and
llamas which is used to soften food in their stomach. Rumen of a cow contains half to a quarter
of the methanogen population of anaerobic sludge in a tank or plug flow manure digester.
Rumen could be obtained from a slaughterhouse or if a dairy sciences unit is available from a
fistulated cow.

Method 4: Starting with slurry (batch process)

In this method, fill up the biodigester with 5-20% manure and water and then let the slurry sit
in a sort of "batch" process. When biogas begins to evolve from the slurry, then you may begin
to feed the biodigester at the recommended rate. Care and monitoring of the pH need to be
considered because using the "batch" start-up method can easily overload and imbalance the
biodigester causing a drop in pH.

14
Maintain the biogas production through Biodigester Plants

Fig.5 Maintaining Biogas Production

 Daily feeding with the right quality of dung and water

This cow dung creates problem in the environment if it is not managed properly. But the
organic waste cow dung could be converted into resource by applying proper recycling system.
It is well known that waste management helps to clean up the physical environment and the
society may get benefit from solid waste management. Waste produced from livestock
farming significantly enhanced agriculture and the farming showed sustainable agriculture
compare to conventional agriculture. Cow dung produced from dairy farming is a cheap and
easily available bioresource is used as bio-fertilizer, biopesticide, burning fuel, as cleansing
agent and as mosquito repellent. Any type of organic waste could be used for biogas production
and vermicomposting. Generally, vermicompost is produced by using earthworm and cow
dung for nutrient recycling, is used in agricultural fields for crop production.
Biogas technology is considered as one of the best technologies for treating organic waste to
recover both materials and energy from organic waste. Using of agricultural wastes for biogas
and bio-diesel production through recycling is a promising approach that will have economic,
environmental and social impact. Biogas production is highly beneficial as compared to
other renewable energy sources. Biogas production does not create
Harmful components e.g. sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) or other particles.

15
  Is constructed as per the drawing given

Construction of any part or structure is the joining of many sub-parts into one main structure.
In a biogas plant, construction is the most critical part of the making of a project because it
entails the actualization of the idea to be a tangible project. Biogas plant construction is
comprised of many activities, all interlinked into one major activity. Following considerations
should be made to properly construct a biodigester plant:

 Studying the materials for construction of the biogas site together with their acceptable
standards.
 Planning the biogas layout, where the steps are explained and the methodology for the
construction of the biogas plant is illustrated.
 Project installation and implementation: The actual construction of the biogas plant
takes place according to a well-laid-out plan.

 There should not be any leakage through pipe line

Biogas leakage is a major concern for biogas plants, as it can lead to environmental pollution
and safety hazards. Here are some steps that can be taken to prevent leakage through pipelines
in biogas plants:

i. Use high-quality pipes: The pipes used in biogas plants should be made from high-
quality materials that are resistant to corrosion and leaks. Stainless steel and PVC pipes
are two good options.

ii. Install proper joints: The joints between pipes should be properly installed and sealed
to prevent leaks. Welded joints are the most reliable option, but flanged joints can also
be used if properly sealed.

iii. Inspect pipes regularly: The pipes in biogas plants should be inspected regularly for
signs of damage or leaks. Any defects should be repaired immediately.

iv. Use pressure sensors: Pressure sensors can be installed in the pipelines to monitor for
leaks. If a leak is detected, the sensor will sound an alarm and the biogas flow will be
shut down.

16
 v. Install odour detection systems: Odour detection systems can be installed to detect leaks
of biogas. If a leak is detected, the system will sound an alarm and the biogas flow will
be shut down.

vi. Train staff: The staff who operate and maintain the biogas plant should be trained on
how to prevent and detect leaks. They should also be aware of the safety hazards
associated with biogas leaks.

By following these steps, it is possible to significantly reduce the risk of leakage through
pipelines in biogas plants. Here are some additional tips for preventing leakage through
pipelines in biogas plants:

1. Use a leak detection dog: A leak detection dog can be used to sniff out leaks in biogas
pipelines. This is a good option for plants that are located in remote areas or that have
a large number of pipelines.
2. Use a gas tracer: A gas tracer can be injected into the biogas pipeline. If there is a leak,
the tracer will be released into the atmosphere and can be detected by a gas detector.

3. Install a flare system: A flare system can be installed to burn off any biogas that leaks
from the pipeline. This is a good option for plants that are located in areas with a lot of
air traffic or that have sensitive receptors nearby.

4. When using PVC pipes, use Teflon tapes to properly seal joints.
5. Do not lay the pipes on the bare floor. This is to avoid damages leading to leakages.
6. The artisan should avoid fittings other than a pipe-nipple between the main gas pipe
fitted in the dome and the main gas valve to avoid the risk of gas leakage. An engineer
should choose a good quality pipe in the installation of a biogas project. Choice of pipe
is very important, first to prevent damage which will lead to gas leakage and secondly
to prolong the life of the system.
7. Check for gas leakage in all pipe joints and in the entire pipeline as soon as gas
production in the digester starts. A simple rule of thumb is to use soap solution. Mix
powdered soap in water to form a foam. Thereafter, apply the foam on all joints, valves,
measuring devices flow, and pressure measuring devices and pumps. If you witness that
the foam is either moving or breaking, then there is gas leakage. Quickly shut off the
main gas valve on the turret, then disengage the joint before properly sealing it again.

17
 Thereafter, carry out the foam testing again until you are sure the joint is properly
sealed.
8. Adequate top filling on the dome.
9. Pipe line 1 feet below the ground level.
10. Adequate gas production and the user satisfied with the plant.
11. Maintain an optimum temperature inside the digester.
12. Regularly check the pH of the biodigester.
13. Test the gas pressure in the biodigester.
14. Supply nutrients like Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulphur, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron,
Nickel, Cobalt and Zinc.
15. Test the nutrients and toxicity of system from time to time. Test the gas in the
biodigester for gas combustibility.

18
 Biomass Conversation

Introduction

Biomass can be regarded as any organic material that originated from plants or animals. The
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 2005, defined it as follows;

“A non-fossilized and biodegradable organic material originating from plants, animals and
micro-organisms. This shall also include products, by-products, residues and waste from
agriculture, forestry and related industries as well as the non-fossilized and biodegradable
organic fractions of industrial and municipal wastes”.

The world’s energy demand has been steadily increasing in the last several decades. This is
due to rapid increase in industrialization, population and the quest for improvement of the
living standards for societies. On the other hand, this has caused an irreversible damage to the
environment which leads to global warming, and climate change. These issues have been the
topic of discussion among scientist and policy makers at national and international levels on
how to mitigate the problem. The modern society is emphasizing on shift from non-renewable
to renewable energy (such as wind, solar, tide, geothermal and biomass) in their search for
energy source. Before the discovery of fossil fuels such as petroleum products, coal, and natural
gas, biomass was the main source of energy for heating and cooking. Biomass is the term used
to describe all materials that contain carbon in an organic form. This organic form of carbon
can be transformed into inorganic through photosynthesis by forming bonds with other
elements such as hydrogen, and oxygen using solar energy. The demolishing of these bonds
(molecules) through physical or biological means, causes a closure in the cycle and making
CO2 to be regenerated. During the regeneration process, energy is released which can be
converted into other forms of energy. Therefore, as long as this equilibrium is maintained
between use and regeneration, biomass is a renewable or inexhaustible source of energy .
Biomass is expected to be the leading form of energy with a significant global energy load of
about 10–15%. However, biomass has a share of about 90% of total energy requirements for
remote and rural areas of the developing countries. Therefore, it is likely to remain the future
leading source of energy feedstock for the developing countries since about 90% of the world
population is expected to live in the developing world by 2050.

Biomass accumulates chemical energy in form of carbohydrates through combination of solar

power and carbon dioxide during the process of photosynthesis. This has made it to be a
potential energy source since the carbon dioxide captured during photosynthesis could be
released when it burns. It is cheap and available in all forms such as forest and agricultural
residues, wood, by-products of biological materials, organic components of municipal and
sludge wastes, etc. There are several ways to convert biomass into useful products which
largely depends on biomass characteristics and the end product . The technologies applied in
the conversion of biomass are mainly categorized under thermochemical or biological methods.

Biomass conversion?
Biomass conversion to biogas is a natural process that utilizes a consortium of anaerobic
bacteria working in equilibrium to degrade complex biomass into simpler compounds, which
are then converted to biogas and a liquid residue rich in very useful metabolites. The biogas is

1
typically biomethane, but in recent years the option of co-producing biohydrogen in the
whole anaerobic process has been explored for commercial viability because of the
significantly higher value of hydrogen. Even if produced in relatively small volumes not yet
profitable to be marketed on its own, biohydrogen can be added to biomethane to produce
biohythane, which has higher combustive properties than methane alone. Applying the
anaerobic process for the purposeful conversion of biomass to biogas requires process
engineering approaches in designing and operating favorable system conditions for high yield
and productivity. The anaerobic process applications and the advancements made to add value
to the products. Maximizing the biogas options with biomethane, biohydrogen, and biohythane
also results in a better digested sludge residue, which can be further exploited for income
generation and to make the entire process a system with zero emission.

Fig.1- Biomass conversion pathways

Biomass Combustion

Combustion of biomass used to heat greenhouses. Combustion of biomass, is arguably the

oldest known and most widely used controllable energy source on earth. In recent years, rising
costs of fossil fuels and the development of advanced equipment have made biomass
combustion an economical, efficient, and practical energy source.

Principles of Combustion

2
Combustion is familiar to all of us, but many do not realize that it is essentially a chemical
reaction. In the process of combustion, two ingredients (biomass and oxygen) are combined in
a high temperature environment to form carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat.

The amount of heat that is produced varies depending on species, climate, and other factors,
but it is generally about 20 MJ of energy per dry kilogram of biomass.
In order for combustion to be efficient and clean, the ingredients must be well mixed at the
right temperatures for the right amount of time. Practically speaking, this means that you need
the right amount of fuel, the right amount of air, and the right conditions.

Water content in biomass is an important factor when it comes to combustion. The best burning
fuels are dry. However, biomass almost always includes some amount of moisture. For
example, green wood chips are usually about 50% water and 50% dry matter. Fresh leaves
from a plant can be as high as 95% moisture and 5% dry matter. Ideally, biomass should be no
more than 20% moisture.

Fig.2- Biomass combustion

Feedstocks for Biomass Combustion

3
A feedstock is merely the fuel that will be burned for energy. While wood is the most common
feedstock for biomass combustion, almost any plant material can be used as a combustion
feedstock.

Processing Biomass for Combustion

Biomass can often benefit from a certain amount of processing to make it more suitable as a
combustion fuel. This includes sizing, drying, and/or densification. There are currently three
types of biomass conversion technologies available that can result in specific energy and
potentially renewables products.

Direct Combustion Processes

Direct combustion furnaces can be divided into two broad categories & are used to produce
direct heat or steam. Dutch ovens, spreader-stokers, and fuel cell furnaces use two stages. The
first stage is for drying & possible partial gasification, & the second is for complete
combustion. More advanced versions of these systems used vibrant rotator grates to facilitate
ash removals, some of which require water cooling. The second group includes suspension &
fluidized bed furnaces commonly used with fine particle biomass feedstocks and liquids. In
suspension furnaces, the particles are burned while being kept in suspension by injection of
turbulent preheated air, into which the biomass particles may already be mixed. In Fluidized
Bed Combustors, a boiling bed of preheated sand at a temperature of 500 to 900 °C provides
the combustions mediums, into which the biomass fuels are either dropped if it is densest
enough to sink into the boiling sands or particles or liquids if injected.

Fig.3- Direct combustion of Biomass

4
Co-Firing

Modern practices that have allowed biomass feedstocks an early and cheap entry point into the
energy market is the practice of co-firing a fossil fuel, usually coal, with a biomass feedstock.
There are many advantages to co-firing, especially where the power output is output. First,
where the conversion facility is located near an agro-industrial or forestry product processing
plant, there is a large amount of low-cost biomass residue available. These residues may
represent a low-cost fuel feedstock, although there may be other opportunity costs. Second, it
is now widely accepted that fossil-fuel power plants are generally highly polluting in terms of
sulfur, CO2, and other GHGs. The use of existing equipment, perhaps with some modifications,
and co-firing with biomass could represent a cost-effective means to meet more stringent
emissions targets. The low sulfur and nitrogen relative to coal content of biomass fuels and
near-zero net CO2 emission levels allow biomass to offset the high sulfur and carbon content
of fossil fuels.

Third, if an agro-industrial or forestry processing plant wants to make more efficient use of
residues generated by co-generation electricity, but has a highly seasonal component to its
operation schedule, co-firing with fossil fuels would allow economic production—electricity
throughout the year. Agro-industrial processors such as the cane sugar industry can produce
large amounts of electricity during the harvesting & processing season; & however, during the
off-season, the plants will remain idle. This has two drawbacks; first, it is an inefficient use of
equipment that has a limited lifespan, and second, power distribution utilities will not pay the
full premium for power supplies that cannot be relied upon for year-round production.

In other words, the distribution utility needs a guarantee of supply throughout the year and,
therefore, may have to invest in its production capacity to cover off-season gaps in supply,
along with associated costs in equipment and fuel. If, however, agro-processors can guarantee
a year-round power supply through the burning of alternative fuels, it will make efficient use
of its equipment & receive premium payments for its electricity by the distribution facility.

Conversion Technologies

There are a number of technological options available to make use of a wide variety of biomass
types as a renewable energy source. Conversion technologies may release the energy directly,
in the form of heat or electricity, or may convert it to another form, such as liquid biofuel or
combustible biogas. While for some classes of biomass resource there may be a number of
usage options, for others there may only one appropriate technology.

5
 Fig.4- Classification of Biomass conversion methods
Thermo-chemical conversion
Thermal conversion: Thermochemical processing is the use of heat to promote chemical
transformations of biomass into energy and chemical products. Thermals biomass conversion
processes use heat as the key mechanism to upgrade biomass into better and more practical
fuels.

Fig.5- Conversion Technologies of Biomass

6
These are processes in which heat is the dominant mechanism to convert the biomass into
another chemical form. The basic alternatives are separated principally by the extent to which
the chemical reactions involved are allowed to proceed

 Pyrolysis
 Gasification
 Combustion
 Liquefaction

Energy created by burning biomass (fuel wood) is particularly suited for countries where the
fuel wood grows more rapidly, e.g., tropical countries. Biomass cofiring with coal, by contrast,
typically occurs at efficiencies near those of the coal combustor.

There are a number of other less common, more experimental thermal processes that may offer
benefits such as hydrothermal upgrading (HTU) and hydro processing. Some have been
developed for use on high moisture content biomass, including aqueous slurries, and allow
them to be converted into more convenient forms.

Applications of thermal conversion

 Combined heat and power (CHP)

 Co-firing

Pyrolysis
Process of heating biomass in the absence of air is known as pyrolysis. During this process, the
biomass is transformed into solid, liquid, and gaseous fractions. Using flash pyrolysis, which
could convert the biomass into bio-crude with a maximum efficiency of 80%, Bio oil can be
produced using pyrolysis. Bio-oil may be used in turbines and engines, as well as a feedstock
for industries.
The biomass feedstocks are subjected to high temperatures at low oxygen levels, thus
preventing complete combustion, and can be done under pressure. Biomass is degraded into
single carbon molecules, and H2 is producing a gaseous mixture called “producer gas.” Carbon
dioxide can also be produced, but it is reduced back to CO and H 2 O under the pyrolytic
conditions of the reactor; This water further aids in the reaction. Liquid phase products arise
from temperatures that are too low to break down all long-chain carbon molecules, resulting in
the production of tar, oil, methanol, acetone.

Once all the volatiles is removed, the residual biomass takes the form of char which is virtually
pure carbon. Pyrolysis has recently attracted attention for the productions of liquid fuels from
cellulosic feedstocks by “fast” & “flashes” pyrolysis in which the biomass has a shorts
residence time in the reactor. A more detailed understanding of the physicals and chemical
properties that govern pyrolytic reactions has allowed optimization of the reactor conditions
required for this type of pyrolysis. Further work is now focusing on the use of high-pressure
reactor conditions to produce hydrogen and on low-pressures catalytic techniques requiring
zeolites for alcohols production from pyrolytic oil.

7
 Fig.6- Pyrolysis Process

Gasification

Biomass gasification involves burning of biomass in a limited supply of air to give a

combustible gas consisting of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane, water,
nitrogen, along with contaminants like small char particles, ash and tars. The gas is cleaned to
make it suitable for use in boilers, engines and turbines to produce heat and power (CHP).
Biomass gasification provides a means of deriving more diverse forms of energy from the
thermochemical conversion of biomass than conventional combustion. The basic gasification
process involves devolatization, combustion and reduction.

Fig.7- Gasification Process

8
The products of gasification are a mixture of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane,
hydrogen and various hydrocarbons, which can then be used directly in gas turbines, and
boilers, or used as precursors for synthesising a wide range of other chemicals.

Incomplete oxidation of biomass at extreme temps to create a variety of flammable gases is

known as gasification. Low-calorie gas can be used as fuel for power plant. Syngas can also be
composed of biomass. Syngas made from biomass is used to create methanol and hydrogen,
two fuels that can be utilized for transportation and other purposes. Due to the high temperature
and controlled environment, almost all the raw material is being converted into gas. This
happens in two stages. In the first stages, the biomass is partially combusted to produce
productive gas & charcoal. In the second stage, the C02 & H2O produced in the first stage are
chemically reduced by charcoal, forming CO & H2. The compositions of the gas are 18 to 20%
H2; an equals part CO, 2 to 3% CH4, 8 to 10% CO2, & the remainder nitrogen.

These phases are spatially separated in the gasifiers, with the gasifier design relying heavily on
the feedstock characteristics. The gasification requires a temperature of around 800 °C and is
carried out in a closed top or open top gasifier. These gasifiers can be operated at atmospheric
pressures or higher. The gas’s energy density is typically less than 5.6 MJ/m3, lower than
natural gas at 38 MJ/m3, which provides only 60% of the diesel’s power rating when used in
modified diesel engines.

Gasification technology had existed since the turn of the century when coal was extensively
gasified in Britain and elsewhere in homes for electricity generation and cooking, and lighting.
The gasifier was used extensively for transport in Europe during World War II due to oil
shortages, with a closed top design being the predominant one.

Gasification of biomass takes place in a restricted supply of oxygen and occurs through initial
devolatilization of the biomass, combustion of the volatile material and char, and further
reduction to produce a fuel gas rich in carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This combustible gas
has a lower calorific value than natural gas but can still be used as fuel for boilers, for engines,
and potentially for combustion turbines after cleaning the gas stream of tars and particulates.

There are two main types of gasifiers that can be used to carry out this conversion, fixed bed
gasifiers and fluidized bed gasifiers. The conversion of biomass into a combustible gas involves
a two-stage process. The first, which is called pyrolysis, takes place below 600°C, when
volatile components contained within the biomass are released. These may include organic
compounds, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, tars and water vapour.

Combustion
Biomass in an oxygen-rich atmosphere is known to as combustion. It is used in a number of
processes and equipment, including furnaces, burners, steam-turbines, and boilers, to convert
chemical-energy that is stored in biomass into heat energy, mechanical energy, and
electric power generation. Despite any kind of biomass could be burned, it is only feasible to
burn biomass when the humidity is under 50%. Biochemical conversion methodologies are
more suited to high moisture content biomass. Combustion and gasification, operating together
to produce a net efficiency of 40 to 50 percent ensures a high conversion rate.

9
Conventional combustion technologies raise steam through the combustion of biomass. This
steam may then be expanded through a conventional turbo-alternator to produce electricity. A
number of combustion technology variants have been developed. Underfeed stokers are
suitable for small scale boilers up to 6 MWth.

Grate type boilers are widely deployed. They have relatively low investment costs, low
operating costs and good operation at partial loads. However, they can have higher NOx
emissions and decreased efficiencies due to the requirement of excess air, and they have lower
efficiencies.

Fluidized bed combustors (FBC), which use a bed of hot inert material such as sand, are a more
recent development. Bubbling FBCs are generally used at 10-30 MWth capacity,
while Circulating FBCs are more applicable at larger scales. Advantages of FBCs are that they
can tolerate a wider range of poor-quality fuel, while emitting lower NOx levels.
During combustion, the volatiles and char are partially burned in air or oxygen to generate heat
and carbon dioxide. In the reduction phase, carbon dioxide absorbs heat and reacts with the
remaining char to produce carbon monoxide (producer gas). The presence of water vapour in
a gasifier result in the production of hydrogen as a secondary fuel component.

Liquefaction
Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass is the thermochemical conversion of biomass into liquid
fuels by processing in a hot, pressurized water environment for sufficient time to break down
the solid biopolymeric structure to mainly liquid components. Typical hydrothermal processing
conditions are 523–647 K of temperature and operating pressures from 4 to 22 MPa of pressure.
Closely related processing in supercritical water conditions (>647 K and >22 MPa) will not be
discussed in this review, except in the context of aqueous phase processing.
The process is meant to provide a means for treating wet materials without drying and to access
ionic reaction conditions by maintaining a liquid water processing medium. The temperature
is sufficient to initiate pyrolytic mechanisms in biopolymers while the pressure is sufficient to
maintain a liquid water processing phase.
Hydrothermal processing is divided into three separate processes, depending on the severity of
the operating conditions. At temperatures below 520 K, it is known as hydrothermal
carbonization. The main product is a hydrochar which has a similar property to that of a low
rank coal. In the case of microalgae, the hydrochar is largely produced from the carbohydrate
and protein fractions and the lipid fraction is still intact making it possible to extract the lipids
prior to hydrothermal carbonization.
At intermediate temperature ranges between 520 and 647 K, the process is defined as
hydrothermal liquefaction resulting in the production of a liquid fuel known as biocrude.
Biocrude is similar to petroleum crude and can be upgraded to the whole distillate range of
petroleum derived fuel products. At higher temperatures above 647 K gasification reactions
start to dominate and the process is defined as hydrothermal gasification, resulting in the
production of a synthetic fuel gas.

10
It is a process that generates a liquid from solid or a gas or that generates a non- liquid phase
which behaves in accordance with fluid dynamics.
This technology has the potential to produce high-quality products of greater energy density.
This product should also require less processing to produces marketable products. Catalytic
liquefactions are a low-temperature, high-pressure thermochemical biomass conversion
process performed in the liquid phase. This requires either a catalyst or a high hydrogen partial
pressure. Technical problems have limited the opportunities for this technology so far.
Bio-chemical conversion

Biochemical conversion: As biomass is a natural material, many highly efficient biochemical

processes have developed in nature to break down the molecules of which biomass is
composed, and many of these biochemical conversion processes can be harnessed.

Biochemical conversion of biomass involves use of bacteria, microorganisms and enzymes to

breakdown biomass into gaseous or liquid fuels, such as biogas or bioethanol. The most popular
biochemical technologies are anaerobic digestion (or bio methanation) and fermentation.
Anaerobic digestion is a series of chemical reactions during which organic material is
decomposed through the metabolic pathways of naturally occurring microorganisms in an
oxygen depleted environment. Biomass wastes can also yield liquid fuels, such as cellulosic
ethanol, which can be used to replace petroleum-based fuels.

Biochemical conversion makes use of the enzymes of bacteria and other micro-organisms to
break down biomass. In most cases micro-organisms are used to perform the conversion
process.

Biochemical processes take place when there are chance encounters between enzymes and
substrates. The use of microbes to produce ethanol is an ancient art. However, in recent times
such organisms have been regarded as biochemical “factories” for the treatment and conversion
of most forms of human-generated organic wastes. The use of microbes to produce ethanol is
an ancient art. However, in recent times such organisms have been regarded as biochemical
“factories” for the treatment and conversion of most forms of human-generated organic wastes.
Microbials engineering has encouraged the use of fermentation techniques aerobic and
anaerobic for use in the production of energy (biogas) and fertilizer and in the removal of
unwanted products from water and waste streams.
1. Anaerobic Digestion
2. Ethanol Fermentation

Anaerobic digestion
Hydrocarbon is immediately converted to a biogas, during anaerobic digestion. It consists
primarily of methane and CO2, with tiny quantities of other gases including H2S.Bacteria
metabolize biomass in aerobic environment, forming a gas with energy equal to 20–40percent
of the material’s lower heating value. Anaerobic digestion is an extensively utilized,
commercially tested technology that produces grid connected electricity with a least capacity
of 1 MW.

11
Anaerobic reactors are commonly used to produce methane-containing biogas from manure
(human and animal) and crop residues. They use mixed methanogenic bacterial cultures that
are characterized by defined optimum temperature ranges for growth. These mixed cultures
allow digesters to operate over a wide temperature range, i.e. from 0°C to above 60°C. When
working well, the bacteria convert about 90% of the feedstock energy content into biogas
(containing about 55% methane), an easily usable energy source for cooking and lighting. The
sludge produced after the manure passes through the digester is non-toxic and odorless.

In addition, it loses relatively little nitrogen or other nutrients during the digestion process,
making it a good fertilizer. In fact, digester sludge has a higher nitrogen content than animal
manure left to dry in the field; Many nitrogen compounds in fresh manure evaporate during
drying in the sun. On the other hand, some of the nitrogen in the digested sludge is vaporized,
and some of the nitrogen’s are converted into urea. Urea is more readily accessible by the plant
than many nitrogen compounds found in dung, and thus the fertilizer value of sludge may
actually be higher than that of fresh dung.

Various types of anaerobic digesters were widely distributed throughout India and China.
Extension programs promote biogas plants as ideal candidates for rural use because of their
energy and fertilizer production efficiencies as well as their superior health benefits. The health
benefits mainly arise from the cleaner combustion products of biogas, unlike other biomass or
fossil fuels that can be used in the domestic environment, with an estimated 5 to 6 million units
now in use in these two countries.

The reliability problem has arisen from a number of problems such as manufacturing defects,
the mixed nature of bacterial populations, the need for a digester for water, and the maintenance
of an optimal nitrogen ratio of the medium. Another problem is the demand for dung from the
digester, which may have alternative uses. Modern designs have addressed many of these
problems, and digesters are becoming useful again, especially with regard to the ability of
digesters to remove toxic nutrients such as nitrates from the water supply; The levels of which
are now more strictly controlled in many industrialized countries. The combination of energy
production with the potential to increase crop yields makes biogas technology a good candidate
for more widespread use now to demonstrate reliable operation. Recent Danish business
experience with large-scale digesters provides useful examples.

Ethanol Fermentation
Sugar crops and starch crops are fermented commercially on a massive scale to make ethanol
In a lot of places. The biomass is degraded, enzymes convert the starch to sugars, and sugars
are converted into ethanol by yeast. Distillation is an energy-intensive process used to purify
ethanol; it can yield 450 liters of ethanol from one thousand kg of dry corn. This method’s solid
waste product can be fed to pets, and sugar cane molasses can be used for later gasification.
Ethanol is primarily used as a substitute for imported oil to reduce their dependence on
imported energy supplies. Substantial gains made in fermentation technologies now produce
ethanol for use as an economically competitive given some assumptions and environmentally
friendly petroleum substitute and fuel enhancer.

For example, in Brazil, subsidies for alcohol production are now seen as detrimental to the
stability of the ethanol market and thus obsolete and made with environmental benefits. The

12
long-term future and expansion of this program made it a priority for the Zimbabwean
government.

Sugarcane is the most commonly used feedstock in developing countries due to its high
productivity when sufficient water is supplied. Where water availability is limited, sweets
sorghum or cassava may become the preferred feedstock. Other benefits of sugarcane feedstock
include high residue energy efficiencies and modern management practices that allow
sustainable and environmentally sustainable production while allowing for the sustainable
production of sugar. Other feedstocks include saccharide-rich beet, and carbohydrate-rich
potatoes, wheat, and maize. One of the most promising fermentation techniques recently
identified is the “bio still” process that utilizes centrifugal yeast reformation and continuous
evaporative removal of ethanol.

This allows the fermentation mediums to be continuously sterilized & minimizes water usage.
The bio still processes markedly reduces the production of stillage, while the non-stop nature
of the fermentation process allows substrate concentrations to be kept consistently at optimal
levels, and hence the fermentation efficiency is maximized. {Hall, 1991} Improved varieties
of yeasts produced through clonal selection techniques also have increased tolerance levels to
the yeast’s alcohol concentration, again improving efficiency.

Chemical conversion

A range of chemical processes may be used to convert biomass into other forms, such as to
produce a fuel that is more conveniently used, transported or stored, or to exploit some property
of the process itself.

In most cases, the first step involves gasification, which step generally is the most expensive
and involves the greatest technical risk. Biomass is more difficult to feed into a pressure vessel
than coal or any liquid. Therefore, biomass gasification is frequently done at atmospheric
pressure and causes combustion of biomass to produce a combustible gas consisting of carbon
monoxide, hydrogen, and traces of methane.

This gas mixture, called a producer gas, can provide fuel for various vital processes, such as
internal combustion engines, as well as substitute for furnace oil in direct heat applications.
Because any biomass material can undergo gasification, this process is far more attractive than
ethanol or biomass production, where only particular biomass materials can be used to produce
a fuel. In addition, biomass gasification is a desirable process due to the ease at which it can
convert solid waste (such as wastes available on a farm) into producer gas, which is a very
usable fuel.

Some examples of chemical conversion methods are:

Transesterification

Converting vegetable oils, animal fats, and greases into fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) to
produce biodiesel.

Transesterification is an organic reaction in which the R group of an alcohol is exchanged with

an R’ group of an ester. This is generally done via the introduction of an acid or base catalyst

13
to the reaction mixture. However, it can also be done using certain enzyme catalysts (such as
lipases).

When catalyzed by an acid catalyst, this reaction proceeds via the conversion of the carbonyl
group through the donation of a proton to it. On the other hand, base catalysts take a proton
away from the alcohol group, resulting in the formation of a highly nucleophilic alkoxide ion.

It can be noted that methyl & ethyl esters can be used to form esters with relatively large alkoxy
groups via the process of transesterification. This is usually done by heating the ester (methyl
or ethyl) with the acid/base catalyst and the alcohol having a large alkoxy group, and
subsequently evaporating off the smaller alcohol in order to drive the equilibrium reaction in
the required direction.

Depolymerization

Breaking down polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch) into glucose and other simple
sugars that can be used as platform chemicals.

Depolymerization is the process of converting a polymer into a monomer or a mixture of

monomers1. This process is driven by an increase in entropy. The process works by immersing
the thermoset wastes in an appropriate organic solvent. With the solvent molecules diffuse into
the network, they participate in dynamic reactions with target covalent bonds on the chain
backbone, leading to chain cleavage and network depolymerization.

Hydrogenation

Hydrogenation is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen (H2) and another compound
or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel, palladium or platinum. The
process is commonly employed to reduce or saturate organic compounds.

Hydrogenation typically constitutes the addition of pairs of hydrogen atoms to a molecule,

often an alkene. Catalysts are required for the reaction to be usable; non-catalytic
hydrogenation takes place only at very high temperatures. Hydrogenation
reduces double and triple bonds in hydrocarbons.

Hydrogenation has three components, the unsaturated substrate, the hydrogen (or hydrogen
source) and, invariably, a catalyst. The reduction reaction is carried out at different
temperatures and pressures depending upon the substrate and the activity of the catalyst.
Adding hydrogen to biomass to increase its energy density and stability.

Electrochemical conversion

In addition to combustion, bio-mass or bio-fuels can be directly converted to electrical energy

via electrochemical oxidation of the material. This can be performed directly in a direct carbon
fuel cell, direct ethanol fuel cell or a microbial fuel cell. The fuel can also be consumed
indirectly via a fuel cell system containing a reformer which converts the bio-mass into a
mixture of CO and H2 before it is consumed in the fuel cell.

14
Progress and Potential

The design of electrochemical systems that can effectively and efficiently drive conversions of
biomass-derived platform chemicals into high-value chemicals presents great opportunity, both
from the environmental and economic standpoints. While the desirability of these technologies
is tremendous, much work needs to be done in the fabrication of functional materials that can
deliver superior performances with regard to reaction rates and selectivity. In this focused
review, we discuss the mechanistic reaction pathways for the oxidation/reduction processes as
well as tools, such as operando characterization techniques and theoretical calculations, for
understanding generations of intermediate/products. We evaluate strategies for catalyst and
system design yielding enhancements in performance and, finally, present outlooks for the
future, aimed to further advance the field.

15
Module 23 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION
(OTEC)
Structure
23.1 Introduction to OTEC
23.2 Methods of Ocean Thermal Electric Power Generation
23.3 Merits and Demerits of OTEC
23.4 Bio-Fouling
23.5 Site Selection of OTEC
23.6 Prospects of Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Systems In India

23.1 INTRODUCTION TO OTEC

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) generates electricity indirectly from
solar energy by harnessing the temperature difference between the sun-warmed
surface of tropical oceans and the colder deep waters. A significant fraction of
solar radiation incident on the ocean is retained by seawater in tropical regions,
resulting in average year-round surface temperatures of about 28 degrees Celsius
[10]. Warm surface water is pumped through an evaporator containing a working
fluid. The vaporized fluid drives a turbine/generator. The vaporized fluid is turned
back to a liquid in a condenser cooled with cold ocean water pumped from deeper
in the ocean. OTEC systems using seawater as the working fluid can use the
condensed water to produce desalinated water [11].

23.2 METHODS OF OCEAN THERMAL ELECTRIC POWER

GENERATION
The four main types of OTEC. These are as follows [12]:
(i) Open cycle Ocean thermal energy conversion
(ii) Closed cycle Ocean thermal energy conversion
Open Cycle OTEC
Warmer surface water is introduced through a valve in a low-pressure
compartment and flash evaporated. The vapour drives a generator and is
condensed by the cold seawater pumped up from below. The condensed water can
be collected and because it is fresh water, used for various purposes. Additionally,
the cold seawater pumped up from below, after being used to facilitate
condensation, can be introduced in an air-conditioning system. As such, systems
can produce power, fresh water and air-conditioning. Furthermore, the cold water
can potentially be used for aquaculture purposes, as the seawater from the deeper
regions close to the seabed contains various nutrients, like nitrogen and
phosphates.
Figure 8.4: Open cycle Ocean thermal energy conversion

Closed Cycle OTEC

Surface water, with higher temperatures, is used to provide heat to a working fluid
with a low boiling temperature, hence providing higher vapour pressure. Most
commonly ammonia is used as a working fluid, although propylene and
refrigerants have also been studied. The vapour drives a generator that produces
electricity; the working fluid vapour is then condensed by the cold water from the
deep ocean and pumped back in a closed system. The major difference between
open and closed cycle systems is the much smaller duct size and smaller turbines
diameters for closed cycle, as well as the surface area required by heat exchangers
for effective heat transfer. Closed conversion cycles offer a more efficient use of
the thermal resource

Figure 8.5: Closed cycle Ocean thermal energy conversion

23.3 MERITS AND DEMERITS OF OTEC

Merits and demerits for OTEC can be summarized as follows [12];

OTEC considers as renewable and clean source of energy as it does not change
any ocean condition only use to the solar energy which is stored in the world's
oceans.
OTEC is a continuous and reliable energy source in contrast to wind and solar
which are intermittent energy sources in nature.
OTEC has low oprtational cost.
OTEC can also use for desalinization of water to turn evaporated seawater into
potable (fresh) water.
The capital expenses for OTEC is very high due to involvement of the principal
components such as the heat exchangers, turbogenerator, and seawater supply
system and ancillary devices such as separators to remove residual liquid
downstream of the evaporator and subsystems to hold and supply working fluid.
OTEC construction has more concern for political issues based on the
international boundary disputes between nations.

23.4 BIO-FOULING

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) harnesses thermal energy stored at

different seawater depths via power generation from a thermodynamic closed-loop
cyclical system. Apart from its consistent energy generation, it could be
diversified into other side industries, making OTEC an attractive and sustainable
source of renewable energy. However, the process that utilizes seawater as its
main fluid is exposed to biofouling deposition due to unwanted growth and
accumulation of biological elements on any contact surfaces, potentially affecting
its efficiency and damaging equipment in the process [14].
Biofouling or biological fouling is the accumulation of microorganisms, plants,
algae, or small animals where it is not wanted on surfaces such as ship and
submarine hulls, devices such as water inlets, pipework, grates, ponds, and rivers
that cause degradation to the primary purpose of that item [15].
Considering that biofouling is an inevitable condition that may not be eliminated,
a comprehensive study for assessing potential biofouling growth and deposition
mechanism is a crucial step for strategizing effective biofouling management in a
commercial and large-scale OTEC power plant facility.

23.5 SITE SELECTION OF OTEC

The main criteria to determinate optimal site or zones are their location to be less
than 10–15 km offshore and the thermal difference (TD) to be equal to or greater
than 20°C. Furthermore, other criteria are the distance to the cold-water pump area
that should not exceed 10 km (for onshore plants) as well as the social and
economic factors that exist in these communities. Finally, the importance of this
technology is to provide electricity in the isolated coastal areas as well as other
subproducts generated, such as fresh water, seawater air-conditioning (SWAC),
cold agriculture (ColdAg), and aquaculture, among others. That is why it is also
imperative to calculate the net electric generation given by a particular area and
the contribution to social development [16].

23.6 PROSPECTS OF OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY

CONVERSION SYSTEMS IN INDIA

The ministry of new and renewable energy (MNRE) in India has declared that
ocean energy is officially a renewable energy source and now falls under
Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO).
This recent Policy change offers new opportunities for OTEC in India.
The RPO states power suppliers are required to procure a part of their power from
renewable sources. By including Ocean Power as a renewable source, investing in
OTEC is made more attractive. This development stimulates research and funding.
National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), the leading OTEC institute in
India with an OTEC test lab and multiple operating low temperature thermal
desalination (LTTD) plants, is said to be thrilled about these policy developments.
India has the potential to generate 180,000 MW using OTEC, which demonstrates
the prospects for OTEC in India in the future [17].
Module 24 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

STRUCTURE
24.0 Objectives
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Principle of Geothermal Energy Working, Usage and Technological Aspects
24.3 Geothermal Gradients
24.4 Estimate Geothermal Energy or Power
24.4.1 Geothermal Resources Estimation
24.4.2 Nature of geothermal fields
24.5Geothermal Sources, Energy and Technologies Used
24.5.1 Hydrothermal resources
 Vapour dominated or dry steam power plants/fields
 Liquid dominated systems or wet steam power plants/fields
(Liquid dominated high temperature systems/power plant –
Flash steam open system, Binary cycle system)
Total Flow Concept System
 Liquid dominated low temperature systems (Geothermal fluids)
24.5.2 Geopressured Resources
24.5.3 Petro thermal Systems or Hot dry rock (HDR) Resources
24.5.4 Magma Resources (Molten rock chamber systems)
24.5.5 Hybrid Geothermal Fossil Systems
24.6 Prime Movers for Geothermal Energy Conversion
24.7 Geothermal Energy Production and Economics
24.8 Economics of Geothermal Energy
24.9Applications of Geothermal Energy
24.10 Multipurpose Total Energy Utilization of Geothermal Resources
24.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy
24.12 Geothermal Energy and the Environment
24.13 Geothermal Energy in India and Abroad
24.14 Conclusions
24.15 Glossary
24.16 Answer to Check Your Progress
24.17 References and Further Readings
1
 24.0 OBJECTIVES

Following are the learning objectives of Geothermal energy:

(1) To describe the principle behind tapping of Geothermal energy.
(2) To indicate limits and challenges with Geothermal energy usage.

Following are the learning objectives of Geothermal energy usage and

technological aspects:
(1) To describe the different conditions relevant to Geothermal energy
availability.
(2) To describe variations in Geothermal plant design.
Did you know?

The energy received

from the Sun is lost Geothermal energy is described with specific attention compared to other energy
at night. The small sources due to its unique features for focusing the earlier challenge, and aspects
amount of energy of Geothermal technologies (geotechnologies) that allow the gathering of the
generated by the considered energy source are expanded.
decay of unstable
isotopes of uranium,
24.1 INTRODUCTION
thorium etc. is
dissipated from
There are two large sources of energy. One is Sun which is above the earth and
earth’s interior to
other is geothermal energy below (within the sub-surface) the earth.
oceans and
Geothermal energy is the universal generated heat (thermal energy) stored in,
atmosphere.
or discharged from rocks and fluids (brines, water, gasses) saturated pore space,
The heat generated cavities and fractures and is widely harnessed in two ways: for power
within earth is (electricity) generation and for direct use. Therefore, geothermal energy
around 2700 GW. (Geotherm) is mainly heat energy from within the Earth. Heat is regularly
produced within the earth by the slow decay of radioactive uranium & thorium
isotopes/particles (40K, 232Th, 235U & 238U) that is natural in all rocks.

Geothermal energy (Geotherm) from Greek words — geo (earth) + therme

(heat). It is the heat energy from the earth.

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the heat is

continuously produced and will continue in the process of cooling for the
indefinite future. Hence, the Geotherm (constant heat flow) from the earth’s
core is almost infinite as solar or wind energy, so long as its sources are
actively approached, economically tapped and processed. Today we have
recognized that this resource has potential for much wider application. In India,
Northwest Himalayas and the west coast are considered geothermal areas. The
Geological Survey of India (GSI) has already identified more than 350 hot
spring sites, which can be explored and utilized. The geothermal power
potential in India is estimated to be 10,600 MW, but this potential is
. Contd…
2
fully under developed at present. Worldwide, people rely on Geotherm for
producing heating buildings, electricity and growing greenhouses. The
geothermal energy in India can be used for:
1. Cooking,
2. Crop drying,
3. Space heating,
4. Generating power, and
5. Use in greenhouse cultivation.

24.2 PRINCIPLE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

WORKING, USAGE AND TECHNOLOGICAL
ASPECTS

Principle of Geothermal Energy Working

Question
The temperature at the earth´s centre is estimated to be 2000-12000OC, and the Why are renewable
heat flows up towards the earth’s surface. So, it opens up striking possibilities, resources preferred?
because this natural heat can be hauled. For example, the earth´s heat can already
be extracted from a depth of less than 5 m using a coolant that circulates in an Answer
underground pipe. Another option is to first send water downwards and allow it
Renewable
to absorb heat before pumping it back up again.
resources of energy
In some places hot water is located at a great depth and only has to be pulled upto are preferred
the surface. The pumped-up water at a temperature of 70OC or higher is already because they release
suitable for domestic heating, and when it is hotter than 100OC, it can be used to very little
produce power. greenhouse gases.
The shift towards
Principle of Geothermal Energy Usage and Technological renewable resources
is due to two main
Aspects
reasons – depletion
Geothermal energy is available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. The heat of fossil fuels and
exchanger transfers heat energy between the ground and air at the surface by rise of earth’s
temperature due to
means of a fluid that moves through the pipes. The fluid used is often water or a
greenhouse gases.
combination of water and antifreeze material. The heat from warm air is
transferred to the exchanger and into the fluid during warmer weather months.
The temperature gradient is of the order of 25-30OC/Km, 40OC/Km in northern
latitudes and 40OC/Km closer to equator. For the 25-30OC/Km gradient, the
common usage 150-200 m with temperature rise of less than 10OC.

Oil industry drills 5,000 to 10,000 m with the temperature greater than 350 OC.
Generally, their associated electronic systems struggle as many of their
components or parts performance deteriorates at the high temperature (HT). At
many sites, the geological faults lead to higher temperatures also.

3
 24.3 GEOTHERMAL GRADIENTS
A potential geothermal source region should have high thermal gradient. The
temperature difference within the earth depends on:

I. Thermal properties of earth’s internal, their radial and lateral variation.

II. Movement of fluids or solid rock materials occurring at rates of more
than a few millimetres per year.

Thermal gradient is defined as the ratio of heat flux and thermal conductivity.

i,e. Thermal gradient = Heat Flux

Thermal Conductivity

Fig. 1 shows the variation in geothermal gradients. The figures are based on
measurements within a few Km of earth’s surface. Almost half of the hot spring
sites identified by the GSI are in the Himalayan region, mainly in the
Did you know? northwestern sector where post-Tertiary granite intrusions are considered to be
Geothermal energy responsible for the high thermal gradient (> 100OC/Km) and heat flow
is the almost (> 468 MW/m2) (Chandrasekharam, 2000).
unlimited amount
of heat generated Curve 1: It represents average uniform gradient.
by the Earth's core.
Even in geothermal
areas are
dependent on a
reservoir of hot
water, the volume
taken out can be
reinjected, making
it a sustainable
energy source.
Fig.1. Geothermal gradients

Curve 2: It represents theoretical increase in the boiling point of water at

increasing depth due to higher pressures, allowing for reduced
density due to higher temperatures.

Curve 3: It represents thermal gradients of such regions in which water

percolates through upper crust into lower hot region and hot
water flows vigorously upwards forming ‘hot springs’.

Curve 4: It represents the effect of solid impermeable rock. The rock

forms insulating cap on geothermal reserves and does not allow
heat flow to upper part.

. Contd…
4
Curve 5: It represents leaks in the solid impermeable rocks in the form of
springs of hot boiling water discharged in huge quantities to
ground surface. In some locations production of steam occurs at
lower depths and steam is released to the surface in the form of
geysers and furmaroles (holes where volcanic gases released) as
shown in curve 5. Such locations are very few in number.

24.4 ESTIMATE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY OR POWER

Geothermal energy comes from the earth’s interior heat. As we travel down
earth’s surface steadily, there exists a temperature gradient of 0.03OC per
metre. Thus a 30OC increase in temperature can be obtained per Km depth from Did you know?
the earth crust. The earth's core lies almost 3,800-4,000 miles (or 6,000-6,500
Kms) beneath the earth's surface. The temperature variations with depth are Average geothermal
shown in Fig. 2(a) and different layers of earth along depth is shown in Fig. gradient: 30OC per
2(b). The double-layered core is made up of very hot molten iron (Fe) 1000 m length.
surrounding a solid Fe center. The temperature range of the core is estimated to However, this heat
be 2760-6000OC. Heat transfer from the earth’s core is by three primary means: flux is not dispersed
uniformly over the
1. Heat conduction directly; earth’s surface;
2. Bubble like magma that buoys upwards towards the surface. rather, it is
3. Rapid injection of ballistic magma along natural rifts penetrating deep concentrated along
into earth’s mantles. active tectonic plate
peripheries where
volcanic activity
conveys high
temperature molten
material to the near
surface.

(a) (b)

Fig.2(a) & 2(b). Temperature variations with depth & different layers

Mantle is about 2,700 Kms thick and surrounding the earth’s core. It is thought
to be partly rock and partly magma. The outermost layer of the earth, the
insulating crust, is not one continuous layer of rock, like the shell of an egg, but
is broken into pieces called plates. Continental drift is the large horizontal
movements of slabs of continents to one another and to the ocean basins at the
rate of about one inch per year during few episodes of geologic time.

. Contd…
5
 Magma (fully/partially molten rock) may reach quite close to the surface
where the crust is thinned, faulted, or fractured by plate tectonics. When this
near-surface heat is passed to water, a usable form of Geotherm is produced.

Geothermal energy is of two types; the high grade and low the grade Geotherm.
The high-grade Geotherm is the heat due to the earth’s pressure that converts
water into steam. The low-grade Geotherm is the heat within the earth’s crust.
This heat is actually stored solar energy.

24.4.1 Geothermal Resources Estimation

Did you know?

Geothermal energy
available sources:

- Generally, it’s
available deep
underground at a
depth beyond about
80 Km. Hence, it is
not possible to
extract.

- In a few locations in
the world, layers are
at depths 300 to
3000 m. Such
locations are called
Geothermal fields.

6
Since the temperature difference exists between earth’s core and upper surface
of the earth, there is a constant heat flow between these two with an average
value of 63kW/Km2 or 0.063kW/m2, with 80kW/Km2 maximum level. If this Question
heat flow is taken into account the annual available energy could be 3X1020J. How does
24.4.2 Nature of geothermal fields geothermal energy
work?
We know that the volcanoes, hot springs, furmaroles and geysers are the visible
forms of geothermal energy. It is a regular part of the energy flow within the Answer
Earth’s depths. Usually it is deep underground and we cannot see most of it.
There may be no clues above ground to what exists below ground. Geothermal energy
works by using heat
Thermal energy is used by taking heat from geothermal reservoirs restored by from the core of
natural recharge. Reservoirs that are naturally adequately hot and permeable are earth. Geothermal
called hydrothermal reservoirs, whereas those are adequately hot but need plants are generally
artificial improvement of a rock permeability are called engineered (enhanced) set up near hot
geothermal systems (EGS). Geotherm can be used to produce power or directly springs to produce
for processes. EGS technique reduces the obstructions by allowing for the power from the
creation of hydrothermal reservoirs in deep, hot but naturally dry geological readily available
formations. It can also extend the life of natural reservoirs. steam.

24.5 GEOTHERMAL SOURCES, ENERGY AND

TECHNOLOGIES USED
The geothermal activity in the Himalayan Geothermal Belt (HGB) is the result
of the collision between India and Asia around 40 million years ago. The
collision originates the Indian Plate to sub duct under Asia, this created heating
of large granitic batholiths under the HGB which heat the subsurface water. The
water is regenerated by glaciers, creating an ideal for Geotherm exploitation.
Since the countries around have ignored it for very long time and have only
indicated interest in the resource, area has the potential to evolve as a Geotherm.

Contd…
7
 We can recover this heat (from visible geothermal form) as steam or hot water and
use it for various applications, like power generation and direct heat applications.
However, the Geotherm can be used productively in both on- and off-grid
developments, and is especially useful in rural electrification schemes.

Low temperature (LT) geothermal energy has been utilized for many purposes,
both direct uses and “cascade” methods power plants. Heat may come from co-
generation with a geothermal power plant or from smaller wells or heat exchangers
in earthed. Cascade methods utilize the hot water leftover from HT applications
(e.g., electricity generation) in sequentially LT processes, which may consider
binary systems to produce further electricity and direct heat uses (bathing &
swimming, space heating, including central heating, greenhouse, process heat;
aquaculture pond & crops drying etc.). Initially in Iceland it was used for bathing,
washing and space heating in the middle of 18th century. Direct heating in all its
forms is far more effective than electricity generation and places less demanding
heat requirements on the resource. As a result, geothermal heating is economical
over a much wider geographical area than geothermal power.
Question
Most of the commercial-grade production geothermal energy is reaped along
What are the localized “geothermal systems”, where the heat flow is near sufficient to the
geothermal fluids? surface that hot water or steam is able to climb either to the surface, or to depths
that we can reach by drilling. There are four kinds of technologies used for various
Answer
geothermal resources:
- Hot water,
a. Hydrothermal or hydro-geothermal energy resources:
- Hot brine, (i) Vapour dominated or dry steam power plants/fields;
(ii) Liquid dominated system or wet steam power plants/fields;
- Wet steam, and (iii) Hot-water fields.
- Mixture of above. b. Geopressured;
c. Petro thermal systems or Hot dry rock (HDR) resources; and
d. Magma resources (Molten rock chamber systems).

Today hydrothermal resources are the best and only kind in wide use. Other 3
resources are still in the infant stages of progress. For centuries, natural geothermal
fluids have been used for bathing and cooking, but it was not until the early 1900s
that Geotherm was used for industrial purposes and for the electricity generation in
the Larderello steam fields of Italy. In all cases where Geotherm is utilized, certain
conditions must be met before one has a viable geothermal resource. First
requirement is accessibility. This is usually achieved by drilling to depths of
interest, frequently using conventional methods similar to those used to extract oil
and gas from underground reservoirs. The second one is sufficient reservoir

Contd…
8

v
effectiveness, which depends on the type of geothermal system being utilized. In
some cases, as depicted in Fig. 3, one needs to have adequate quantities of hot,
pressurized natural fluid contained in a confined aquifer with high rock
permeability (to transmit groundwater) and porosity to safeguard long-term
production at economically justifiable levels from a drilled well.

Fig.3. Conceptual Geologic setting for an active hydrothermal system Question

In other situations, one only needs to have an adequately hot rock reservoir What are the
whose permeability can be enhanced to establish a system for extracting energy different types of
at acceptable levels. The term hot is relative, as it depends on the specific geothermal energy
deposits?
utilization. The geothermal resource actually stretches continuity in at least three
dimensions: temperature, depth, and permeability/porosity. Answer
24.5.1 Hydrothermal resources - Hydrothermal: Hot
The common ingredients water (hydro) and heat (thermal) are present in the water and steam, hot
hydrothermal resources. Steam and hot water are naturally produced where brine.
magma rises sufficiently close to the surface to heat groundwater trapped in
- Petrothermal: Hot
fractured or porous rocks, or when water moves at great depth along faults. The
dry rock (HDR).
different energy requirements are fulfilled using these resources depending on
their temperature and how deep they are.

Fig.4 shows a schematic diagram representing how the ‘hot springs (geysers)’
are produced through hot magma (molten mass), the fractured crystalline rocks,
permissible rocks and trickling ground water.

Fig.4. Geothermal system – hot spring system structure

The water is heated by hot rocks contact in hydrothermal convective system.

These are wet reservoirs containing steam and hot water or only hot water. If the
temperature is high enough then ‘steam’ generates electricity, otherwise,

. Contd…
9
 ‘hot water’ is used for heating space and process. The water present in the
permeable medium is heated by convection process and convective heat flow
occurs across hot rocks to water present in permeable rock.

Examples of hydrothermal resources sites are:

(i) Geyser geothermal field in California; (ii) Wairakei field in New Zealand;
(iii) Landerello field in Italy etc.

1. Vapour dominated or dry steam power plants/fields:

The vapour dominated reservoirs produce dry saturated steam of pressure above
atmosphere and at high temperature about 350OC.
Question
Fig. 5 shows a dry steam open system.
What makes a site
good for geothermal
power plant?

Answer

Hot geothermal fluid

with low gas and
mineral content,
shallow permeable Fig.5. Dry-steam open system
rocks for producing
and reinjecting the
 The centrifugal separator is used to clean the steam extracted from well
fluid, location close
by removing solid matters.
to existing
transmission lines or
 The cleaned steam is then supplied directly into the ‘steam turbine’. The
load, and availability discharged steam from steam turbine is wet steam, (i.e., water and steam
of make-up water for mixture) which moves through the condenser. The condenser condenses
evaporative cooling. wet steam into water (through a cooling tower).
Geothermal fluid  The ‘steam jet injection’ method is used for the removal of the non-
temperature should condensable gases present in wet steam.
be at least 150OC,  The condensed steam is re-injected deep into the ground/well. This
although plants are system is used in Landerello field in Italy and Geyser on USA.
working on fluid
temperatures as low Environmental aspects:
as 100OC.
 The steam from hydrothermal resources may contain 0.5 to 5.0% by
weight of non-condensable gas [mainly carbon monoxide (CO), methane
(CH4) & ammonia (NH3)] which are largely harmless in the quantities
present. Gases also contain hydrogen sulphide (H2S) which is harmful to
plant and animal life.
. Contd…
10
  The withdrawal of large amount of steam from the source may result in
surface subsistence, mainly happens in ‘oilfields’, is dealt with by
injecting water into the ground. The re-injection of surplus water is done
at some distance from a ground fault.

2. Liquid dominated systems or wet steam power plants/fields:

In such a system, water temperature is more than the normal boiling point
(100OC). The water does not boil but remains in liquid state due to the
pressure inside the reservoir. When the water comes on the earth surface its
pressure reduces causing in rapid boiling and the liquid water ‘flashes into a Question
mixture of steam and hot water’. The steam is separated from mixture and
consumed to produce power. What are the different
types of geothermal
(a) Liquid dominated high temperature power plants/systems: power plants?
For such systems, the following two (2) methods are used:
(i) Flash steam open system. Answer
(ii) Binary cycle system. There are three
geothermal power
(i) Flash steam open system: plant technologies
Fig. 6 shows a schematic diagram of flash steam open system. being used to turn
hydrothermal fluids to
power: dry steam,
flash steam and binary
cycle. The type of
conversion used
(selected in
development) relies
on the quality of the
 fluid (steam or water)
Fig.6. Flash steam open system and its temperature.

 Hot brine from the reservoir arrive the well head at lower pressure using
throttling process. The low quality of mixture is improved by throttling
it in flash separator. So, the dry saturated steam is separated and
supplied to the ‘steam turbine’, which produces electricity through a
‘generator’.

The electricity generation from such system can be made more economical by
associating chemical or processing industry with power plant to make use of
brine and gases effluent.

 This system is used in Otake, Japan and Cerro Prietol Mexico.

. Contd…
11
 Check Your Progress 1
Fill up the blanks.

1. Hot ------- are a form of geothermal energy.

2. Liquid and ------------- are the forms of geothermal energy.
3. --------------, geo-pressurised brines, hot dry rocks, magma are the types of
geothermal energy resources.
4. ----------- is best accountable for the hot water in a geothermal site.
5. Hot water and steam is/are the ----------------- in hydrothermal plants.
6. Temperature and depth of the source ----------- the usage of hydrothermal
resources.
7. Minimized temperature hot water is used to heat a fluid which -------- in a
Question binary cycle power plant.
What are the types 8. Fluid enlarged due to hot water from the geothermal site is used to run the
of geothermal ---------- in a binary cycle power plant.
energy deposits? 9. Increased ---------- in the geothermal reservoir is geopressurised resources.

Answer

i. Hydrothermal: Hot Check Your Progress 2

water and steam,
hot brine. Mark the correct answer
1. How is the heat inside earth restored?
ii. Petro thermal:
(a) Hot steam is pumped into earth (b) Sun restores the heat (c) Radioactive decay
Hot dry rock (HDR). of elements (d) Cosmic rays.
2. Which of the following is the most probably location of geothermal site?
(a) River beds (b) Coasts (c) Volcanoes (d) Grasslands.
3. How does geothermal energy work?
(a) Uses potential energy (b) Uses water from the earth (c) Uses heat from
atmosphere (d) Uses heat from the core of earth.
4. Which of the following is used to locate a geothermal site?
(a) Seismograph (b) Reflection (c) Drilling wells.
5. What is continental drift?
(a) Tectonic plates pushing against each other (b) Continents being pulled due to
gravitational force (c) Continents being pulled due to nuclear force (d) Tectonic
plates expanding.
6. Which of the following countries hosts the largest geothermal field?
(a) Iran (b) Italy (c) Australia (d) United States.
7. Which of the following do heat pumps use in geothermal energy?
(a) Earth’s variable temperature (b) Variable electricity (c) Constant electricity
(d) Earth’s constant temperature.

12
Limitations: Following are the limitations of flash steam open system as
compared to vapour dominated system:

1. Much larger total mass flow rates through the well required.
2. Owing to large amount of flows, there is a great degree of ground
surface subsidence.
3. A greater degree of precipitation of minerals from the brine results in
the necessity for design of valves, pumps, separator internals, and other
equipment for operation under scaling conditions.

(ii) Binary cycle system:

The steam turbine is isolated in the binary cycle concept from corrosive or non-
corrosive materials and/or to accommodate higher concentration of non-
condensable gases.

This is basically a Rankine cycle with an organic working fluid.

A binary cycle plant system is used when the water in a hot water reservoir is
not sufficiently hot to flash into steam. Instead, a fluid that expands when Did you know?
warmed using this lower-temperature hot water. The turbine is powered from
Range of
the expanded, pressurized fluid. After cooling, the fluid is recycled and heated
geothermal
repeatedly. power plants
Fig.7 illustrates a hot water closed (binary) system. About 50% of hydrothermal installed
water is in the temperature range of 153-205OC. In this system, a ‘heat capacity: 5
exchanger’ is used to transfer the heat partially from the brine to vaporize the MW to 400 MW.
secondary working fluid. Expansion through a ‘turbine’ to a lower pressure is
fixed by the heat loss temperature which gives the ways for electricity
generation.

Fig.7. Hot water closed (binary) system

In this system, there are no problems of scaling or corrosion in the working

cycle components, such as the turbine, valve and condenser. Such problems are
confined only to the well casing and the shell-and-tube heat exchanger. No
contact taking place between brine and working fluid in the exchanger.

. Contd…

13
  This system was first installed by Soviet Union in 1967 on Kamchatka
Peninsula having capacity of 680 kilowatts (kWe). The first binary cycle
built in USA is of 11 megawatts (MWe) capacity in California and second
one at Raft-river-Idalio, is of a capacity 10 MWe.

TOTAL FLOW CONCEPT SYSTEM:

In such a system, both ‘kinetic energy’ and ‘heat energy of the steam-liquid’
mixture, generated by flashing the geothermal brine, are effectively used. The
overall efficiency for conversion into ‘power’ should be greater than other
methods in which only the heat content of the brine is used.
What is Hybrid
This system follows the principle of the ‘Lysholm machine (two phase
power plant?
expander)’, known in this connection as the helical (or screw) expander or
Some geothermal mixed phase expander.
fields produce
Fig. 8 shows a schematic diagram of a liquid dominated total flow concept.
boiling water as
well as steam,
which are also used
in electricity
production. In this
system of power
generation, the
flashed and binary
systems are
integrated to make
use of both steam Fig.8. Schematic diagram of a liquid dominated total flow concept system
and hot water.
Efficiency of hybrid The run-off geothermal well hot brine is throttled where it becomes a two-
power plants is phase mixture of inferior quality. The two phases at this point are not
however less than separated and the full flow is expanded in the ‘mixed phase expander’
that of the dry (turbine) which is coupled with generator which produces electrical power.
steam plants. The mixer from the expander/turbine is discharged into condenser. Then the
brine condensate is re-injected into the well.

Following are the requirements of mixed phase expanders:

I. The corrosive and erosive effects of the significant quantities of

dissolved solids in the brine should be carried by them.
II. They should be able to overcome the losses associated with the
impingement of liquid droplets on blades (efficiency of the turbine
decreases with the drop in quality).
Contd…

14
(b) Liquid-dominated low temperature systems (Geothermal fluids):

The hydrothermal reservoirs of this system are available at moderate temperature

range of 90OC to 175OC.

Due to low temperature, little mineral water is extracted. If there is a danger of

corrosion then it can be moved through a heat exchanger to convey heat from the
natural hot water. The main use of this system includes the following:

(i) To supply heat for commercial, homes and agricultural buildings including
greenhouses and animal shelters.
(ii) Hot water may also be used for refrigeration and air-conditioning.
Did you know?
24.5.2 Geopressured Resources Under the right
The geopressued resources contain moderate temperature (160OC) brine conditions, water
containing dissolved methane (CH4). These are trapped under high pressure can seep into these
(nearly 1000 bar) in a deep sedimentary formation sealed between impermeable hot rock segments,
occurring in the
layers of shale and clay at depths of 2 Kms to 10 Kms.
formation of high
At geopressure, the dissolved CH4 gas is usually 1.9-3.8 m3 per cubic metre of temperature
water. CH4 gas is released from water on the earth surface because the pressure at geothermal systems
earth surface is lower. Therefore, the CH4 gas is separated from brine by simple containing hot
and economical gravity segregation method and flaming of CH4 also generates water, water and
energy. steam or steam, at
500-3000 m depths.
When tapped by boring wells, three (3) sources of energy are available:

I. Thermal;
II. Mechanical-as pressure; and
III. Chemical-as methane.

 The major resource area is along the Louisiana and Texas coast which is
about 1200 Kms in length. The potential of geopressured energy in this
area is 240 GWe (gigawatt) of electricity maximum for 30 years.

24.5.3 Petro-thermal Systems or Hot dry rock (HDR) Resources

These systems are composed of hot dry rock (HDR) but no water inside earth.
They represent by far the largest geothermal resources available.

The rock, available at moderate depths, has very low permeability and requires to
be cracked to increase its heat transfer surface area.

Contd…
15
 The recovery of heat from HDR involves drilling deep into hot rocks, then
cracking it to form cavity or fractures. This can be achieved by:

(i) using high explosives at the bottom of the man-made well,

(ii) using nuclear explosion, an
(iii) by hydraulic fracturing (pumping water at HP into the rock).

The thermal energy of the HDR is extracted by pumping water or fluid through
a well at the lower part of the fractured rock to become hot and withdrawn by
another well at a distance. The temperature of the rock at a depth of 5 Kms is
about 200OC. To achieve steady flow of high temperature water, the injection
Did you know? and extracting wells are joined to form a circulating loop. When heat is
extracted through water, the rock cools down and due to temperature gradient
In 2019, a pilot- between rocks, new cracks are developed.
scale project in
Gujarat was  HDR technique is in operation near Valles Caldera, USA, where
started by the fractures are made at a depth of 2.76 Kms and temperature at the
Centre of location is about 185OC.
Excellence for
Geothermal Energy 24.5.4 Magma Resources (Molten-rock-chamber systems)
(CEGE). Similarly,
other proposed At some places, especially in the sector of relatively recent volcanic activity,
areas have been partially molten or fully molten rock (i.e. magma) occurs at a moderate depth
subjected to more (less than 5 Kms). The large volume and very high temperature above 650OC
exploration in make magma substantial geothermal resources. It can be used for extraction
India. and subsequent use of thermal energy.

This resource has not been used yet due to the reason that the existing
technology does not allow recovery of heat from these resources (magma
technology requires special manufacturing technology).

24.5.5 Hybrid Geothermal Fossil Systems

Such a system effectively uses the relatively LT heat of geothermal resources in
the LT end of a conventional cycle and the HT heat from fossil fuel burning in
the high temperature end of that cycle.

Fig.9 shows a schematic diagram of a geothermal preheat hybrid system, in

which LT geothermal energy is used to heat feed water of a conventional fossil
fuel system.

Contd…

16
 Fig.9. Geothermal preheat hybrid with conventional plant Did you know?

In this system, the geothermal heat heats the feed water throughout the LT Geothermal
steam end before an open type (without lid) deaerating heater. It is followed by energy is an
a boiler feed pump and two seal type feed water heaters with outlets cascaded massive,
backward. These get heat from the steam bled from HP (high pressure) stages underused heat
of turbine. No steam is bled from LP (low pressure) stages because ‘geothermal and power
brine’ attains this function. resource that
is clean (emits
little or no GHGs),
24.6 PRIME MOVERS FOR GEOTHERMAL ENERGY reliable (average
CONVERSION system availability
of 95%), and in-
Geothermal energy is put to work in number of places around the world. The
house grown
prime movers can be categorized used in geothermal power plants are,
(making us less
I. Impulse/Reaction machines: dependent on
 Axial flow – Rateau steam, Curtis. imported oil).
 Radial outflow – Rotating nozzle, Hero’s turbine.
 Radial inflow – Francis turbine, multiple disk drag turbine.
 Multiple disc turbine – Bladeless impulse or reaction drag turbine.

II. Positive displacement machines:

 Rotating oscillating vane machine.
 Helical screw expander.

III. Impulse machines:

 Arial Flow, De-laval turbine, and Curtis turbine.
 Tangential flow – Pelton wheel, Re-entry type turbine.
Contd…

17
 24.7 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY PRODUCTION AND
ECONOMICS
Geothermal energy is put to work in number of places around the world. The
estimated temperature of the geothermal reservoir in HGB is higher than 260OC. It
shows the highest geothermal gradient in India: more than 100OC/Km and 100
MW/m2 heat flow. The power produced (shortage 43000 MW) through
nonconventional sources has been far less than the 136 GW installed capacity (in
2020; from 24000 MW installed in 2012) of power plant. This gap between demand,
power supply can tackle successfully, economically with the help and utilization of
Geotherm resources. These plants can be combined with no adverse effect.
Did you know?
The well known Geotherm origins in USA are positioned in western states and
The profitable Hawaii. Some averagely hot geothermal resources also exist in the Dakotas, along the
harnessing of three states. Most Geotherm is established in 4 states - Hawaii, Utah, California and
Geotherm could Nevada. The total installed capacity of geothermal power plants in the USA was
be done in the reported about 4,000 MWe in 2020. These power plants range in size from a few
seven key hundred kilowatts to more than 130 MWe. Geotherm produced 18 billion kWh of
locations: electricity, or 0.3% of the electricity used in this country in 1994. Still, this was
- Puga Valley, sufficient to fulfill the electricity needs of over 3 million households. California got
Ladakh in the 6% of its power from Geotherm. Their supporters had said that its production will
Himalayas; grow in 1993s despite the fact that Geotherm production culminated in 1987 and had
- Sohana, in since decreased. They had also estimated at least 400 MWe more capacity for next 5
Rajasthan, years and deliver 10% of power of western USA by the end of the century.
Haryana; - West
Coast in 24.8 ECONOMICS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Maharashtra- Initial installation costs for geothermal power plants are high because geothermal
Goa; - Cambay, wells and power plants must be installed at the same time. But the cost of generating
in Gujarat; - The electricity over time is minimized because the price and availability of the fuel is
Son, Narmada, steady and predictable. The fuel does not have to be imported or transported to the
and Tapi belt power plant. The power plant closely resides on top of its Geotherm well. The capital
(SONATA); cost of generating power from geothermal sources in India is estimated to be US$1.6–
- The Godavari; 2.0 million per MWe, but the operating cost is minimal. New plants currently are
and - The
generating electricity from 0.05$ to 0.08$/kWh. Once the capital costs have been
Mahanadi belts.
recovered price of electricity can decrease and become lower than 0.05$/kWh. The
price of geothermal is within range of other electricity options available today when
the costs of the lifetime of the plant are worked out. Geothermal power plants are also
excellent avenues of base load power (minimum amount) that electric utility
companies must supply to grid all day long. These plants sell electricity through grid
all the time, not only during off-peak and peak (highest level) durations.

Contd…

18
In USA, geothermal electricity cost was between 7.8-22.5¢ (One dollar equals 100
cents) per kWh in 2016. Geothermal plants can produce power as cheaply as some
conventional power plants. It costs was reduced to 4.5 to 7 cents/kWh to produce
electricity from hydrothermal systems in next 2-3 years. In comparison, new coal-
fired plants produce power at about 4 cents/kWh. On average, power generated
from Geotherm is estimated to cost less than one third of that generated from
hydro-electric plant. Geothermal plants that initiate installation before Jan. 1, 2021
are eligible for the Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit (PTC) at 2.5
¢/kWh. Advances in technology, resulted over the past decade, mean that the
Geotherm can now play a significant role in our transition to a carbon neutral
Did you know?
economy. Until recently, utilities were needed to purchase the least-cost power,
Under the
overlooking environmental impacts. Federal/state energy and environmental
proposed
agencies are reviewing ways to give priority to nonpolluting sources such as
Geothermal
Geotherm.
Energy Policy,
24.9 CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS OF the Ministry of
New and
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Renewable
Energy of India
The general characteristics of geothermal energy that make it of major importance
(MNRE) has
for both power production and direct use include:
proposed to
- Global disposition; it is reachable to both developed and developing countries.
provide grants
- Environmentally benign type; it emits low sulphur, CO2 and other greenhouse
for geothermal
gases (GHGs). energy project
- Indigenous nature; it is independent of external supply and demand effects and for generating
variations in exchange rates. - power,
Independence of weather and season. industrial use,
- Contribution to the development of widened power sub-sectors. public use like
greenhouse
The primary areas where geothermal energy is being utilized are:
cultivation,
I. Direct use as heating systems in industrial processes: Geotherm is used to
space heating,
heat water from reservoirs or springs near the surface.
cooking, etc.,
II. Electricity generation by power plants: This operation requires water or
and Ground
steam at very HT. Geothermal power plants have proved useful for ‘base-load
Source Heating
power supply’. These kinds of operating plants are mainly entering the market
Pumps
where medium sized plants are required with low capital cost, short installation
(GSHPs).
period and life-long fuel (geothermal heat).
III. Geothermal heat pumps (in space heating for buildings): The Geotherm is
used where stable ground or water temperatures near the Earth's surface are
available to regulate temperatures in a building above ground. A heat pump is

Contd…
19
 a mechanical device used for heating and cooling purposes. It works on the concept that
heat can be extracted from a warmer to a cooler temperature. These pumps use the earth
to warm, cool us in the winter and summer. These are energy efficient, environmentally
clean, and cost effective systems for temperature control. Other various applications of
geothermal energy are:

 Mushroom culture.
 Production of salt from sea.
 Paper and Plastic manufacturing.
 Crop drying and Timber seasoning.
What is  Sewage heat treatment.
‘Heat  Greenhouse cultivation using discharge from a geothermal field.
pump’? Utilization of greater proportion of geothermal resource base depends on achieving one
or more of the following techniques:
You may be
familiar with 1. Breakthrough in drilling technology that would permit low-cost drilling of bores
one of the of depths greater than 3 Km.
most widely 2. Development of techniques for artificial stimulation that would increase the
used ‘heat productivity of the geothermal reservoirs.
pump’ in 3. Technical advances that would allow electrical generation from low-temperature
your home. and LP reservoirs.
It is your
4. Expansion of the use of low-grade geothermal resources for space heating and air
refrigerator.
conditioning, product processing, agriculture, and desalination schemes.
It extracts
5. Maintenance of the Geotherm system that is environmentally acceptable to
the heat
human being.
from the
items put 24.10 MULTIPURPOSE TOTAL ENERGY UTILIZATION OF
inside the GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
refrigerator
It could result in the following:
and throws
it outside 1. Steam separated in a conventional manner and used to transport cheap water.
which you
2. CO2 extracted from the gases are used for refrigeration and food processing.
can feel if
you put your 3. H2S refined to get sulphur.
hand behind 4. Hot waters form the wells could transport a desalination plant (one such plant is in
it. operation at EI Tatio in northern Chile); the fresh water would not only fulfill the
needs of the local population, but has a high selling value for irrigation.
5. The hot water would also provide refrigeration and air conditioning. Finally, the
effluent from the desalination could be applied to mineral extraction and the resulting
minerals processed in taking advantage of the availability of cheap electricity.
Contd…
20
 24.11 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
24.11.1. Advantages of Geothermal energy:
I. It is flexible in its use and assured source of energy.
II. Its availability is independent of the weather.
III. Geothermal plants need small land area.
IV. It supplies a greater amount of net energy from its system than other
alternative or conventional systems.
V. It is cheaper compared to energy available from other sources both zero
fuels and fossil fuels.
VI. Using Geotherm directly for heating purposes can be up to 70% more Did you know?
efficient than LT geothermal heat supports in many applications.
Following are the
VII. It has the highest annual load factor of 85-90% compared to 45-50% for
present practice with
fossil fuel plants.
geological energy
VIII. It has a natural stock, hence no extra storage systems are necessary.
source identification,
IX. It leads to negligible pollution compared to other traditional energy
exploration and
sources. utilization:
X. Once built, geothermal power station operating costs are small making - Geothermal energy
geothermal generated power much cheaper. preferably tapped
XI. Ground-based geothermal heat pumps for cooling and heating can be near faults.
used almost anywhere. - Deep drills already
being made for oil
24.11.2. Disadvantages of Geothermal energy: industry.

I. Overall efficiency for electricity generation is low about 15% when

compared to 35-40% for fossil fuel plants.
II. The subsidence of land might happen due to continuous extraction of
heated groundwater.
III. Large land area is required for the exploitation of Geotherm as much
scattered.
IV. The steam and hot water bursting out of the earth may contain hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), CO2, NH3 and radon gas, etc. These gases are to be
eliminated by chemical action before they are disposed.
V. Thermal energy cannot be dispersed easily over a long distance (longer
than 30 Km).
VI. The corrosive and abrasive geothermal fluid reduces the working life of
plants.
VII. Initial capital and installation costs are very high.
VIII. Drilling operation is noisy.
21
 24.12 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Geothermal energy is a secure, green, low-carbon and renewable energy source that
does minor harm to the environment. Geothermal steam and hot water do contain
naturally existing traces of H2S, other gases and chemicals that can be detrimental
in high concentrations. Geothermal power plants are harmonious with many
environments, use "scrubber" systems to clean the air (natural from reservoirs) of
H2S and the other gases. Sometimes the gases are converted into saleable products,
such as liquid fertilizer. Newer plants can even recycle these gases back into the
earth. Most geothermal plants return the geothermal water and steam that they use
back into the wells. This returning helps to renew the geothermal resource and to
Did you know? minimize emissions from the geothermal power plants.

Hot water springs The industrial exploitation of a Geothermal system is based on the heat mining
represents heat from the rocks using the geothermal fluids as vectors, without any specific process
energy coming of CO2 generation. Geothermal plants emit 1-4% little CO2 (fossil-fuel power
out of the earth stations emit 1000-2000 times as much), no NOx, no SPM, and very low amounts
from a large body of SO2. Steam and flash power plants drift mostly water vapor. Geothermal plants
molten rock that do not burn fuels to produce power as do fossil fuel plants.
has been pushed
Geothermal plants, on the other side, drift only about 1-3% of the SOx that coal/oil-
up into upper
fired plants do. Well-designed, built (in deserts, crop fields & mountain forests)
crust of the earth
binary plants have no emissions at all. Geothermal development is often allowed on
by geological
forces.
public lands because it does not significantly affect the environment. Before
permission is granted, however, studies must be made to determine what effect a
plant may have on the climate. Geothermal features in parks, such as the geysers
and fumaroles in USA, are legally protected and not tapped there.
24.13 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN INDIA AND ABROAD
Some progress has been made in India on drawing Geotherm on a commercial
scale. Engineers from GSI have drilled about 50 shallow promising geothermal
wells at altitude of 4500 metres above sea level for steam in the Puga valley in
Ladakh, J&K. It may be possible to operate a 5 MW power station. Out of
extended about 40 sq. Km, 5 sq. Km. is active. A combination of wet and dry to the
tune of 170 tonnes/hour of hot water and 20 tonnes/hour of dry steam (superheated
steam suitable for running steam turbines) is available. This is sufficient to operate
a small power station to light the local residences. The geothermal heat can also be
applied for space heating in the valley as the temperature here, especially during
winter, goes down to 35 degrees below freezing point. There are no other energy
sources in Ladakh and coal, petroleum etc. have to be conveyed. It can also be used
for mushroom cultivation, poultry farming and pashmina wool processing which
need a warmer climate. In addition, there are good deposits of borax and sulphur.
Sulphur in natural form is found in this vicinity and in the whole of India.

22 Contd…
 Check Your Progress 3
Select True or False.

1. Geothermal energy refers to the chemical energy within the earth.

2. Non-conventional energy sources are costlier than Conventional
sources.
3. Heat is produced by the decay of inert uranium & thorium isotopes in
all rocks.
4. Temperature gradient is 40OC/Km closer to equator.
5. Geysers and Furmaroles are the invisible forms of geothermal energy.
6. Currently, geothermal installation and development for power
generation occurs where hot springs are originated.
7. In hydrothermal conductive system water is heated by contact with Question
hot rocks.
Explain the method of
8. In Geothermal power plant utilize HT underneath the earth's crust.
extraction of
9. Dry steam plants use steam from geothermal wells to directly rotate a
turbine which drives a generator that generates electricity. geothermal energy.
10. Binary cycle plant is used when the water in a hot water reservoir is Answer
not hot sufficiently to flash into steam.
11. Binary plants release no emissions - they are closed loop systems. Deep production wells
12. Hot water (> 227°C) “flashes” to steam in Flash plants when pressure are drilled in the
is reduced in the site facility. geothermal fields. The
13. In the future, new EGS techniques will permit geothermal hot steam/
development anywhere in the world. water/brine are
obtained from the
Check Your Progress 4 geothermal layers by
production wells, by
Select Yes or No.
‘pumping’ or by
1. The geothermal power potential in India is estimated to be 10,600 MW. ‘natural pressure’.
2. Earth´s core temperature is estimated to be between 2000-12000OC.
.
3. Mantle is about 7,200 Kms thick.
4. Does geothermal energy cause Global Warming?
5. Fossil fuels are not a non-conventional source of energy because they
take millions of decades to form.
6. Hydrothermal reservoirs of this system are available at moderate
temperature range of 90-175OC.
7. In binary cycle the ‘heat exchanger’ is a shell-and-tube type so that
thorough contact between working fluid and brine takes place.
8. The recovery of heat from HDR involves drilling small into hot rocks.
9. Helical screw expander is not a prime mover for geothermal energy
conversion.
10. Base load power is minimum power that electric utility companies
must supply all day long.

23
 There are many hot water springs in India. In North they occur in Ladakh and
Himachal Pradesh. In Western parts they are located in the Cambay region of
Gujarat and Maharastra. They are also found in Singbhum of Jharkhand while
there are some in Assam. The water from a hot spring at Garampani, near Jawai,
Assam is so hot in summer that rice hold in muslin bag gets worked in no time.

The GSI has so far identified about 350 hot spring sites which can be explored as
avenues of Geotherm. The engineers have commissioned an experimental 1 kWe
generator running on hot water spring Geotherm in the Puga area.

 Many countries with hot springs have registered their potential for power
and heat production. Iceland, New Zealand, Italy, USA and Russia have
Question achieved remarkable progress in the geothermal energy application.

What is the
The Italian power plant at Landerello was started in 1904 on a small scale but it
difference between
produced 540 MWe of electricity in 2012, equivalent to burning 1.5 million tonnes
installed capacity
of oil in a year. New Zealand started exploration in 1950 and the Wairakei power
electricity generation
and electricity
station produced 175 MWe till that year, which is equal to 0.7 million tonnes of oil
generation?
per year. Then the power production in Calirornia, USA, began in 1960 and has
touched 50 MWe. In the Philippines the drillers struck HP, high temperature steam
Answer at about 200 m only at Tiwi, a tiny village nestled at the base of the volcano
Malino, in 1967. By January, 1976, the first geothermal plant at Tiwi began
Installed capacity of
producing 55 MWe. Russia reported that a geothermal power plant with a capacity
electricity generation
11 MWe was operating for nearly 25 years and undertaking construction another
is the maximum
plant of 200 MWe at Mutnovsky.
electric output
(without exceeding  At present, 35 countries of the world use Geotherm of about 15000 MWe
design level given in for space heating, industrial and agricultural applications, whereas 21
Nameplate) an countries utilize Geotherm for electricity generation.
electricity
generator/power According to the IRENA and the GGA, the global geothermal power generation
plant can produce (operated) capacity reached at 15,608 MWe level (which is less than actual
under specific installed capacity) at the end of year 2020. The current pandemic situation clearly
conditions. Electricity slowed down development with limited growth reported. Turkey reports nearly all
generation is the geothermal power generation capacity added in 2020. The following 8 current
amount of actual Indian projects and Top 10 (as ThinkGeoEnergy source) geothermal countries
electricity a have operated generating geothermal units (above 600 MWe) by the end of year
generator produces 2020. The geothermal power is forecasted to be 19331 MWe in the world by 2025.
during a specific The roadmap envisions that the geothermal electricity generation could reach 1400
period of time. TWh per year, i.e. around 3.5% of global power production by 2050. Geothermal
heat could contribute 5.8 EJ annually by 2050.

24
Sl.
Geothermal Field Estimated (min.) reservoir
No. Status
in India Temp (Approx)

1 Puga geothermal 240oC at 2000 m From geochemical and deep

field geophysical studies (MT)
2 Tattapani Sarguja 120-150oC at 500 meter Magnetotelluric survey done by NGRI
(Chhattisgarh) and 200 Cat 2000 m
3 Tapoban Chamoli 100oC at 430 meter Magnetotelluric survey done by NGRI
(Uttarakhand)
4 Cambay Garben 160oC at 1900 m (From Steam discharge was estimated 3000 cu
(Gujrat) Oil exploration borehole) meter/ day with high temprature
gradient.
5 Badrinath 150oC estimated Magneto-telluric study was done by
Chamoli NGRI. Deep drilling required to
(Uttarakhand) ascertain geothermal field
6 Surajkund 110oC Magneto-telluric study was done by
Hazaribagh NGRI. Heat rate 128.6 mW/m2
(Jharkhand)
7 Manikaran 100oC Magneto-telluric study was done by
Kullu (H P) NGRI. Heat flow rate 130 mW/m2
8 Kasol 110oC Magneto-telluric study was done by
Kullu (H P) NGRI
Out of 9 projects, no operational geothermal plant is in India

Sl. Country in Operated up to Remarks

No. Geothermal 2020 (MWe)
1 United States 3714 Additional 19 MWe are due to some correction (data
refers to nameplate capacity)
2 Indonesia 2133 No change reported
3 Philippines 1918 No change reported
4 Turkey 1526 179 MWe added in 2019, with still existing
uncertainties regarding the FIT
5 New Zealand 1005 Expected addition of 32 MWe of the Ngawha
expansion project did not materialize before end of
2020
6 Mexico 962.7 No change
7 Italy 944 No change
8 Kenya 861 No change
9 Iceland 755 No change
10 Japan 603 Continued small-scale development, the 2 MW
increase is due to some correction and small-scale
units added
Total 14422

Following 25 (including top 10 countries) leading geothermal countries have recorded

the worked generating units from year-end 2007-2020 (as per International
Geothermal Association and Wikipedia document on Geothermal energy).

25
Check Your Progress 5
Give the term for the following.

1. Method for using hot, dry rock to bring out hydrothermal fluid.
2. Power plant that uses hydrothermal fluids at temperatures above
360 °C which flashes into steam as it enters the plant.
3. Power plant that uses steam at temperatures above 100°C.
4. Water that has been heated by the Earth and usually contains
dissolved gasses and minerals.
5. Equipment that permits the exchange of energy into or out of a
hydrothermal fluid.

mmSl. Country Operated Operated Operated

No capacity up capacity up capacity up
to 2007 to 2010 to 2020
(MWe) (MWe) (MWe)
1 United States 2687 3086 3714
2 Turkey 38 82 1526
3 Thailand 0.3 0.3
4 Russia 79 82
5 Portugal 23 29
6 Philippines 1969.7 1904 1918
7 Papua-New Guinea 56 56
8 Nicaragua 87.4 88 n/a
9 New Zealand 471.6 628 1005
10 Mexico 953 958 962.7
11 Kenya 128.8 167 961
12 Japan 535.2 536 603
13 Italy 810.5 843 944
14 Iran 250 250
15 Indonesia 992 1197 2133
16 Iceland 421.2 575 755
17 Guatemala 53 52
18 Germany 8.4 6.6
19 France 14.7 16
20 Ethiopia 7.3 7.3
21 El Salvador 204.2 204 n/a
22 Costa Rica 162.5 166 n/a
23 China 27.8 24
24 Austria 1.1 1.4
25 Australia 0.2 1.1
Total 9,981.90 10,959.70 15,608

26
24.14 LET US SUM UP

Geothermal energy is heat derived within the sub-surface of the earth. Water
and/or steam transfer the Geotherm to the Earth’s surface. Deep production
wells are drilled in the geothermal fields. The hot steam/water/brine is
extracted from the geothermal layers by production wells, by ‘pumping’ or by
‘natural pressure’. Geothermal science and technology focuses on
fundamental, applied research and innovative project formulation needed to
deploy technologies for developing and combining Geotherm as one
important element in the future energy portfolio. It serves to scrutinize the
interaction of individual system components while taking the entire process
into account, from the development of the reservoir to the economic provision
of Geotherm. Heat delivery from geothermal outlets increased by an average
rate of about 9% per annum over the past decade, primarily due to rapid
growth in the application of ground source heat pumps also. Use of Geotherm
for integrated heat and power is also on the increase. However, for power,
generation high or medium temperature resources are needed, which are
usually identified close to tectonically active regions.

Geothermal energy can be used in many different ways. Out of following 3

methods, the particular method is ultimately selected depends on the local
condition and the required temperature: Very shallow Geotherm (<5 m),
Shallow geothermal energy (50-300 m) and Deep Geotherm (>1000 m).

Technologies used for various geothermal resource types: Dry steam sources,
Wet steam sources, Hot water resources, Hot dry rocks, Geopressurized
sources and Hot magma sources. Depending on its characteristics, geothermal
energy can be used for heating and cooling purposes or be mobilized to
generate clean and green electricity. Geotherm operation, utilization and its
enhancement demands to improve the characterization of geothermal
resources, technologies for regulating fracture networks and revamping
subsurface approach, and advance hybrid systems. Geotechnologies thus have
a key role to play in realizing targets in energy security, economic
development in number of countries and mitigating climate change.

India has reasonably good potential for geothermal. But, geothermal power
projects has not been exploited at all till date, due to various of reasons, the
chief being the availability of huge coal at low costs. However, with
increasing environmental issues with coal based projects, India will need to
start depending on clean and eco-friendly energy sources in future, one of
which could be geothermal.

27
24.15 GLOSSARY

Geotherm : ISO4 abbreviation of “Geothermal Energy”

GSI : Geological Survey of India
HGB : Himalayan Geothermal Belt
ISA : International Geothermal Association
IRENA : International Geothermal Energy Agency
GGA : Global Geothermal Alliance
EGS : Engineered (enhanced) geothermal system
MWe : Megawatt electric
TWh : Terawatt-hour (102 Wh)
kWh : Kilowatt-hour
J : Joule
EJ : Exajoule (1018 joules)
HP : High Pressure
HT : High Temperature
LP : Low Pressure
LT : Low Temperature
m : Metre
Km : Kilometre
Sq. Km. : Square kilometre
Symbol ‘<’ : Less than
Symbol ‘>’ : Greater than
HDR : Hot dry rock
CO : Carbon monoxide
CO2 : Carbon dioxide
SO2 : Sulphur dioxide
NOx : Nitrogen oxide
SOx : Sulphur oxide
SPM : Suspended particulate matter
GHGs : Greenhouse gases
H2S : Hydrogen Sulfide
NH3 : Ammonia
CH4 : Methane
PTC : Production Tax Credit
¢ : Cent
$ : Dollar
J&K : Jammu and Kashmir
NZ : New Zealand
USA : United States of America

28
24.16 ANSWER TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

Springs, Vapour, Hydrothermal, Magma, Ingredient, Affect, Expands, Turbine,
Temperature.

Check Your Progress 2

Radioactive decay of elements, Volcanoes, Uses heat from the core of earth,
Drilling wells, Tectonic plates pushing against each other, United States,
Earth’s constant temperature.

Check Your Progress 3

(1) Thermal (3) Radioactive (5) Visible (7) Convective.

Check Your Progress 4

Yes, Yes, No (2,700 Kms), No (emit much lower), Yes, Yes, No (No contact),
No (drilling deep), No (is Prime Mover), Yes,

Check Your Progress 5

1. Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS).
2. Flash steam.
3. Dry steam.
4. Hydrothermal fluid.
5. Ground source heat pumps.

29
24.17 REFERENCES and FURTHER READINGS

1. NPTEL,‘Geothermal Energy Technological Aspects’ (Lecture note 27).

2. Center for Sustainable Systems, University of Michigan. 2021.
‘Geothermal Energy Factsheet’, (September 2021)
3. ThinkGeoEnergy , ‘Geothermal Energy Document’ (2021).
4. Chaudhary Charan Singh University, UP, ‘Renewable Energy Sources’
Lecture note (2020).
5. Dr. Banamali Dalai, Biju Patnaik University of Technology, Odisha,
‘Renewable Energy Sources’ Lecture note (2018).
6. D. Yogi Goswami and Frank Kreith, Taylor & Francis, ‘Energy
Conversion (Second Edition)’, (2017).
7. Shobh Nath Singh, Pearson Publication Co., ‘Non-Conventional Energy
Sources and Utilisation’ (2016).
8. Hemant K. Singh1, D. Chandrasekharam, G. Trupti, P. Mohite, B. Singh,
C. Varun, & Satish K. Sinha, Springer International Publishing AG,
‘Sustainable Renewable Energy Rep [Potential Geothermal Energy
Resources of India: A Review]’ (2016).
9. Dept. of Energy, USA, ‘Quadrennial Technology Review - An Assessment
of Energy Technologies, Research, Development, Demonstration and
Deployment (RDD & D) Opportunities’ (2015).
10. RK Rajput, S. Chand & Co. Publication, Book on ‘Non-Conventional
Energy Sources and Utilisation’ (2014).
11. Indira Gandhi National Open University, ‘Energy Resources and
Conversion Processes, Renewable Energy Resources (Block 2)’ (2010).
12. D. Chandrasekharam (HOD, Earth Science Dept., IIT Bombay) and J.
Bundschuh, Taylor & Francis, ‘Renewable Energy Resources (Geothermal
Energy for Developing Countries)’, (2006).
13. Geothermal Development in Russia - Country Update Report 2000-2004.
14. John E. Mock, Jefferson W. Tester and P. Michael Wright, Energy
Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, USA & Energy & Geoscience Institute, University of Utah,
Salt Lake City, Utah, ‘Annual Reviews of Energy and the Environment,
Geothermal Energy from the Earth: Its Potential Impact as an
Environmentally Sustainable Resource’, (1997).

30
Module 25 TIDAL ENERGY
Structure
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Tidal Energy
25.2.1 The Nature of the Resource
25.2.2 Physics on Tidal Energy
25.2.3 Components of Tidal Energy Generation System
25.2.4 Power Generation Technical Factors
25.2.5 Environmental Impacts of Tidal Energy
25.2.6 Tidal Energy Potential
25.2.7 Merits and Demerits of Tidal Energy System
25.2.8 Prospectus of Tidal Energy System in India

25.1 INTRODUCTION
Tidal power is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into
useful forms of power - mainly electricity. This is the only form of energy
whose source is the moon.Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the
moon and sun, and the rotation of the Earth. Thus, tidal energy is the
utilization of the moon and sun's gravitational forces – as tides are formed by
the gravitational pull of the moon and sun on the oceans of the rotating earth.

25.2 TIDAL ENERGY

25.2.1 The Nature of the Resource:
Several countries like Canada, the UK, China, and Australia have already
functioned sophisticated marine energy projects of 10 kW to 1 MW capacity. The
water level rising and falling in the ocean determine the extent of tidal power
potential.
Most of the renewable-based energy sources are intermittent in nature. however,
tidal energy can be considered reliable source of energy as its period of
occurrences in a day is known. And so, kinetic energy through the tides can be
converted into electric energy. The tidal energy source has enormous potential for
electrical energy generation and has not been discovered much yet. The advanced
technologies are making it easy to explore tidal energy too.
25.2.2 Physics on Tidal Energy:
The movement of the moon around the earth and earth movement around the sun
decide the tides in oceans. In other words, tides are the periodic sea level changes
due to the gravitational force among sun, earth and moon due to the rotation of
moon and earth in space.
As a basic principle, when overhead and underfoot condition occurs for moon and
sun to the ocean region of the earth, the water experiences gravitational attraction
force and so, sea level rises us in the region and drops down at some other region.
Since the distance between moon and earth is much closer than between sun and
earth, the gravitational effect of moon is much more significant than that of sun on
earth, despite their tremendous variations in their mass. Therefore, the moon is the
dominant factor in tides.
The rotation of earth makes two high tides and two low tides per day in general.
However single high tides and single low tides are possible in some regions. This
is called diurnal tides. When the two highs and the two lows are about the same
height, the pattern is called a semi-daily or semidiurnal tide. If the high and low
tides differ in height, the pattern is called a mixed semidiurnal tide. Figures for
diurnal tides, semidiurnal tide and mixed diurnal tide is shown below [2].

Figure 25.1:

25.2.3 Components of Tidal Energy Generation System:

Tidal energy may be used to generate power by trapping water into barrage/dam
during high tides and returning to sea again during low tides. This bi-directional
flow of water gives rotational energy to turbine and this turbine coupled with
generator to produce electricity. As the flow of water may bi-directional so
generator must be capable to ensure the production of electric power through the
either direction of rotor rotation. The main components of tidal power plants are
[8]:
(i) Dam
(ii) Sluice ways from basin to sea and vice versa, and
(iii) Power house.
The function of a dam is to form a barrier between the sea and the basin or
between one basin to the other basin in case of multiple basins. The most suitable
word for tidal power plant is barrage. Barrages have to resist waves whose shock
can be severe and where pressure changes sides continuously.
The sluice ways are gate-controlled devices. They are employed to fill the basin
during the high tide or empty the basin during low tide. In existing plants, vertical
lift gates have been employed. Flap gates are also used. The flap gates allow only
in the direction of sea to basin. Therefore, the level of the basin rises.
Auxiliary equipment, turbines and generators are the main components of the
power house. Large sized turbines are used because of low head available. Bulb
types and rim type turbines are commonly used. Shaft turbines are also under
steady.
25.2.4 Power Generation Technical Factors:
Tidal stream generators are coupled with power turbine which gets rotation
through the mechanical energy of moving water. The concept is almost similar to
the hydro power plant for electricity production. The two basic difference of tidal
turbine comparing with hydro turbine are;
(i) In hydro turbine water flows into it however in tidal turbine water flows in and
ebbs out of the turbine.
(ii) In hydro turbine water flows only in one direction however depending on the
back and forth of the ocean tides, the water can flow in both the direction to tidal
turbine.
Therefore, designing of turbine-generator set must consider the feasibility of
producing electricity by the rotation of turbine blades in either direction. This
makes the tidal power generation system more complicated and costlier. On the
basis of designing and mechanism used, tidal energy system can be classified into
several types; tidal barrage, tidal stream and tidal current rubines are described in
this chapter [5].
The tidal power scheme may be designed to operate in any one of following
modes [8]:
1. Ebb Generation: The basin is filled through the sluices until high tide. Then, the
sluice gates are closed. At this stage, there may be pumping to raise the level
further. The turbine gates are closed until the sea level falls to develop sufficient
head across the barrage, and then are opened so that the turbines generate power
until the head is again low. Then the sluices are opened, turbines disconnected and
the basin is filled again. The cycle repeats. Ebb generation, also known as outflow
generation, takes its name because generation occurs as the tide changes tidal
direction.
2. Flood Generation: The basin is filled through the turbines, which produce at
tide flood. This is usually much less efficient than Ebb generation, because the
volume contained in the upper half of the basin (which is where Ebb generation
operates) is greater than the volume of the lower half (filled first during flood
generation).
Thus, the available level difference between the basin side and the sea side of the
barrage reduces more quickly than it would in Ebb generation. Rivers flowing into
the basin may further reduce the energy potential, instead of increasing it as in
case of Ebb generation. Of course, this is not a problem with the “lagoon” model,
without river in flow.
3. Pumping: Turbines are operated as pumps by excess energy in the grid to
enhance the water level in the basin at high tide (Ebb generation). This energy is
more than returned energy during generation, because power output is strongly
related to the head. If water is raised 0.61 m by pumping on a high tide of 3 m, this
will have been raised by 3.7 m at low tide. The cost of a 0.61 m rise is returned by
the benefits of a 3.7 m rise. This is since the correlation between the potential
energy is not a linear relationship, rather is related by the square of the tidal high
variation
Tidal barrage:
A structure similar to dam in hydro power plant is used in tidal; power plant and
this structure is called a barrage. The barrage is installed across an inlet of an
ocean bay or lagoon that forms a tidal basin [6]. This dam has a number of
underwater tunnels cut into its width allowing sea water to flow through them in a
controllable way using channels refereed as “sluice gates”. These sluice gates
control the water levels and flow rates so that tidal basin can store water during
high tides and allow flow to turbine for producing electricity generation as in
Figure below. A tidal barrage generates electricity using the difference in the
vertical height between the incoming high tides and the outgoing low tides.
A potential disadvantage of tidal power is the effect a tidal station can have on
plants and animals in estuaries of the tidal basin. Tidal barrages can change the
tidal level in the basin and increase turbidity (the amount of matter in suspension
in the water). They can also affect navigation and recreation [6]. It can only
generate electricity when the tide is actually flowing either “in” or “out” as during
high and low tide times the tidal water is stationary. It also has the environmental
and ecological effects that a long concrete dam may have on the estuaries they
span [5].

Figure 25.2:

Tidal Stream:
A Tidal Stream Generation system reduces some of the environmental effects of
tidal barrages by using turbine generators beneath the surface of the water. It is
very similar in many ways to the principles of wind power generation. Horizontal
turbine generators called “tidal turbines” or “marine current turbines” are placed
on the ocean floor, the stream currents flow across the turbine blades powering a
generator much like how wind turns the blades of wind power turbines. In fact, in
some tidal stream generation areas the sea bed looks just like underwater wind
farm with arrays of tidal stream generators covering large areas.
 Figure 2.3:

The generated tidal electricity is then transmitted to the shore via long underwater
electrical cables called submarine cables. These offshore tidal turbines can be
either partially or fully submerged beneath the surface of the water, with partially
submerged turbines being easier and less costly for maintenance [7].
Unlike off-shore wind power which can suffer from storms or heavy sea damage,
tidal stream turbines operate just below the sea surface or are fixed to the sea bed.
Tidal streams are formed by the horizontal fast flowing volumes of water caused
by the ebb and flow of the tide as the profile of the sea bed causes the water to
speed up as it approaches the shoreline.
As water is much denser than air and has a much slower flow rate, tidal stream
turbines have much smaller diameters and higher tip speed rates compared to an
equivalent wind turbine. Tidal stream turbines generate tidal power on both the
ebb and flow of the tide. One of the disadvantages of Tidal Stream Generation is
that as the turbines are submerged under the surface of the water they can create
hazards to navigation and shipping.
Tidal current turbines:
The earliest tidal current turbine in China was developed and tested in 1970s. The
turbine was similar to a ship propeller and further researches into the components
of the unit were not able to be carried out at the same time.
25.2.5 Environmental Impacts of Tidal Energy
The main environmental concerns with tidal energy are from the turbine blades
striking or entangling marine organisms, as higher speed flowing water increases
the risk of organisms being pulled near or through these devices.
As with all offshore renewable energies, there is also a concern about how the
creation of electromagnetic fields and acoustic outputs may affect marine
organisms. Because these devices are in the water, the acoustic output can be
greater than those created with offshore wind energy. Depending on the frequency
and amplitude of sound generated by the tidal energy devices, this acoustic output
can have varying effects on marine mammals (particularly those who echolocate
to communicate and navigate in the marine environment such
as dolphins and whales). Tidal energy removal can also cause environmental
concerns such as degrading far field water quality and disrupting sediment
processes. Depending on the size of the project, these effects can range from small
traces of sediment build up near the tidal device to severely affecting nearshore
ecosystems and processes.
25.2.6 Tidal Energy Potential:
Estimation for tidal power may be conducted using suitable and ideal locations on
the seashore. The water stores during high tides in the form of basin at the ocean
surface. The energy potential for a tide height of R meter above the sea level is
specified as [3]:

= ℎ ℎ

where denotes the density of seawater (kg/m2) and g denotes the gravitational
constant (9.81 m/s2). This represents that the energy available is dependent on the
volume of water. The potential energy contained in a volume of water is the potential
energy is [4];
1
= ℎ
2
This energy will be store in the Plants and power developed in a day can be
estimated by diving it with time of day.
25.2.7 Merits and Demerits of Tidal Energy System:
Following are the merits for tidal energy system;
1. it is an environmentally friendly way to generate electric power from ocean
energy.
2. Periodic availability of tides makes tidal energy a highly predictable source of
energy.
3. Tidal energy has a high energy density.
4. Tidal power plant has low cost of its operation and maintenance.
5. It is an inexhaustible source of energy.
Following are the merits for tidal energy system;
1. The cost of developing tidal power plant is very high.
2. The tidal power plant disturbs the marine living species life.
3. The tidal power plants may be constructed on a very specific locations in ocean
depending on the available amount of tide.
4. the tidal power plant has variable intensity of sea waves.
25.2.8 Prospects of Tidal Energy System in India
As per a study conducted by the Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai in
association with CRISIL Risk and Infrastructure Solutions Limited in December
2014, the tidal power potential is estimated at around 12,455 MW in India. The
potential areas with low/medium tidal wave strength are in the Gulf of Khambat,
Gulf of Kutch & southern regions in Gujarat, Palk Bay- Mannar Channel in Tamil
Nadu, and Hoogly river, South Haldia & Sunderbans in West Bengal. Tidal
energy is still in Research & Development (R&D) phase and has not been
implemented on a commercial scale in India. The earlier efforts for harnessing
tidal power were not successful due to high capital cost ranging from Rs. 30 crore
to Rs. 60 crore per MW [9].
Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy
Sources- Basic and Early Designs of Solar
Distillation (Part-I)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1
1.1 The possible technologies in Solar Thermal Applications are 1
1.2 Sources of Water Pollution 1
1.3 Effects of Water Pollution 2
1.4 Need of Drinking Water 2
1.5 Why Distillation 3
1.6 Water purification techniques 3
1.7 Solar Still 4
1.8 What is solar distillation 4
1.9 Classification of Solar Distillation 5
1.10 Advantages of Solar Distillation 5
1.11 Working of the Passive single slope conventional Solar Distillation 5
1.12 Heat and Mass Transfer involved in Conventional Solar Still 7
1.13 Use of Distilled Water 7
1.14 Drawbacks of Solar Distillation 8
1.15 Simple single slope Solar Still 10
1.16 Main factors responsible for producing potable water 10
1.17 Types of Solar Still on the basis of energy use 10
1.18 Some existing designs of Passive Solar Stills 11
1.18.1 Single Slope Solar Still 11
1.18.2 Double Slope Solar Still 11
1.18.3 Hemispherical Solar Still 12
1.18.4 Spherical Solar Still 13
1.18.5 Triangular Pyramid Solar Still 13
1.18.6 Multi-wick Solar Still 14
1.18.7 Concave-Wick Solar Still 15
1.18.8 Inclined Wick-Type Solar Water-Distillation System 15
1.18.9 Tilted-Wick Solar Still with Flat-Plate Bottom Reflector 16
1.18.10 Conical Solar Still 17
1.19 Some existing designs of Active Solar Stills 17
1.19.1 Solar still coupled with flat plate collector 17
1.19.2 Solar still coupled with parabolic concentrator 18
 1.19.4 Solar still coupled with evacuated tube collector 18
1.20 Simple Mathematics Involved 19
References 20
1 Introduction
Several emerging technologies in renewable energy were gaining attention for their potential
to enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and contribute to a more sustainable energy future. Here
are some emerging technologies in renewable energy
• Advanced Solar Technologies
• Energy Storage
• Wind Energy
• Ocean Energy
• Geothermal Energy
• Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
• Smart Grid and Energy Management
1.1 The possible technologies in Solar Thermal Applications are

• Distillation of Water using solar energy, active or passive technics or by humidification

and dehumidification.
• For building heating and cooling and ventilation by Solar Trombe wall, Solar Metallic
and transpired walls, Solar Chimney.
• Solar water heating applications
1.2 Sources of Water Pollution
• Industrial discharge of chemical wastes and byproducts.
• Discharge of poorly-treated or untreated sewage.
• Surface runoff containing pesticides.
• Surface runoff from construction sites and farms.
• Discharge of contaminated water used for industrial processes.
• Excess nutrients added by runoff containing detergents or fertilizers.

1
1.3 Effects of Water Pollution

Cause (infections) Water borne disease

Bacterial infection Typhoid, Cholera, Paratyphoid fever, Bacillary dysentery

Viral infections Infectious hepatitis (Jaundice), Poliomyelitis

Protozoal infections Amoebic dysentery

1.4 Need of Drinking Water

Drinking water scarcity is one of the most serious issues confronting both emerging and
developing countries throughout the world. According to a report only 3% of fresh water is
available in earth out of which about 68.7% are in the form of icecaps and glaciers, about 30.1%
is ground water, 0.3% is surface water and 0.9% are in other form (Fig.1). The challenge is to
make the 3% of fresh water available to us clean and contaminated free that can be used for
drinking. Although commercial purification procedures such as membrane distillation, reverse
osmosis, multi-stage flash distillation, and electrodialysis are available, solar distillation may
be the most cost-effective choice. A solar still is a water purification device that uses solar
energy. The biggest issue with solar still is its poor productivity. On a hot day, it produces
around 2-3 L/m2 of pure water, which is one of the major reasons for its non-commercialization.
However, researchers are around the globe are working to enhance the production output of
solar distillation system.

Fig.1 Availability of water in Earth

2
1.5 Why Distillation
Distillation is a widely used separation process that is employed for various purposes across
different industries. The primary reason for using distillation is to separate components of a
mixture based on their differences in volatility, or more specifically, their boiling points.
1.6 Water purification techniques
Water purification is a critical process to ensure access to clean and safe drinking water.
Various techniques are employed to remove impurities, contaminants, and pathogens from
water. The choice of water purification method depends on the quality of the source water and
the specific contaminants present. Here are some common water purification techniques:
Mechanical Filtration: Water is passed through a porous material or a filter to physically
remove particles and impurities. Common filter media include sand, gravel, ceramic, or
membranes with different pore sizes.
Activated Carbon Filtration: Activated carbon adsorbs organic compounds, chlorine, and
some heavy metals, improving taste and Odor of water.
Simple Boiling: Boiling water kills bacteria, viruses, and parasites, making it safe for drinking.
However, boiling does not remove chemical contaminants.
Simple Distillation: Water is heated to create steam, which is then cooled and condensed back
into liquid form. This process removes contaminants with higher boiling points, leaving
purified water.
Reverse Osmosis (RO): Membrane Filtration: RO systems use a semi-permeable membrane
to remove ions, molecules, and larger particles, providing effective removal of salts, bacteria,
and many other contaminants.
UV-C Light Exposure: UV light is used to inactivate microorganisms by damaging their
DNA, preventing them from reproducing. UV disinfection is effective against bacteria, viruses,
and parasites.
Chemical Disinfection: Chlorine compounds, such as chlorine gas or sodium hypochlorite,
are added to water to kill bacteria and viruses. Chlorination is a common method for large-
scale water treatment.
Solar distillation
Solar distillation is a method of water purification that utilizes solar energy to convert water
from various sources, such as seawater, brackish water, or contaminated water, into vapor and
then condenses the vapor back into liquid form, producing purified water. This process is

3
particularly useful in regions with limited access to clean and fresh water. Solar distillation can
take various forms, and here are some common types:
1.7 Solar Still:
Basic Concept: A solar still is a simple device that typically consists of a transparent cover, a
basin to hold water, and a condensation surface. The transparent cover allows sunlight to pass
through and heat the water in the basin.
Operation: Solar radiation heats the water, causing it to evaporate. The water vapor then
condenses on the inner surface of the transparent cover, forming droplets that collect and flow
into a collection container as purified water.
Applications: Solar stills are often used for small-scale, decentralized water purification in
arid or remote areas.
1.8 What is solar distillation

Solar distillation is a water purification process that utilizes solar energy to convert water
from various sources into vapor and then condenses the vapor back into liquid form, producing
purified water. This method is particularly effective in regions where access to clean and fresh
water is limited. The basic principle behind solar distillation involves using the sun's energy to
heat water, causing it to evaporate, and then collecting the condensed vapor as purified water.
The process typically involves the following steps:
Solar Radiation Absorption: A solar distillation system typically consists of a transparent
cover, a basin to hold the water, and a condensation surface. The transparent cover allows
sunlight to pass through and heat the water in the basin.
Evaporation: Solar radiation heats the water in the basin, causing it to evaporate. As the water
vapor rises, it leaves behind contaminants, salts, and impurities.
Condensation: The water vapor rises and comes into contact with the inner surface of the
transparent cover. This surface is usually cooler than the evaporating water, leading to
condensation of the vapor. The condensed water forms droplets on the inner surface.
Collection: The droplets of condensed water run down the inner surface of the cover and are
collected in a gutter or a collection container. This collected water is now purified, as the
distillation process effectively separates the water from impurities and contaminants.
Solar distillation can take different forms, and the design may vary based on the specific
application and scale of water purification needed. Some common types of solar distillation
systems include solar stills, multiple-effect solar stills, solar desalination, and solar-assisted
multi-effect distillation. Key advantages of solar distillation include its simplicity,

4
sustainability, and the ability to operate in remote or off-grid areas where conventional energy
sources may be limited. However, the water production rate is typically lower compared to
some other water purification methods, and the efficiency depends on factors such as sunlight
intensity, ambient temperature, and system design.

Solar distillation is often used in arid regions, for emergency water supply, and in
situations where access to clean water is a challenge. Ongoing research and development aim
to improve the efficiency and scalability of solar distillation technologies for broader
application in water-scarce areas.

1.9 Classification of Solar Distillation

Solar distillation can be classified into different types based on the design, scale, and specific
applications. Here are some common classifications of solar distillation systems:

1.10 Advantages of Solar Distillation

• It produces pure water.
• No conventional energy source is required.
• No skilled operator is required to run the unit.
• Local manufacturing and repairing is possible.
• Low investment.
• It can purify highly saline water even.
1.11 Working of the Passive single slope conventional Solar Distillation

The passive single slope conventional solar still is a relatively simple and low-cost design
for solar distillation. Here is a general overview of how it works (fig. 2):

5
 Fig.2 Single slop solar still

Components of a Passive Single Slope Solar Still:

Basin: A shallow basin or container that holds the impure water to be purified.
Transparent Cover: Positioned at an inclined angle above the basin, the transparent cover
allows sunlight to enter and heat the water. It also traps the water vapor, facilitating the
condensation process.
Condensation Surface: The inner surface of the transparent cover serves as the condensation
surface where water vapor turns into liquid droplets.
Collection Trough: Located at the lower edge of the transparent cover, the collection trough
gathers the condensed water droplets and directs them to a collection point.
Working Mechanism
Solar Radiation Absorption: The solar still is positioned to maximize exposure to sunlight.
The transparent cover allows sunlight to pass through and reach the impure water in the basin.
Heating of Impure Water: Sunlight heats the water in the basin. The impurities, contaminants,
and salts in the water do not vaporize; they remain in the basin.
Evaporation: As the water absorbs solar energy, it undergoes evaporation, turning into water
vapor.
Condensation: The water vapor rises and comes into contact with the inner surface of the
transparent cover, which is cooler than the evaporating water. This temperature difference
causes the water vapor to condense into liquid droplets on the inner surface.
Collection of Purified Water: The condensed water droplets accumulate on the inner surface
and flow down to the lower edge of the transparent cover, where they are collected in a trough
or a gutter.

6
Collection and Storage: The collected water is directed to a storage container or collection
point, providing a source of purified water.
Key Points:
The single slope design allows for a simple and cost-effective construction, making it
suitable for small-scale applications and regions with limited resources. The angle of the slope
is crucial to maximize solar exposure and enhance the distillation process. This passive solar
still operates without the need for external energy sources or complex mechanisms. While the
passive single slope solar still is relatively straightforward, its efficiency can be influenced by
factors such as the local climate, the angle of the slope, and the quality of the transparent cover
material. Modifications and improvements can be made to enhance its performance, and
ongoing research aims to optimize passive solar still designs for better water production in
various conditions.
1.12 Heat and Mass Transfer involved in Conventional Solar Still
a) Internal heat transfer: Internal heat transfer is responsible for the transfer of water
from basin to glass in the mode of Evaporation, Convection, Radiation
b) External heat transfer: External heat transfer is responsible for the heat loss from the
glass to cool the glass in the mode of Conduction, Convection, Radiation.
1.13 Use of Distilled Water
Distilled water, which is purified through the process of distillation, has various applications
across different industries and everyday activities due to its high purity. Here are some common
uses of distilled water:
Chemical Analysis: Distilled water is often used in laboratories for preparing chemical
solutions and conducting experiments where the absence of impurities is crucial.
Medical Laboratories: In medical and biological laboratories, distilled water is used for
preparing reagents, diluting samples, and cleaning equipment.
Medical Procedures: Distilled water is used in various medical procedures, such as wound
cleaning and certain surgical processes, where sterile and pure water is essential.
Pharmaceutical Production: Pharmaceutical companies use distilled water in the production
of medications to ensure the absence of contaminants.
Cosmetic Formulation: Distilled water is a common ingredient in the formulation of
cosmetics and personal care products, including skincare items, shampoos, and lotions.

7
Battery Maintenance: Distilled water is used in automotive batteries to top up electrolyte
levels. The high purity of distilled water helps prevent the buildup of impurities that could
affect battery performance.
Steam Irons and Humidifiers: Distilled water is recommended for use in steam irons and
humidifiers to prevent mineral deposits that can accumulate over time.
Film Development: Distilled water is used in the process of film development in photography
to ensure that impurities do not affect the quality of the images.
Industrial Applications: Distilled water is used in lead-acid batteries, commonly found in
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) systems, for maintaining the electrolyte levels and
ensuring optimal battery performance.
Circuit Board Manufacturing: Distilled water is used in the electronics industry, especially
during the manufacturing of circuit boards, to prevent mineral deposits that could interfere with
electronic components.
Car Radiators: In some instances, distilled water is recommended for use in car radiators to
prevent mineral buildup that could lead to cooling system inefficiencies.
Hydroponics: Distilled water is used in hydroponic systems to provide plants with a nutrient
solution free from impurities and minerals.
Irons and Steamers: Distilled water is often recommended for use in irons and garment
steamers to prevent mineral deposits that can clog the appliances.
It's important to note that while distilled water is suitable for certain applications that require
high purity, it may lack essential minerals that are present in natural water. Therefore, for
human consumption and certain biological processes, it's generally recommended to obtain
minerals through a balanced diet and consume water that meets regulatory standards for
potability.

1.14 Drawbacks of Solar Distillation

While solar distillation offers a sustainable and energy-efficient method for water
purification, it is not without its drawbacks. Here are some of the limitations and drawbacks
associated with solar distillation:
Low Water Production Rates: One of the main drawbacks of solar distillation is its relatively
low water production rates. The process relies on natural solar energy, and the rate of water
evaporation and condensation is limited by the available sunlight. As a result, solar stills may
not be suitable for meeting high water demand.

8
Dependence on Weather Conditions: Solar distillation is highly dependent on weather
conditions, particularly sunlight. Cloudy or overcast days can significantly reduce the
efficiency of solar stills, affecting their water production capability. In regions with inconsistent
sunlight, this dependence can be a significant drawback.
Large Land Footprint: To achieve meaningful water production, solar stills may require a
large land area. This can be impractical for densely populated urban areas where land is limited
or expensive.
Sensitivity to Dust and Debris: The transparent covers of solar stills are prone to accumulating
dust and debris, reducing the efficiency of sunlight absorption. Regular cleaning may be
required to maintain optimal performance.
Initial Capital Cost: While solar distillation is often considered a low-cost technology, the
initial capital cost for setting up solar stills, especially in larger installations, can be a factor.
This may limit widespread adoption in economically constrained regions.
Seasonal Variations: Seasonal variations in sunlight duration and intensity can impact the
performance of solar stills. During winter or in high-latitude regions with shorter daylight
hours, water production may decrease.
Limited Applicability for Saline Water: Conventional solar stills may not be the most
efficient solution for desalination of seawater or highly saline water. More specialized
desalination technologies may be required for such applications.
Energy-Intensive Materials for Cover Construction: The construction of the transparent
cover in solar stills may require energy-intensive materials, such as certain plastics or glass.
The environmental impact of manufacturing and disposal of these materials should be
considered.
Difficulty in Scaling Up: Scaling up solar distillation systems to meet the water demands of
larger populations can be challenging. Achieving higher water production rates may require
complex engineering solutions.
Limited Temperature Control: Solar stills may have limited control over the temperature
within the system. This can impact the efficiency of water vaporization and condensation
processes.
Despite these drawbacks, ongoing research and development aim to address some of
these challenges and enhance the efficiency and applicability of solar distillation for water
purification. Hybrid systems and innovative designs are being explored to overcome the
limitations associated with conventional solar stills.

9
1.15 Simple single slope Solar Still
The sun's radiant heat is absorbed by a basin and subsequently transferred to the water
within, causing it to heat up and eventually evaporate. This vapor then undergoes condensation
upon contact with a cooler surface, which is at a lower temperature compared to the water. As
a result, it accumulates as distilled water. This process effectively separates the water vapor
from any dissolved impurities or substances. The condensed water emerges as pure and distilled
water.

Fig.3 Single slope solar still

1.16 Main factors responsible for producing potable water
• The primary determinant influencing the yield obtained from a solar still is the
temperature differential between the water in the basin and the glass cover (Tw-Tg).
• A greater (Tw-Tg) differential will result in an increased distillate output.
1.17 Types of Solar Still on the basis of energy use
a) Passive Solar Stills
A passive solar still is a simple and low-tech device designed to produce fresh, drinkable
water from contaminated or saline water sources using solar energy. It operates without any
external power source or mechanical components, relying solely on the principles of
evaporation and condensation. The process is driven by the heat from the sun, making it a
sustainable and environmentally friendly method for water purification.
b) Active Solar Stills
If the term "active solar still" is being used, it might refer to a solar still that incorporates
active components or external energy sources to enhance the water purification process. For
instance, active solar technologies could involve the use of fans, pumps, or other mechanisms
to increase air circulation, speed up evaporation, or improve condensation.

10
1.18 Some existing designs of Passive Solar Stills
1.18.1 Single Slope Solar Still
As evident, the construction of a single-slope solar still is a straightforward simple
process. It involves assembling a fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) body with an inner surface
coated in black paint, capped by a transparent glass top cover. The optimal orientation of the
solar still is crucial to harness the highest amount of solar radiation, typically aligning its
inclination with the latitude of the specific location.

Fig.4 Single Slope Solar Still

1.18.2 Double Slope Solar Still
The working is same as of single-slope solar still. In double-slope solar still, it is
important to mention that when the east side acts as a source of solar energy (input), the west
side acts as a condensing surface (in morning hours) and vice versa. In winter, the single slope
FRP still gives better yield than the double slope stills; in summer, the double slope stills give
better yield than the single still. In summer the path of sun is almost over the head unlike winter
when the path of the sun is declined to south direction. Therefor in summer the double slope is
better.

11
 Fig.5 Double slope solar still
1.18.3 Hemispherical Solar Still
A hemispherical solar still is a type of solar still design that employs a hemispherical
shape to enhance the collection and concentration of solar energy for water desalination or
purification. The basic principle of a solar still involves using the sun's energy to evaporate
water, and then condensing the vapor to obtain fresh, purified water.

Fig.6 Hemispherical Solar Still

12
1.18.4 Spherical Solar Still
It comprises a circular basin crafted from aluminum and an absorber plate coated with
black paint to maximize solar radiation absorption. A typical absorber plate, measuring 0.4
square meters in area and 0.61 meters in diameter, is if employed for containing saline water
within the basin. The circular basin is positioned in the middle of the spherical rings at a height
of 0.28 meters relative to the total height of the solar still, which is 0.68 meters. The system
has demonstrated a maximum efficiency of 22% under the climatic conditions in Coimbatore,
India. The same varies with season and location

Fig.6 Spherical Solar Still

1.18.5 Triangular Pyramid Solar Still
In Pyramid solar still top cover is in the shape of pyramid (triangular pyramid or square
pyramid) The major advantages of pyramid solar still over conventional single slope are:-
In a conventional solar still, the still must be positioned so that its inclined surface directly
faces the sun and needs continuous adjustment as the sun moves across the sky to capture
maximum solar radiation throughout the day. Conversely, in the case of a pyramid solar still,
such adjustments are not required. Compared to the single-slope solar still, the pyramid-shaped
solar still experiences less shading of its sidewalls on the water surface, which reduces the
obstruction of solar radiation.

13
 Fig.7 Triangular Pyramid Solar Still
Consequently, for the same basin area, condensation in the pyramid-shaped solar still is higher,
as the condensing area in the pyramid shape is greater. This presents an additional advantage.
1.18.6 Multi-wick Solar Still
The amount of water in the basin plays a significant role in determining the heating
rate. In the case of a wick-type solar still, the water mass in the basin is intentionally kept
minimal, essentially in the form of wetness on the wick. This deliberate approach accelerates
the heating process, resulting in faster evaporation and, consequently, an increased production
rate.

Fig.8 Multi-wick Solar Still

14
This stands as a major advantage of wick-type solar stills. In multiple wick solar stills, multiple
layers of cloth wicks are stacked on top of each other. One end of the jute cloth sheets is
submerged in the water reservoir, while the other ends are spread across the base of the solar
still. To ensure optimal capillary action, it is essential to thoroughly wet the jute cloth before
laying it out on the solar still's base. To harness the maximum solar radiation, the surface is
angled precisely, allowing the jute cloth to draw water from the reservoir through capillary
action to the upper end of the inclined surface. A glass cover is then positioned over the unit
to facilitate the condensation of vapor on its inner surface. Multiple wick solar stills exhibit
superior performance and are cost-effective to construct, resulting in an improvement of 20%
to 45% compared to single-slope solar stills.
1.18.7 Concave-Wick Solar Still
To enhance the performance of the wick-type solar still, the concave wick-type solar still has
been introduced. The concave-shaped wick basin effectively increases the surface area for
evaporation.

Fig. 9 Concave-Wick Solar Still

The productivity, or yield, of the concave-wick solar still reaches 4.1 liters per day/m2.
Furthermore, it has demonstrated impressive maximum instantaneous system efficiency of
45% and a daily efficiency of 30%.
1.18.8 Inclined Wick-Type Solar Water-Distillation System
To ensure a consistent flow rate of water through the wick, the inclined wick-type solar still
has been introduced. This system can be adjusted to an optimal inclination angle to capture the

15
maximum solar radiation. When maintained at this optimal tilt angle, the performance of the
inclined wick solar still surpasses that of traditional wick-type solar stills.

Fig.10 Inclined Wick-Type Solar Water-Distillation System

1.18.9 Tilted-Wick Solar Still with Flat-Plate Bottom Reflector

The solar still comprises several key components: a transparent glass cover, bottom insulation,
a flat-plate bottom reflector, and an evaporative wick. The flat-plate bottom reflector, crafted
from highly reflective materials, extends from the lower edge of the solar still.

Fig.11 Tilted-Wick Solar Still with Flat-Plate Bottom Reflector

Optimal daily water yield occurs under specific conditions: a reflector inclination of 50 degrees
during the summer solstice, 30 degrees during the spring and autumn equinoxes, and 20 degrees
on the winter solstice. The increase in daily water yield is most pronounced during the summer

16
solstice, at 25%, and least during the winter solstice, at 10%, when a bottom reflector is
incorporated into the design. When the reflector is inclined at 35 degrees, the average daily
water yield over four days increases by approximately 13% compared to the conventional
tilted-wick solar still.

1.18.10 Conical Solar Still

The solar still features a circular base made of galvanized iron, measuring 0.8 meters by 0.8
meters, and a cone with a height of 33 centimeters. To enhance solar absorptivity, both the sides
and the basin are covered with 0.7 mm-thick galvanized iron, which is painted black.
Additionally, a transparent acrylic cover, with a thickness of 0.5 centimeters, is securely affixed
at a 31-degree angle along the circular side of the still.

Fig.12 Conical Solar Still

This cover allows solar radiation to reach the basin, serving as both a condensing
surface for potable water and a means to harness solar energy simultaneously. It's worth noting
that the conical solar still demonstrates higher productivity (yield) in comparison to the
conventional single-basin, single-slope solar still. If the conventional version has similar
dimensions of 0.8 meters by 0.8 meters for the basin and features a depth ratio of 70 centimeters
to 10 centimeters for the higher and lower walls, respectively. And for comparison both the
conical and conventional solar stills are constructed using the same material.
1.19 Some existing designs of Active Solar Stills
1.19.1 Solar still coupled with flat plate collector
In this design, a solar distillation system is integrated with a flat plate collector to
preheat the water before it enters the solar still, effectively expediting the evaporation and
condensation processes. As a result, the average daily output of distilled water has been
determined to be 24% greater than that achieved by a basic single-basin solar still.

17
 Fig.13 Solar still coupled with flat plate collector
A "solar still coupled with a flat plate collector" is a combination of two solar technologies: a
solar still and a flat plate solar collector. This hybrid system is designed to harness solar energy
for both water purification and generation of hot water.

1.19.2 Solar still coupled with parabolic concentrator

In this design solar distillation system is coupled with parabolic concentrator to heat
the water prior to sending it to the solar still, similar as mentioned in previous case the
productivity increased an average by 18%

Fig.14 Solar still coupled with parabolic concentrator

1.19.4 Solar still coupled with evacuated tube collector
Convection heat loss due to air movement inside the collector can be significantly
reduced by maintaining a vacuum between the top glass cover and the absorber of a flat plate
collector. The optimum daily yield has been obtained as 3.9 kg with energy and exergy
efficiencies as 33.8% and 2.6% respectively during typical summer day.

18
 Fig.15 Solar still coupled with evacuated tube collector
1.20 Simple Mathematics Involved
Q=A⋅G⋅η

where:

Q is the solar energy input (in watts or joules).

A is the collector area (the area of the transparent cover) in square meters (m²).

G is the solar irradiance (solar energy flux) in watts per square meter (W/m²).

η is the efficiency of the collector, which depends on factors like the angle of the cover and
its transmittance.

19
References

[1] Tiwari GN, Sahota Lovedeep. Advanced Solar-Distillation Systems. Springer 2017.

[2] Rubioa E, Porta MA, Fernandez JL. Cavity geometry influence on mass flow rate for
single and double slope solar stills. Appl Therm Eng 2000; 20:1105–11.

[3] Tiwari GN, Bapeshwara Rao VSV. Transient performance of a single basin solar still
with water flowing over the glass cover. Desalination 1984; 49:231–41.

[4] Dhiman NK, Tiwari GN. Effect of water flowing over the glass cover of a multi-wick
solar still. Energy Convers Manag 1990; 30:245–50.

[5] Abu-Hijleh Bassam AK. Enhanced solar still performance using water film cooling of
the glass cover. Desalination 1996; 107:235–44.

[6] Lawrence SA, Gupta SP, Tiwari GN. Effect of heat capacity on the performance of solar
still with water flow over the glass cover. Energy Convers Manag 1990; 30(3): 277–85.

[7] Sherwood TK, Pigford RL, Wilke CH. Mass transfer. New York: McGraw Hill; 1975.

[8] Janarthanan B, Chandrasekaran J, Kumar S. Performance of floating cum tilted wick

type solar still with the effect of water flowing over the glass cover. Desalination 2006;
190:51–62.

[9] Badran OO. Experimental study of the enhancement parameters on a single slope solar
still productivity. Desalination 2007;209(1–3):136–43.

[10] Anil Kr. Tiwari, G.N. Tiwari, Effect of water depths on heat and mass transfer in a
passive solar still: in summer climatic condition, Desalination, Volume 195, Issues 1–
3,2006, Pages 78-94, ISSN 0011-9164.

[11] Anil Kr. Tiwari, G.N. Tiwari, Thermal modeling based on solar fraction and
experimental study of the annual and seasonal performance of a single slope passive
solar still: The effect of water depths, Desalination, Volume 207, Issues 1–3, 2007,
Pages 184-204, ISSN 0011-9164

[12] Anil Kr. Tiwari, G.N. Tiwari, Effect of the condensing cover's slope on internal heat
and mass transfer in distillation: an indoor simulation, Desalination, Volume 180, Issues
1–3, 2005, Pages 73-88, ISSN 0011-9164.

20
[13] Aneesh Somwanshi, Anil Kumar Tiwari, Mahendra Singh Sodha, Feasibility of earth
heat storage for all weather conditioning of open swimming pool water, Energy
Conversion and Management, Volume 68, 2013, Pages 89-95, ISSN 0196-8904.

21
Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy Sources
– Recent Advancement in Solar Distillation (Part II)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Description of Proposed System 2
1.2 Results and Discussion 2
1.3 Conclusions 3
1.4 Productivity from solar still 3
1.5 Recent developments in passive still designs 4
1.5.1 Multiple effect diffusion still 4
1.5.2 Tubular type solar still 4
1.5.3 Chimney type solar still 5
1.5.4 Stepped solar still 5
1.5.5 Solar still with separate condenser 6
1.6 Recent developments in active solar still 6
1.6.1 Solar still coupled with solar concentrator 6
1.6.2 Solar still coupled with Air cooler 7
1.6.3 Solar still coupled with solar concentrator 7
1.6.4 Solar still coupled with Solar Pond 8
1.6.5 Solar still coupled with PVT system 8
1.7 Some others methods of enhancing output of solar still 9
1.7.1 Using Black dye with water in basin 9
1.7.2 Using of Reflectors with black dye in the basin 9
1.7.3 Using Fins in the basin of solar still 10
1.7.4 Using Strip-fins attached on Absorber Plate 11
1.7.5 Small solar distillation plant cooled by water from garden fountain 11
References 12
1. Introduction
In the field of solar distillation, which involves using solar energy for water purification through
distillation processes, has seen various advancements. Keep in mind that there may have been
further developments since then. Here are some recent advancements in solar distillation:
Advanced Materials for Solar Absorption: Researchers have been exploring new materials
with enhanced solar absorption properties. Nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles and
nanocomposites, are being investigated to improve the efficiency of solar collectors in solar
distillation systems.
Photothermal Nanomaterials: The use of photothermal nanomaterials, which can efficiently
convert solar energy into heat, has shown promise. These materials can be incorporated into the
distillation system to enhance the absorption of sunlight and improve the overall efficiency of
the process.
Advanced Solar Collector Designs: Innovations in solar collector designs, such as
concentrating solar collectors and compound parabolic concentrators (CPCs), aim to increase
the concentration of solar energy on the distillation surface, leading to higher temperatures and
improved distillation rates.
Integration with Other Technologies: Researchers are exploring the integration of solar
distillation with other technologies, such as photovoltaics and advanced energy storage systems.
This integration can enhance the reliability and round-the-clock operation of solar distillation
units.
Innovations in Basin and Solar Still Designs: Advances in the design of solar stills and basins
aim to maximize the collection and utilization of solar energy. Improved shapes, materials, and
geometries contribute to better heat absorption and more efficient water evaporation.
Utilization of Phase Change Materials (PCMs): The incorporation of phase change materials
in solar distillation systems is being studied. PCMs can store and release thermal energy during
phase transitions, contributing to temperature regulation and improved overall efficiency.
Different solar water desalination processes, such as active and passive basin type solar stills
and systems working on humidification-dehumidification principle, have been used to produce
fresh water from saline water Among these processes, solar water desalination systems based
on humidification-dehumidification technique is one of the simple and most efficient techniques
and performance of these systems have been studied and improved by several researchers.
The humidification–dehumidification process (HD) is an interesting technique adapted for
water desalination when the demand is decentralized.

1
1.1 Description of Proposed System
The proposed solar water desalination system with the humidification-dehumidification
technique consists of a double-pass flat plate solar air heater with two glass covers, humidifying
tower, storage tank and dehumidifying exchanger.

Fig.1 Schematic diagram of proposed system

A schematic view of the system that is based on the idea of the closed water and open-air cycles
is presented in Figure. In proposed system air is heated by using double-pass flat plate solar air
heater whereas water is not heated unlike solar stills
Firstly, the process air at the ambient conditions is forced to flow through the upper channel of
the double pass flat plate solar air heater, where it is preheated. The preheated air is further
heated by passing it through the lower channel of the solar air heater.
Secondly, the heated air leaving the double-pass flat plate solar air heater enters the humidifier
and is humidified by saline water that is coming from the water storage tank.
Eventually, the air carrying water vapor is passed through the dehumidifying coil surface where
water vapor condenses and turns into the fresh water. Also, saline water leaving the humidifier
is collected back in the storage tank and recirculated to the humidifier.
1.2 Results and Discussion
The productivity of the proposed system increases up to 10% by using a double-pass flat plate
solar air heater as compared to single-pass flat plate solar air heater. In absence of any air heater
the productivity, decreases by 80% and 70 % if compared to double pass air heater and single
pass air heater respectively under the same operating conditions

2
The above result shows the superiority of double pass solar air heater over single pass solar
air heater particularly for proposed desalination system

The productivity of the system increases by increasing the air mass flow rate to an optimum
value and decreases after that value. This mass flow rate of air (0.03 kg/hr productivity 5.5
kg/h) is optimum value after this any increase in it does not contribute to productivity
It is clear that up to optimum mass flow rate of 0.03 kg/h system gives a 400 % increase in
productivity with 200 % increase in air mass flow rate.
After that even with 70% increase in mass flow rate over the optimized value 40% decrease
productivity can be observed
1.3 Conclusions
The proposed process has several attractive features, which include
1. operation at low temperature,
2. ability to utilize sustainable energy sources, i.e. solar and geothermal,
3. and requirements of low technology level
1.4 Productivity from solar still
Output of solar still mainly depends on the temperature difference between the basin water and
glass cover.

3
The more temperature difference increases the rate of water evaporation from the basin of solar
still thus results in increasing the condensation of water. Thus, increase in the distillate output
vice versa the lower temperature difference lowers the output of solar still.
This temperature difference can be increased by either
• Increasing the temperature of water in the basin (Active or Passive ways)
• Decreasing the temperature of glass cover (Flowing cooled water)
• Combination of both stated points i.e. increasing the basin water temperature and
decreasing cover temperature together.
1.5 Recent developments in passive still designs
1.5.1 Multiple effect diffusion still
The distillate output is generated through condensation, occurring both beneath the double-
glazed glass cover and on the inner surface of the vertical metallic wall. On the opposite side
of this wall, wicks transport saline water. As the saline water contacts the metallic surface, it
cools and subsequently evaporates due to heating. Simultaneously, on the opposite side, cooling
induces condensation

Fig.2 Multiple effect diffusion still

The latent heat of condensation is released to the vertical walls. The vertical walls get heated,
heat is transferred to saline water trickling over it and further evaporation takes place.
At the same time condensation happens on other side of metallic wall and this process goes on.
These are called multiple effects.
1.5.2 Tubular type solar still
A tubular solar still consists mainly of transparent cylindrical tube in which the rectangular
absorber is placed.

4
 Fig.3 Tubular type solar still
Due to gravity effect, the condensed water flow down over the inner surface of transparent
tubular cover and stored in the collector provided at the bottom point of trough.

1.5.3 Chimney type solar still

The saline water enters into chimney through the heat exchanger and then enters into still. It is
evaporated in the still due to the solar radiation received as latent heat of vaporization.

Fig.4 Chimney type solar still

The vapor diffuses into the chimney and condenses on the external fins of the heat exchanger.
The distillate water is collected at the base of the chimney and can be drained out.

1.5.4 Stepped solar still

The inclined wick solar still is modified into the stepped basin solar still. The modification
helps to create uniform wet wick film thus helps to enhance the production rate of inclined
wick solar still. It is a combination of a number of inclined wick solar stills

5
 Fig.5 Stepped solar still
1.5.5 Solar still with separate condenser
The separate condenser other than the conventional glass cover through which radiation is
received, helps to increase the temperature differential between the basin water and condenser
cover that finally lead to increase the rate of condensation which enhances the amount of
distillate output produces per unit area.

Fig.6 Solar still with separate condenser

It can be seen the separate condenser can be metallic or glass that can be arranged to be kept
in shadow for remain cooler for creating the temperature differential.
1.6 Recent developments in active solar still
1.6.1 Solar still coupled with solar concentrator
In this arrangement the basin water is being supplied from solar concentrator at very high
temperature that get evaporated very soon and also get condensed on inner surface of glass
cover because of temperature difference between water and condensing cover. The maximum
output is produced has been noticed approx. 10.77L/m2

6
 Fig.7 Solar still coupled with solar concentrator
1.6.2 Solar still coupled with Air cooler
To harness the cooling effect of the water in the cooler tank, which maintains a Wet-Bulb
Temperature (WBT) corresponding to the Dry-Bulb Temperature (DBT), Somwanshi and
Tiwari proposed integrating the solar still with an air cooler system.

Fig.8 Solar still coupled with Air cooler

In this design, evaporatively cooled water flows over the solar still's cover. This approach
serves to create the temperature difference between the water and the cover, leading to a
reported increase of approximately 58% in the annual distillate output in the climate of Jodhpur,
India

1.6.3 Solar still coupled with solar concentrator

In this arrangement the basin water is being supplied from solar concentrator at very high
temperature that get evaporated very soon and also get condensed on inner surface of glass
cover because of temperature difference between water and condensing cover. The maximum
output is produced has been noticed approx. 10.77L/m2

7
 Fig.9 Solar still coupled with solar concentrator
1.6.4 Solar still coupled with Solar Pond
The annual average values of the daily productivity and efficiency of the still with the Solar
pond were found to be higher than those obtained without the SSP by 52.36% and 43.80%,
respectively.

Fig.10 Solar still coupled with Solar Pond

1.6.5 Solar still coupled with PVT system
It is found that exergy-based energy payback time is lower by 89.90% and 44.45% energy
production factor is higher by 46.67% and 31.11% life cycle conversion efficiency is higher by
56.25% and 37.50% and production cost of potable water is lower by 27.05% and 3.20% for
the proposed design

8
 Fig.11 Solar still coupled with PVT system
1.7 Some others methods of enhancing output of solar still
1.7.1 Using Black dye with water in basin
To increase the water temperature in the basin Sodha et.al. suggest to use black dye in the basin,
by doing this they found that the productivity increases about 48% by using black dye for 14cm
water depth.

Fig.12 Using Black dye with water in basin

1.7.2 Using of Reflectors with black dye in the basin
Tamini suggested to use black dye and reflectors schematic arrangement as shown in figure.
The found that the Efficiency increases about 30 to 35% by using black dye and reflector mirror

9
 Fig.13 Using of Reflectors with black dye in the basin
1.7.3 Using Fins in the basin of solar still
Omara et.al experimentally compared the performance of conventional solar still, finned solar
still and corrugated solar still. They found with finned and corrugated solar still the productivity
increased approximately by 40% and 21% respectively. In this case the daily efficiency for
finned, corrugated and conventional solar stills were approximately 47.5%, 41%and 35%
respectively.

Fig.14 Using Fins in the basin of solar still

10
1.7.4 Using Strip-fins attached on Absorber Plate
Ayuthaya et al. suggested to use strip- fins on absorber plate they found that the productivity
of the modified solar still was increased by 15.5%, compared to that of a conventional still.

Fig.15 Using Strip-fins attached on Absorber Plate

1.7.5 Small solar distillation plant cooled by water from garden fountain
Tiwari and Somwanshi proposed a small solar distillation plant cooled by water from garden
fountain they found the daily distillate output enhanced about 61% and the increase in annual
efficiency of single slope and multiwick solar still about 15.5% and 17.4% respectively.

Fig.16 Small solar distillation plant cooled by water from garden fountain

11
References

[1] Sodha, M.S., Nayak, J.K., Tiwari, G.N. and Kumar, A. Double basin solar still,
Energy Conversion 1980; 20(1),23.
[2] Sodha, M.S., Nayak, J.K., Singh, U. Tiwari G.N. Thermal Performance of solar still.
Journal of Energy 1981;5,331
[3] Prakash, J. and Kavanthekar, A. K. Performance prediction of a regenerative solar
still, International Journal of Solar and Wind Technology. 1986; 3, 119.
[4] Rai, S. N. and Tiwari, G. N. Single basin solar still coupled with flat plate collector.
Energy Conservation and Management. 1982, 23, 145.
[5] Zaki, G. M., Radhwan, A. M. and Balbeid, A. O. Analysis of assisted coupled solar
still, Personal communication, 1991.
[6] Fernandez J. L. and Chargoy, N. Multi-stage indirectly heated solar still, Solar
energy. 1990; 44, 215.
[7] Singh AK, Tiwari GN. Thermal evaluation of regenerative active solar distillation
under thermosyphon mode. Energy Convers Manag 1993; 34:697–706.
[8] Kumar Sanjeev, Tiwari GN. Optimization of daily yield for an active double effect
distillation with water flow. Energy Convers Manag 1999; 40:703–15.
[9] Abdullah AS. Improving the performance of stepped solar still. Desalination 2013;
319:60–5.
[10] Dhiman NK, Tiwari GN. Effect of water flowing over the glass cover of a multi-
wick solar still. Energy Convers Manag 1990; 30:245–50.
[11] Abu-Hijleh Bassam AK. Enhanced solar still performance using water film cooling
of the glass cover. Desalination 1996; 107:235–44.
[12] Lawrence SA, Gupta SP, Tiwari GN. Effect of heat capacity on the performance of
solar still with water flow over the glass cover. Energy Convers Manag 1990; 30(3):
277–85.
[13] Sherwood TK, Pigford RL, Wilke CH. Mass transfer. New York: McGraw Hill;
1975.
[14] Janarthanan B, Chandrasekaran J, Kumar S. Performance of floating cum tilted wick
type solar still with the effect of water flowing over the glass cover. Desalination
2006; 190:51–62.
[15] Badran OO. Experimental study of the enhancement parameters on a single slope
solar still productivity. Desalination 2007;209(1–3):136–43.

12
[16] Somwanshi, Aneesh, and Rupesh Shrivastava. "Thermal analysis of a closed loop
inclined wick solar still (CLIWSS) with an additional heat storage water reservoir."
Solar Energy 262 (2023): 111902.
[17] Yeh HM, Wei TS, Tung MN. Energy balances in double-effect wick-type solar
distillers. Energy 1988;13(2):115–20.
[18] Yeh HM, Chen ZF. Energy balances in wick-type energy balances in double- effect
solar distillers with air flow through the second-effect unit. Energy
1992;17(12):1239–47.
[19] Rajaseenivasan T, Ilango T, Murugavel KK. Comparative study of double basin and
single basin solar still. Desalination 2013; 309:27–31.
[20] Yadav YP, Jha LK. A double basin solar still coupled to a collector and operating in
the thermosyphon mode. Energy 1989; 14:653–9.
[21] Yadav YP. Transient analysis of double basin solar still integrated with collector.
Desalination 1989; 71:151–64.

13
Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy Sources
– Passive Heating & Cooling of Buildings (Part-III)
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Serious Problem in Modern Century 2
1.2 Need of fresh air 3
1.3 Natural ventilation 4
1.4 Types of natural ventilation 4
1.5 Description of Proposed System 6
1.6 Determination of ventilation flow rate for Hostel Building-A of NIT Raipur India 7
1.7 Conclusions 8
1.8 Importance of Passive Heating 9
1.9 Various Strategies for Passive Heating 9
1.10 Various Passive Cooling/Heating Techniques 9
1.10.1 Heat Protection 9
1.10.2 Heat Modulation 9
1.10.3 Heat Dissipation 9
1.11 Heat protection techniques 10
1.11.1 Landscaping and vegetation 10
1.11.2 Water surface 11
1.11.3 Solar control 11
1.11.4 Aperture control 12
1.11.5 Glazing 12
1.11.6 Shading 13
1.12 Heat modulation techniques 13
1.12.1 PCM integration in wallboard/Ceiling/ Roof 13
1.12.2 Free cooling 14
1.13 Heat dissipation techniques 14
1.13.1 Convective cooling 14
1.13.2 Wind driven ventilation 15
1.13.3 Trombe wall 15
1.13.4 Solar chimney 16
1.13.5 Evaporative cooling 16
1.13.6 Radiative cooling 17
 1.13.7 Geothermal Heating/cooling of buildings 17
References 18
1. Introduction
Passive heating and cooling technologies play a crucial role in enhancing energy efficiency
and sustainability in buildings. These technologies leverage natural processes and design
principles to reduce the need for active mechanical systems, thereby minimizing energy
consumption. Here are some emerging technologies in passive heating and cooling of
buildings:

Phase Change Materials (PCMs): PCMs absorb and release thermal energy during phase
transitions (solid to liquid and vice versa). They can be incorporated into building materials to
regulate indoor temperatures by storing and releasing heat.
Smart Windows: Electrochromic and thermochromic windows can dynamically control the
amount of light and heat entering a building. These windows can automatically adjust their
transparency based on external conditions or user preferences.
Natural Ventilation: Designing buildings to maximize natural ventilation can reduce the
reliance on mechanical systems for cooling. Utilizing strategic building orientation, window
placement, and cross-ventilation can optimize airflow.
Green Roofs and Walls: Vegetated roofs and walls provide insulation and shade, reducing the
heat absorbed by buildings. They also contribute to improved air quality and biodiversity.
Solar Chimneys: Solar chimneys use the principle of natural convection to enhance airflow.
Warm air rises in a vertical chimney, creating a flow that can be used for passive ventilation
and cooling.
Radiant Cooling: Radiant cooling systems use cold surfaces, such as chilled ceilings or floors,
to absorb heat from occupants and the surrounding environment. This method can be more
energy-efficient than traditional air conditioning.
Passive Solar Design: Designing buildings to maximize the capture of solar heat during the
winter and minimize it during the summer is a fundamental approach. This includes optimizing
window placement, using thermal mass, and incorporating shading devices.
Thermal Storage: Thermal storage systems store excess heat during the day and release it
during cooler periods. This can be achieved through materials like water, concrete, or using
underground thermal storage.
Daylight Harvesting: Integrating daylight harvesting systems involves optimizing natural
light in a building to reduce the need for artificial lighting. This not only saves energy but also
positively impacts occupants' well-being.

1
Passive House Standards: The Passive House (Passivhaus) standard emphasizes high levels
of insulation, airtightness, and heat recovery ventilation to achieve energy efficiency in
buildings.
These emerging technologies contribute to more sustainable and energy-efficient buildings,
aligning with global efforts to mitigate climate change and reduce reliance on non-renewable
energy sources. As technology continues to advance, further innovations in passive heating and
cooling are likely to emerge.
1.1 Serious Problem in Modern Century
One of the serious problems in the modern century is the ongoing global environmental
crisis, which includes issues such as climate change, biodiversity loss, deforestation, pollution,
and resource depletion. These environmental challenges pose significant threats to the
wellbeing of the planet and its inhabitants. Here are some key aspects of the environmental
crisis:
Climate Change: The Earth's climate is changing at an unprecedented rate, primarily due to
human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes.
Rising temperatures, extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and disruptions to ecosystems are
some of the consequences of climate change.
Biodiversity Loss: Human activities, including habitat destruction, pollution, and climate
change, are leading to a rapid decline in biodiversity.
The loss of species and ecosystems has far-reaching implications for ecosystem stability, food
security, and human well-being.
Pollution: Air, water, and soil pollution from industrial activities, agriculture, and improper
waste disposal are major environmental concerns.
Pollution adversely affects human health, ecosystems, and wildlife, leading to a range of
environmental and public health problems.
Deforestation: Widespread clearing of forests for agriculture, logging, and urban development
is a significant driver of habitat loss and contributes to climate change.
Deforestation also threatens numerous plant and animal species, disrupts local communities,
and diminishes vital ecosystem services.
Resource Depletion: The unsustainable extraction and consumption of natural resources,
including minerals, water, and fossil fuels, contribute to resource depletion and environmental
degradation. Overexploitation of resources can lead to long-term environmental damage and
exacerbate social and economic inequalities.

2
Waste Management: Improper disposal and accumulation of waste, including plastic
pollution, electronic waste, and hazardous materials, pose serious environmental challenges.
Inadequate waste management practices contribute to pollution and harm ecosystems, wildlife,
and human health.
1.2 Need of fresh air
The need for fresh air is fundamental to human health and well-being. Here are several reasons
why access to fresh air is essential:
Oxygen Supply: Humans and many other organisms require oxygen for cellular respiration, a
process that produces energy for the body. Fresh air provides a constant supply of oxygen
necessary for sustaining life.
Respiratory Health: Breathing in fresh air is crucial for maintaining healthy respiratory
function. Clean air helps prevent respiratory issues, and adequate oxygen levels are necessary
for lung health.
Removal of Indoor Pollutants: Indoor environments can accumulate pollutants, such as
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), mold spores, and other allergens. Fresh air helps dilute
and remove these pollutants, promoting a healthier indoor environment.
Boosts Immune System: Exposure to fresh air and outdoor environments has been associated
with a strengthened immune system. Spending time in nature may help the body build
resistance to illnesses and infections.
Improved Cognitive Function: Fresh air has been linked to improved cognitive function,
concentration, and mental clarity. Good air quality enhances overall brain performance and can
positively impact mood.
Temperature Regulation: Proper ventilation with fresh air helps regulate indoor temperatures.
This is important for maintaining thermal comfort and avoiding conditions of overheating or
excessive cold, which can impact health.
Reduction of Indoor Odors: Fresh air circulation helps eliminate indoor odors and prevents
the buildup of stale air. This is particularly important in enclosed spaces where odors can
become concentrated.
Enhanced Sleep Quality: Exposure to fresh air, especially in the evening, can contribute to
better sleep. Well-ventilated bedrooms promote a more comfortable and conducive sleep
environment.
Stress Reduction: Spending time outdoors and breathing in fresh air is known to have stress-
reducing effects. Nature walks and outdoor activities can help relax the mind and body.

3
Supports Physical Activity: Engaging in physical activities, whether indoors or outdoors,
benefits from access to fresh air. Adequate ventilation supports endurance and overall exercise
performance.
Prevents Sick Building Syndrome: In closed environments, inadequate ventilation can lead
to Sick Building Syndrome, characterized by symptoms like headaches, fatigue, and respiratory
issues. Fresh air exchange helps prevent such issues.
1.3 Natural ventilation
Ventilation is the intentional introduction of fresh ambient air into a space and removal of old
air.
• If Ventilation is performed without a fan or other mechanical devices it is Natural
Ventilation.
• Air flow is caused by pressure differences between the building and its surrounding, it
is Natural Ventilation.
• Pressure difference is created from the natural forces.
1.4 Types of natural ventilation
Natural ventilation comes in various forms, each leveraging different mechanisms to
allow fresh air into buildings and promote air circulation. Here are some common types of
natural ventilation:
Cross-Ventilation: Cross-ventilation is achieved by strategically placing openings, such as
windows or doors, on opposite sides of a building. This allows prevailing winds to flow through
the building, facilitating the exchange of indoor and outdoor air.

Fig.1 Cross-Ventilation

4
Stack Ventilation (Stack Effect): The stack effect relies on the principle that warm air rises.
Openings at the base and top of a building capitalize on this principle. Warm air inside the
building naturally rises and exits through upper openings, drawing in cooler air from lower
openings.

Fig.2 Stack Ventilation

Wind-Driven Ventilation: Wind-driven ventilation utilizes the force of the wind to create
pressure differences and induce airflow. This can be achieved through openings like windows,
vents, or openings on windward and leeward sides of a building.
Buoyancy-Driven Ventilation: Buoyancy-driven ventilation relies on the buoyancy of warm
air. As warm air rises, it creates a pressure difference that draws in cooler air. This type is often
associated with the stack effect, where warm air exits through upper openings.
Single-Sided Ventilation: Single-sided ventilation involves creating openings on only one side
of a building to allow prevailing winds to flow through. This is particularly effective when
there is a consistent wind direction.
Double-Skin Facades: Double-skin facades involve creating an additional layer or cavity on
the exterior of a building that serves as a buffer between the indoor and outdoor environments.
This design can enhance natural ventilation while providing additional insulation.
Automated Ventilation Systems: Automated systems use sensors and controls to manage the
opening and closing of windows or vents based on environmental conditions.
These systems can optimize natural ventilation while ensuring that indoor comfort is
maintained.
Ventilated Facades: Ventilated facades incorporate openings and air cavities in the building's
exterior envelope to encourage natural airflow. These facades can enhance both natural
ventilation and thermal performance.

5
Roof Ventilation: Roof ventilation involves incorporating openings or vents in the roof to
allow warm air to escape.
Solar Chimneys: Solar chimneys utilize the sun's heat to create an updraft, promoting natural
ventilation. As the air inside the chimney heats up, it rises, creating a flow that draws in cooler
air from the building's interior. This can be effective in releasing trapped hot air and promoting
overall air circulation. The effectiveness of these natural ventilation strategies depends on
factors such as building design, local climate, and the surrounding environment. Integrating
multiple strategies or using a hybrid approach with mechanical ventilation systems can further
enhance overall building performance.
1.5 Description of Proposed System
The system consists of a metallic plate clamped to the vertical wall with insulation between
them and glass plate in front of metallic wall.

Fig.3 Schematic of proposed system

Top and bottom vents are provided for escaping of heated air and flow of room air into the gap
respectively When there is a temperature difference between two adjoining volumes of air the
warmer air will have lower density and be more buoyant thus will rise above the cold air
creating an upward air stream. A program based on the energy balance equations can be
developed to investigate the effect of the various parameters on ventilation flow rate. In this
program, energy balance equations can be solved simultaneously. Initial values of Tg, Tm, and
Ta are assumed to be nearly equal to the ambient temperature. Then, these assumed initial
temperatures are used to determine the heat transfer coefficients that depend upon the
temperature

6
1.6 Determination of ventilation flow rate for Hostel Building-A of NIT Raipur India
Hostel rooms under consideration were of 4.4m X 3.2m X 3.2 m the volume of each room
comes out 45.056 m3. The total number of rooms are 52, total volume of air to be ventilated is
2342.912 m3 Since hostel building is used for residential purpose, ventilation rate is taken as
10 ACH.
So, ventilation rate required in cubic meter per second is given by the formula
Thus, number of exhaust fan required to ventilate Hostel Building of NIT Raipur is 14
(𝐴𝐶𝐻)𝑋 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 3 10𝑋2342.912 3
𝑉= 𝑚 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑚 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 6.51𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
3600 3600

Energy required by single exhaust fan in watts = 90 watts.

Energy required by single exhaust fan to provide ventilation in a day for running between 8.00
am to 6.00 pm in kWh=0.9kWh per day. Therefore, energy required to provide ventilation to
Hostel Building-A of NIT Raipur in one day using all 14 fans (from 8.00 am to 6.00 pm) = 12.6
kWh per day
Estimation of energy saved by using solar metallic wall

Month Average volumetric air flow rate (m3/sec)

July 0.1093
August 0.1089
September 0.1101
October 0.1071
November 0.1130
December 0.1126
January 0.1147
February 0.1184

The length of the wall on which the solar metallic wall can be mounted is 26 m on south side
that is enough to mount 61 numbers of solar metallic walls on Hostel Building of NIT Raipur.
Thus, volumetric air flow rate produced by 61 solar metallic walls = 0.1071x61 m3/sec = 6.533
m3/sec The lowest value of average volumetric air flow rate (0.1071 m3/sec) is being selected
for the calculation of energy savings because this will be minimum energy saved by using one
solar metallic wall.

7
Therefore, number of solar metallic wall required to produce ventilation rate of 6.51 m3/sec
=6.51/0.1071= 60.78 = 61
The whole building can be ventilated by using 61 solar metallic walls and thus the required
number of exhaust fan which is 14, can be replaced by solar metallic walls.
Thus, energy saved per day by using solar metallic wall = 14x0.9 kWh = 12.6 kWh
Energy saved in a month = 12x30 = 378 kWh
Since natural ventilation is provided during mild climatic conditions, energy can be saved in a
year for only 8 months (from July to February)
Thus, energy saved in a year = 8x378 = 3024 kWh
(if proposed solar metallic walls are used.)
Saving in cost and payback period of solar metallic wall.
It has been found that by using solar metallic wall the energy saved in a month is 378 kWh thus
the Rupees saved in a month is (100x4) + (278x4.8) = Rs 1734.4 (= USD 27), finally the total
amount saved in a year is 1734.4x8 = Rs 13,872 (= USD 215)
Thus, payback period of solar metallic wall = 106299 / 13875.2 = 7.66 years,
It means if solar metallic wall is used it will repay the expenses occur for its fabrication and
installation within 7 years and 8 months.
Carbon Credit
The amount of energy saved will reduce the corresponding coal consumption and thus
ultimately reduce the carbon dioxide to be liberated in atmosphere.
The possible emission of CO2 emitted = (44/12) × (0.4×1.57) = 2.303 tonnes per year.
Thus, this amount of CO2 is not emitted to the environment if solar metallic wall is used in
hostel –A of NIT
1.7 Conclusions
1. With increase in the air gap of solar metallic wall, the volumetric air flow rate increases
significantly. About 62% increase in air flow rate observed for increase in air gap from
0.1 m to 0.2 m.
2. With increase in the height of solar metallic wall, the volumetric air flow rate increases
significantly. About 57% increase in volumetric air flow rate is observed for increase
in height from 1 m to 2 m.
3. About 45% more volumetric air flow rate is obtained using aluminium for solar metallic
wall as compared to copper.
4. About 2.3% higher value of outlet air temperature is obtained on using aluminium as
compared to use copper as metallic wall.

8
 5. The amount of energy saved is 3024 kWh per year to ventilate the Hostel Building of
NIT Raipur using solar metallic wall.
6. Payback period of the same has been found 7 years and 8 months and about 2.303
tonnes per year of CO2 is reduced to be liberated in atmosphere that causes global
warming.
1.8 Importance of Passive Heating
Passive heating is the cheapest way to heat the home. It is achievable and low cost when
designed into a new home or addition, Appropriate for all climates where winter heating is
required, Achievable when buying an existing house or apartment, by looking for good
orientation and shading.
1.9 Various Strategies for Passive Heating
• Trombe wall
• Earth air heat exchanger
• Ventilation

1.10 Various Passive Cooling/Heating Techniques

1.10.1 Heat Protection
The building is protected from direct solar heat gains. The protection from solar heat gain may
involve landscaping, water surface, active vegetation, shading of the building surfaces etc.
1.10.2 Heat Modulation
The heat gain of a building is modulated with the help of the thermal storage capacity of the
building structure. It protects the building by discharging the stored heat at a later time. The
thermal storage capacity of a building largely depends on the type of the thermal mass of the
building structure.
1.10.3 Heat Dissipation
The excess heat of a building is disposed to the suitable environmental heat sink at a lower
temperature. Disposal of excess heat depends on two main factors i.e. availability of
environmental heat sink and thermal coupling between building and heat sink.

9
 Fig.4 Classification of Various Passive Cooling Techniques

1.11 Heat protection techniques

The protection of heat gain is the first step towards achieving comfort conditions in the interior
of a building. Heat gains can be divided as external heat gains and internal heat gains. External
heat gain arises from direct solar radiation and ambient temperature, whereas internal heat gain
has sources like human activities, appliances, lightening, cooking, etc.
1.11.1 Landscaping and vegetation
Using trees and green vegetation near or around the building is a convenient and cheap solution
for protecting the building from solar heat gains. Vegetation includes vegetation inside the most
common places of the building like roof greening, terrace greening, indoor plants in atria, etc.
Greening the heat prone surface of the building can significantly impact the energy
performance of the building.

Fig.5 Landscaping and vegetation

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1.11.2 Water surface
Water surface which includes ponds, sprays, pools or water fountain can provide passive
cooling to the building. The roof pond technique is a cheap, nontoxic and popular passive
cooling technique as water is an ideal thermal mass having high volumetric heat capacity. The
vapor pressure difference between the water surface and the surrounding air is the driving force
for a roof pond cooling action.

Fig.6 Water surface (roof pond)

1.11.3 Solar control
Direct penetration of solar radiation can be controlled by modifying the space available
i.e. aperture control or by reducing the intensity of transmitted solar radiation through
transparent elements like windows i.e. glazing or by completely diverting the incoming solar
radiation using shading devices i.e. shading control.

Fig.7 Solar control (window shading)

11
1.11.4 Aperture control
Aperture control refers to modify the space or openings through which solar radiation passes
to the building interior. It is possible by either accurate sizing of opening or modifying the
orientation of the openings present on building envelope.

Fig.8 Aperture control

1.11.5 Glazing
The glass and frames in windows, external doors and skylights has a significant effect
on thermal performance. Up to 40% of a home’s heating energy can be lost and up to 87% of
its heat gained through windows. The thermal performance of a window, door, or skylight
depends on how well the glass and frame conduct heat (conduction or U value) and how well
the glass and frame transmit heat from direct sunlight (the solar heat gain coefficient or SHGC).

Fig.9 Glazing

12
1.11.6 Shading
Shading is one of the passive techniques which protects the building from solar heat gains,
increases the daylight hour. It reduces the use of artificial lightening which directly contributes
towards a reduction in heat generated within the building.

Fig.10 Shading

1.12 Heat modulation techniques

1.12.1 PCM integration in wallboard/Ceiling/ Roof

Wallboard is generally made of wood pulp, plaster or gypsum and used popularly in building
applications. Relatively low cost of wallboard makes it very suitable for PCM applications.
PCM is integrated with wallboard and installed in place of ordinary wallboards during
construction or refurbishment. Performance of PCM wallboards depends on many factors such
as melting temperature of PCM, latent heat per unit volume, impregnation method, climatic
conditions, etc.

Fig.11 PCM integration in wallboard

13
1.12.2 Free cooling

Passive cooling in the building can be achieved when a day time heat gain of the building is
released at night through intake of outdoor cool air. In other words, colder nocturnal air is
circulated in a building during night ventilation which cools the indoor air and building
structure.

Fig.12 Free cooling

1.13 Heat dissipation techniques

In this passive cooling technique, excess heat of the building is rejected to the suitable
environmental heat sink at a lower temperature. Available environmental heat sinks are ambient
air, water, and sky. Based on the available environmental heat sink, this technique is further
classified as convective cooling, evaporative cooling, and radiative cooling.
1.13.1 Convective cooling
Convection causes warm air to rise, drawing in cool air. Convective air movement improves
cross-ventilation and overcomes many of the limitations of unreliable cooling breezes. Even
when there is no breeze, convection allows heat to leave a building via clerestory windows,
roof ventilators and vented ridges, eaves, gables and ceilings.

Fig.13 Convective cooling

14
1.13.2 Wind driven ventilation

Wind ventilation is the easiest, most common, and often least expensive form of passive
cooling and ventilation. Successful wind ventilation is determined by having high thermal
comfort and adequate fresh air for the ventilated spaces, while having little or no energy use
for active HVAC cooling and ventilation

Fig.14 Wind driven ventilation

1.13.3 Trombe wall

A Trombe wall is a south-facing concrete or masonry wall blackened and covered on the
exterior by glazing. It is a massive thermal wall that collects and stores solar energy. The stored
energy is transferred to the inside building for winter heating or facilitates room air movement
for summer cooling. The standard Trombe wall places a glass panel approximately 2 to 5
centimeters from a 10 to 41 centimeter thick dark masonry wall, often made of bricks, stone,
or concrete. The wall absorbs solar heat, which is then slowly released into the home.

Fig.15 Trombe wall

15
1.13.4 Solar chimney

The solar chimney is mainly utilized for enhancing daytime ventilation as a passive cooling or
passive heating in a building. It is usually installed at the rooftop or attached to walls. Air
movement inside the solar chimney is generated by buoyancy forces which draw cooler air
inside the building and pushes hot air towards top of the chimney cavity.

Fig.16 Solar chimney

1.13.5 Evaporative cooling
Evaporative cooling is an effective passive cooling method that works best with low relative
humidity (70% or less). Air movement increases the rate of evaporation, so breezes or fans can
increase evaporative cooling. A space can be cooled by passive evaporation where there are
surfaces of still or flowing water, such as basins or fountains. When evaporation has to be
controlled by means of some mechanical device, the system is called a hybrid evaporative
system.

Fig.17 Evaporative cooling

16
1.13.6 Radiative cooling

Passive radiative cooling is a natural phenomenon that occurs when a surface radiates more
heat to the sky than it absorbs from the sun or the environment. This can lower the surface
temperature below the ambient air temperature or even below the dew point or freezing point.
Passive radiative cooling only occurs at night in nature because during the day, the solar
radiation is stronger than the outgoing radiation.

Fig.18 Radiative cooling

1.13.7 Geothermal Heating/cooling of buildings

Geothermal heating and cooling systems, also known as geo exchange or ground source heat
pump systems, use the earth's constant temperature to heat and cool buildings. They transfer
heat from the ground (or water) into buildings during the winter and reverse the process in the
summer. Geothermal systems offer the highest efficiency among the HVAC options
commercially available and eliminate on-site fossil fuel combustion, making them an
environmentally friendly option.

Fig.19 Geothermal Heating/cooling of buildings

17
References

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AGENCY Together Secur Sustain 2017; Executive: 13. doi:10.1016/ 0301-
4215(73)90024-4.
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2017.
[3] IEA Online Data Services. Available at, http://data.iea.org/ieastore/statslisting.asp.
[4] K. Panchabikesan, K. Vellaisamy, V. Ramalingam, Passive cooling potential
inbuildings under various climatic conditions in India, Renew. Sustain. Energy R ev.
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technology for buildings: thermal energy storage (TES) unit, performance
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(2008) 119–128, doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2007.01.007 .
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 Course Name: Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy
Sources.
Topic Name : Fuel cell Technology
1.1 Introduction
A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel into
electrical energy through an electrochemical reaction of hydrogen-containing fuel with oxygen
or another oxidizing agent.

From this Fig. 1 we can see the generalized structure of Fuel cell.

Fig. 1 Generalized structure of fuel cell

• When fuel and air are allowed to pass through channels they react when they come in
contact together across a porous membrane that is a electrolyte which separates them.
• This reaction results in a transfer of electrons and ions across the electrolyte from the
anode to the cathode.
• If an external load is attached to this arrangement, a complete circuit is formed and a
voltage is generated from the flow of this electrical current.
• The voltage generated by a single cell is typically rather small that is less than 1 volt
so many cells are connected in series to create a useful voltage.

1
1.2 Components of Fuel cell
The essential components of Fuel cell can be seen from fig. 2

Fig. 2 Components of Fuel cell

1. Electrode: It is an thin catalyst layer pressed between the ionomer membrane and
Porous, electrically conductive substrate.
2. Electrolyte: It is a chemical compound that conducts ions from one electrode to the
other side of a fuel cell.
3. Catalyst: It is a substance that cause or speed up the chemical reaction without itself
be affected.
4. Bipolar plates: It is connecting the anode of one cell to the cathode of adjacent cell.
5. Gas diffusion layer: It is a layer between the catalyst layer and a bipolar plate also
called electrode substrate or diffuser or current collector.

The combine assembly of Anode +Electrolyte +Cathode we called Membrane Electrode

Assembly (MEA)

2
1.3 Relationship between Electrolysis and Fuel cell

Fig. 3 Relation between electrolysis and fuel cell.

The relation between electrolysis and fuel cell can be seen from fig. 3

Water electrolysis and fuel cells are two closely related electrochemical processes that involve
the splitting up of water and its components, hydrogen and oxygen, to produce either electricity
(in the case of fuel cells) or hydrogen and oxygen gases (in the case of water electrolysis).

1.3.1 Water Electrolysis:

It is a process that splits water (H 2O) into its constituent elements, hydrogen (H 2) and oxygen
(O2), using an electrical current. It is essentially the reverse of the chemical reaction that occurs
in a fuel cell.

Key Components of Water Electrolysis:

1. Electrolyzer: The device used for water electrolysis is called an electrolyzer. It

typically consists of two electrodes (an anode and a cathode) separated by an
electrolyte (usually an aqueous solution of an alkaline substance or a solid polymer
electrolyte in the case of PEM electrolyzers).

2. Anode: At the anode, water molecules lose electrons and are oxidized to form oxygen
gas (O2) and positively charged hydrogen ions (H+).

3. Cathode: At the cathode, hydrogen ions (H+) gain electrons and are reduced to form
hydrogen gas (H2).

4. Electrical Energy: An external power source (such as a DC electrical power supply)

provides the necessary electrical energy to drive the electrolysis process. The
3
 electrical current flows through the water, causing the reactions at the anode and
cathode.

5. Hydrogen and Oxygen Generation: Hydrogen gas is generated at the cathode, while
oxygen gas is generated at the anode. These gases can be collected and used for
various applications, such as fuel for fuel cells or industrial processes.

1.3.2 Fuel Cells:

Fuel cells are devices that use hydrogen (or other fuels) and oxygen to produce electricity
through an electrochemical reaction. The key components of a fuel cell include an anode,
cathode, and an electrolyte, similar to an electrolyzer. However, in a fuel cell, the primary
purpose is to generate electricity rather than produce hydrogen and oxygen.

1.3.3 Difference between Electrolysis and Fuel Cells

1. Purpose: Water electrolysis is used to produce hydrogen and oxygen gases, whereas
fuel cells use hydrogen (or other fuels) and oxygen to generate electricity.

2. Direction of Reaction: Water electrolysis is the forward reaction, splitting water into
its components, while a fuel cell operates in the reverse direction, combining
hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity.

3. Energy Input: In water electrolysis, electrical energy is supplied to drive the process.
In fuel cells, the energy is produced as a result of the electrochemical reactions.

4. Applications: Water electrolysis is primarily used to generate hydrogen for various

applications, including fuel cell vehicles and industrial processes. Fuel cells, on the
other hand, are used to convert hydrogen and oxygen into electricity for powering a
wide range of devices and systems.

Both water electrolysis and fuel cells play important roles in the emerging hydrogen economy,
with water electrolysis being a key method for producing hydrogen for fuel cell applications,
which can be particularly important in clean energy and transportation sectors.

4
1.4 Categorization of electrochemical process

Fig.4 Classification of Electrochemical devices

Rechargeability:
• Primary Batteries (Non-rechargeable): These are single-use batteries that cannot be
recharged. Alkaline batteries fall into this category.
• Secondary Batteries (Rechargeable): These batteries can be recharged and used
multiple times. Examples include lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, and lead-acid
batteries.

1. Dry Cell:

• Characteristics: Dry cells are compact and portable electrochemical cells that
use a paste or gel-like electrolyte rather than a liquid one. They have a sealed
design to prevent leakage.

• Examples: Common dry cell batteries include zinc-carbon batteries and

alkaline batteries. They are used in various consumer electronics, such as
flashlights, remote controls, and portable devices.

2. Wet Cell:

• Characteristics: Wet cells, as the name suggests, use a liquid electrolyte.

They are often larger and heavier than dry cells and are commonly found in
applications like automotive batteries.

• Examples: Lead-acid batteries used in automobiles are a classic example of

wet cells. They have a liquid sulfuric acid electrolyte.
5
 3. Reserve Cell (Mercury Cell):

• Characteristics: Reserve cells are a type of dry cell that uses a small quantity
of mercury in the electrolyte. They are known for their long shelf life and
stable voltage output.

• Use: These cells are used in applications requiring consistent voltage over an
extended period, such as hearing aids, cameras, and memory backup in
electronic devices.

4. Fuel Cell:

• Characteristics: Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the

chemical energy of a fuel (e.g., hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (e.g., oxygen
from the air) directly into electricity, heat, and water through an ongoing
electrochemical process.

• Applications: Fuel cells are used in various applications, including

transportation (hydrogen fuel cell vehicles), stationary power generation, and
portable power sources. They offer high energy efficiency and low emissions.

These different types of cells have unique characteristics and applications. Dry cells are popular
for their portability and are commonly used in consumer electronics. Wet cells are larger and
more suitable for applications where size and weight are not constraints. Reserve cells are
specialized dry cells with a stable voltage output. Fuel cells represent a su stainable and efficient
technology for electricity generation, often used in environmentally friendly applications like
hydrogen-powered vehicles and clean energy generation.

1.5 Difference between Battery and Fuel cell

The difference between Fell cell and battery can seen from table 1.
Table 1 Difference between Fell cell and battery
Fuel Cell Battery
1. A fuel cell is a device that converts 1. A battery is a device containing two
chemical energy into electricity or more electrochemical cells that
can convert chemical energy into
electrical energy directly
2. A fuel cell will keep producing 2. A battery is an energy storage device
electricity as long as fuel is supplied that has a fixed amount of chemical
energy
3. Fuel Cell reactions do not degrade 3. Battery performance reduces with
over time time

6
 4. Continuous supplied with fuel and 4. Contains a limited amount of fuel
oxygen from an external source and oxidant and these two
which makes it work for a long time components decreases with time, so
period this device cannot supply electrical
energy for a long period of time.
5. External fuel supply such as natural 5. No external fuel is need
gas, methanol, or renewable sources
like electrolysis is required.
6. They cannot be recharged 6. They can be recharged
7. Harmful waste products are not 7. Harmful waste products are formed
formed
8. Higher energy density 8. Comparatively, lowered current
density
9. Lighter and more compact 9. Comparatively bulkier and heavier
10. Higher efficiency in converting fuel 10. Efficiency can vary based on the
to electricity, especially in larger- type of battery and the
scale applications. charging/discharging conditions.
11. Required infrastructure for hydrogen 11. Relis on existing electric
production, distribution and storage, infrastructure for charging, which is
which can be challenged to establish generally more widespread and
on a large scale. established.

✓ Fuel cells are different from batteries. Fuel cell requires a continuous source of fuel
and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery
the chemical energy comes from chemicals already present within the battery.

✓ Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are
supplied.

7
1.6 Working Principle of Fuel cell
The working principle of fuel can be understood from this fig. 5.

Fig 5 Working principle of fuel cell

A fuel cell is based on an electrochemical process that converts the chemical energy of a fuel
and an oxidizing agent (typically hydrogen and oxygen) directly into electrical energy, heat,
and water. Here's a detailed explanation of how a fuel cell works:

1. Anode (Negative Electrode): Hydrogen gas (H2) is supplied to the anode. At the
anode, hydrogen molecules are split into protons (H+) and electrons (e-). This process
is known as oxidation:

• Anode Reaction: 2H 2 -> 4H+ + 4e-

2. Electrolyte: An electrolyte, typically a proton-conducting material (such as a solid

polymer electrolyte in proton exchange membrane or PEM fuel cells, or a ceramic
material in solid oxide fuel cells), separates the anode and cathode. The electrolyte
allows the passage of protons (H+), while blocking the flow of electrons (e-).

3. Cathode (Positive Electrode): Oxygen (O2) or air is supplied to the cathode. At the
cathode, oxygen molecules combine with protons and electrons from the anode to
form water (H2O). This process is known as reduction:

• Cathode Reaction: 1/2O 2 + 2H+ + 2e- -> H2O

4. Electron Flow: Electrons released at the anode cannot pass through the electrolyte.
Instead, they are forced to travel through an external electrical circuit to reach the
cathode. This flow of electrons through the external circuit generates electrical current
(electricity), which can be used to power devices or systems.

5. Electricity Generation: The flow of electrons through the external circuit generates
electrical power that can be used for various applications, from small electronic
devices to vehicles and stationary power generation.
8
 6. Heat Generation: Along with electricity, fuel cells also produce heat as a byproduct
of the electrochemical reactions. This heat can be harnessed for various purposes,
such as heating water or providing climate control in vehicles or buildings.

1.7 Types of Fuel cell

Table 2 Types of Fuel cell

The classification of fuel cell is generally done on the basis of various properties, such as type
of catalyst, membrane or electrolyte, operating temperature, Anode material, Species Transfer,
Fuel to be supplied at anode side, Fuel handling capacity, Power range, Advantages and
disadvantages, application, and lastly on the basis of efficiency. This is tabulated in table 2

1. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC): These fuel cells use a solid
polymer electrolyte membrane, typically made of a Nafion. They operate at relatively
low temperatures (60-100°C) and are commonly used in vehicles and portable
electronics due to their quick start-up time and high-power density.

2. Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC): DMFCs use methanol as the fuel and operate at
low to moderate temperatures. They are used in portable electronic devices, such as
laptop batteries and small power generators.

3. Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC): AFCs use an alkaline electrolyte (usually potassium
hydroxide) and were one of the earliest types of fuel cells used in the U.S. space
program and military applications. They are not as commonly used today but find
applications in specialized niche areas.

4. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC): PAFCs use a phosphoric acid electrolyte and
operate at moderate temperatures (around 150-200°C). They are often used for
combined heat and power (CHP) applications in buildings and industrial settings.

9
 5. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC): MCFCs operate at high temperatures (around
600-650°C) and use a molten carbonate salt as the electrolyte. They are used for
stationary power generation and are well-suited for industrial applications due to their
ability to handle impure fuels.

6. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC): SOFCs operate at high temperatures (typically around
800-1000°C) and use a solid oxide electrolyte. They are known for their high efficiency
and are often used for stationary power generation and in applications where waste heat
can be utilized.

Each type of fuel cell has its advantages and disadvantages, making them suitable for different
applications based on factors like temperature requirements, efficiency, and the type of fuel
they can utilize.

1.8 Electrochemical model of Fuel cell

• The output voltage across the fuel cell is given by Nernst Potential

• In cell, the actual voltage reduces due to presence of irreversibility. This irreversibility
is due to various losses also termed as “polarization”.

• Here three types of polarizations occur i.e. Ohmic, Activation and Concentration
which are specified as under.

• The Activation polarization reflect the kinetics of reactions taking place on the
electrode surface.

• Ohmic polarization this polarization is due to electrical resistance to the flow of

electron/ion through circuit/electrolyte. In order to overcome this loss high conductivity
electrodes material should be so chosen to have higher electrical conductivity. If the
reactant gases contain impurities this loss gets significantly increased.

10
 • Concentration polarization this is due to the resistance to the transport of reactant
species approaching the three phase boundary “TPB” and the transport of product
species leaving the TPB .

Here ics and ias represents the exchange current density across the cathode and anode.

The overall work Wfc produced by the fuel cell can be computed the above equation.

Here 𝑛̅ represent number of fuel cells, LHV represents Lower heating value of fuel, 𝑚̇ f
represents mass flow rate of fuel.

11
1.9 Performance curve of Fuel cell

A fuel cell performance curve is a graphical representation that illustrates the relationship
between the electrical output of a fuel cell and its operating conditions, typically voltage and
current as shown in fig 6. This curve is essential for characterizing the performance of a fuel
cell under various loads and helps users understand how it operates across different power
demands.

Fig.6 Performance curve of fuel cell

It has been seen that with increasing operating temperatures, the performance of fuel cells
increases due to a decrease in activation, ohmic, and concentration losses.

1.10 Applicability of Fuel cell

Fuel cell technology is being researched to improve efficiency, lower prices, and broaden its
use in numerous sectors shown in fig.7. Due to its efficiency, minimal emissions, and
adaptability, fuel cells are used in many sectors. Main fuel cell uses include:

Transportation:

Automotive: Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) are becoming popular as eco -friendly
alternatives to internal combustion engine cars. FCVs have extensive ranges, fast refuelling,
and no exhaust emissions.

Public transit buses and commercial vehicles employ hydrogen fuel cell technology for clean,
efficient urban transportation and freight carrying.

12
 Fig.7 Application of Fuel cell

Power Generation Stationary:

Residential: Fuel cell CHP systems may generate electricity and heat for space heating and hot
water in houses. This improves energy efficiency and lowers power bills.

Commercial and Industrial: Data centres and hospitals employ fuel cells for backup power.
They provide primary electricity for rural areas and grid backup during high demand.

Backup and portable power:

Portable Electronics: Fuel cells last longer than batteries in computers, cellphones, and
camping gear.

Emergency Backup: Fuel cells power important systems during grid disruptions, assuring
service continuity.

Military and aerospace:

13
NASA and other space organisations utilise fuel cells to power spacecraft and satellites and
provide people with energy and water.

Military Applications: Fuel cells power drones, submarines, and field generators, extending
operating capabilities without refuelling.

Material Handling:

Industrial fuel cell forklifts and warehousing equipment have longer operational periods, faster
refuelling, and lower emissions than lead-acid battery-powered equipment replaced by fuel
cell.

Off-road and maritime vehicles:

Fuel cells are being investigated for clean propulsion in ships, ferries, tractors, and construction
equipment.

Grid-stored energy:

Power-to-gas and power-to-power hydrogen-based energy storage technologies are being

developed to stabilise the grid and store excess renewable energy.

Remote/Offline Power:

Fuel cells produce dependable energy in remote weather stations, telecommunications towers,
and isolated villages without substantial infrastructure.

14
1.11 Power Spectrum of Fuel cell
The power spectrum of a fuel cell refers to the range of power outputs that a fuel cell can deliver
under various operating conditions and configurations. The power spectrum of a fuel cell can
vary significantly depending on several factors, including the type of fuel cell, its size, design,
and the specific application it is used for. Here are some key points related to the power
spectrum of fuel cells:

Fig. Power Spectrum of fuel cell

1. Type of Fuel Cell: Different types of fuel cells, such as proton exchange membrane
(PEM) fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), alkaline fuel cells, and molten
carbonate fuel cells, have varying power spectra. Some may be better suited for high -
power applications, while others excel in low-power or high-efficiency applications.

2. Operating Conditions: The power output of a fuel cell is influenced by operating

conditions, including temperature, pressure, and the concentration of reactants
(hydrogen and oxygen or air). Adjusting these conditions can impact the power output
and efficiency of the fuel cell.

3. Size and Configuration: The physical size and configuration of the fuel cell stack play
a role in its power spectrum. Smaller fuel cells may be limited in their power output
compared to larger systems.

4. Load Requirements: The power spectrum of a fuel cell must match the power
requirements of the device or system it is intended to power. Fuel cell systems can be

15
 designed to meet a wide range of power demands, from small electronic devices to large
vehicles and stationary power generation.

5. Efficiency: Fuel cells are known for their high efficiency, especially in converting
chemical energy into electricity. The power spectrum often includes a range of power
outputs while maintaining a high level of efficiency.

6. Transient Response: Fuel cells can have varying transient responses, which refer to
their ability to respond quickly to changes in power demand. Some fuel cells may have
fast transient responses suitable for applications like electric vehicles, while others may
be better for steady-state power generation.

7. Hybrid Systems: In some applications, fuel cells are used in hybrid configurations with
other power sources, such as batteries or supercapacitors. This allows for a broader
power spectrum and improved system performance.

8. Scalability: The power spectrum of a fuel cell can be extended by stacking multiple
cells in series or parallel, enabling scalability to meet the power requirements of
different applications.

9. Durability and Reliability: The power spectrum should consider the durability and
reliability of the fuel cell under various operating conditions and over its lifespan.

16
 Course Name: Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy
Sources.
Topic Name : Hydrogen Energy Production
2.1 Introduction to hydrogen Energy
• Hydrogen energy is a versatile and promising form of clean energy derived from hydrogen gas
(H2).

• It is attracting increasing attention as a potential solution to environmental and energy

challenges.

• Hydrogen, the lightest and most abundant element in the universe, can be produced through
various methods and has applications in transportation, power g eneration, industry, and
heating.

• Its advantages include zero emissions when produced using renewable energy, energy storage
capabilities, and versatility.

• However, challenges such as production efficiency, storage, transportation, and cost must be
addressed to fully harness its potential in the transition to a sustainable energy future.

2.2 Salient Features of Hydrogen

The salient features of hydrogen include:

1. Abundance: Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, making up about
75% of its elemental mass.

2. Clean Energy: When used as a fuel, hydrogen produces only water vapor as a byproduct,
making it a clean and environmentally friendly energy source.

3. Versatility: Hydrogen can be used in various sectors, including transportation, power

generation, industry, and heating, offering a versatile solution for reducing carbon
emissions.

1
 4. High Energy Density: Hydrogen has a high energy-to-weight ratio, making it an efficient
energy carrier for a wide range of applications.

5. Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions: When produced using renewable energy sources,
hydrogen has zero greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to efforts to combat climate
change.

6. Energy Storage: Hydrogen can be stored for long periods and used when needed, making
it a valuable energy storage solution for intermittent renewable energy sources.

7. Hydrogen Fuel Cells: Fuel cells that use hydrogen as a fuel can generate electricity with
high efficiency and low emissions, suitable for a variety of applications, including vehicles
and stationary power generation.

8. Challenges: Hydrogen production can be energy-intensive, and there are challenges

related to storage, transportation, and cost that need to be addressed for wid espread
adoption.

9. Potential for Renewable Production: Hydrogen can be produced through electrolysis

using renewable energy sources like wind and solar, creating "green hydrogen" without
carbon emissions.

10. Industrial Applications: Hydrogen is used in various industrial processes, including

petrochemical production, steel manufacturing, and ammonia synthesis.

11. Alternative to Fossil Fuels: Hydrogen can replace fossil fuels for heating and
transportation, reducing reliance on carbon-intensive energy sources.

12. Infrastructure Development: The adoption of hydrogen as an energy carrier requires the
development of specialized infrastructure for production, storage, and distribution.

These features make hydrogen a promising candidate for a sustainable energy future, particularly
when produced and utilized in ways that minimize environmental impact and contribute to
decarbonization efforts.

2
2.3 Methods of Hydrogen Production

Hydrogen can be produced through various methods, here we discuss 9 methods such as

1. Steam methane reforming

2. Electrolysis
3. Thermochemical process
4. Biological Hydrogen production
5. Photoelectrochemical water splitting
6. High temperature water splitting
7. Hydrogen production from Biomass
8. Hydrogen production from nuclear Power
9. Hydrogen production from Solid oxide Electrolysis cell

Each method has its own some advantages and disadvantages.

2.3.1 Steam Methane Reforming (SMR)

Steam Methane Reforming (SMR): Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) is a widely used
industrial process for the production of hydrogen gas (H 2) from natural gas (methane, CH 4). It's
one of the primary methods for large-scale hydrogen production and is commonly employed in
various industries, including chemical manufacturing, petroleum refining, and hydrogen fuel
production.

Fig. 1 Steam Methane reforming

The whole process works in 7 stages i.e. Methane Feed stock, Steam and Heat, Che

Working:

3
 1. Methane Feedstock: The primary feedstock for SMR is natural gas, which primarily
consists of methane (CH4). This methane is typically extracted from natural gas reserves
or obtained as a byproduct of other processes, such as oil refining.

2. Steam Generation: Steam (H2O) is generated by heating water. This steam will be a
crucial reactant in the reforming process. The high-temperature steam provides the
necessary energy for the endothermic reforming reactions.

3. Reforming Reaction: In the reforming reactor, methane (CH 4) and steam (H2O) are
introduced at elevated temperatures (typically around 700-900°C) and moderate pressures.
The primary chemical reactions that occur during SMR are as follows:

a. Steam Methane Reforming (Endothermic Reaction):

CH4 + H2O → CO + 3H2

This reaction consumes heat, making it endothermic. It converts methane and steam into carbon
monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H 2).

b. Water-Gas Shift Reaction (Exothermic Reaction):

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2

This reaction is exothermic and helps to shift the CO/H 2 ratio towards more hydrogen and less
carbon monoxide.

4. Heat Exchange: The endothermic reforming reaction absorbs heat, which is typically
provided by the combustion of a portion of the natural gas or another fuel source. Heat
exchangers are used to recover some of this heat to preheat the incoming reactants and
generate steam.

5. Product Separation: The product stream leaving the reformer contains hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, and some unreacted methane. Various separation processes,
such as pressure swing adsorption (PSA) or membrane separation, are used to purify and
separate hydrogen from the other gases.

4
 6. Carbon Dioxide Capture (Optional): In some applications, carbon dioxide (CO2) capture
may be integrated into the process to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This is important,
especially if the hydrogen is intended for use in clean energy applications or fuel cell
vehicles.

7. Byproduct Utilization: Carbon dioxide produced during the process can be utilized in
various ways, such as for enhanced oil recovery or in chemical processes.

Steam Methane Reforming is a well-established method for hydrogen production, but it does have
some drawbacks. It is energy-intensive due to the need for high temperatures, and it produces
carbon dioxide as a byproduct, which can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. Research is
ongoing to develop more efficient and cleaner methods for hydrogen production, such as
electrolysis powered by renewable energy sources.

2.3.2 Electrolysis

Electrolysis: Electrolysis is a clean and green method of hydrogen production that uses
electricity to split water (H 2O) into hydrogen and oxygen

Fig. 2 Electrolysis
Working
Electrolyzer: Electrolysis takes place in an electrolyzer, which consists of two electrodes,
typically made of materials like platinum or iridium, and an electrolyte solution.

• Electric Current: When an electric current is applied to the electrodes, water molecules
at the cathode (negative electrode) are reduced to form hydrogen gas (H 2), while water
molecules at the anode (positive electrode) are oxidized to produce oxygen gas (O 2).
5
 • Gas Separation: Hydrogen gas is collected at the cathode, while oxygen gas is collected
at the anode. They are usually separated by a membrane or physically collected in separate
compartments.

• Purity: The hydrogen produced through electrolysis is typically of high purity, with
minimal contaminants.

2.3.3 Thermochemcial Process

Thermochemical Processes:

From this Figure we understood method as of thermochemical process

Fig. 3 Methods of Thermochemcial conversion

Thermochemical processes encompass a variety of methods such Combustion gasification,
pyrolysis, Hydrothermal liquefaction, but they all involve high-temperature chemical reactions
to release hydrogen from feedstocks.
Working:

6
 Fig. 4 Thermochemical conversion

Process start from Combustion gasification

Combustion gasification for hydrogen production is a process that involves the conversion of
carbonaceous materials, such as coal, biomass, or municipal solid waste, into a hydrogen -rich gas
(syngas) through a combination of combustion and gasification processes. Here's a brief o verview
of combustion gasification for hydrogen production:

Process:

1. Combustion: In the initial combustion phase, a portion of the feedstock is burned in the
presence of oxygen to produce high temperatures and heat. This step provides the thermal
energy needed for subsequent gasification.

2. Gasification: After combustion, the remaining carbon-rich residue undergoes gasification.

During gasification, the carbonaceous material is exposed to high temperatures in a limited
oxygen environment (usually less than the stoichiometric amount required for complete
combustion). This results in the conversion of carbon into carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrogen gas (H 2), along with other gases like carbon dioxide (CO 2) and methane (CH4).

3. Gas Cleanup: The produced syngas contains impurities such as tar, particulates, sulfur
compounds, and other contaminants. Gas cleanup processes, such as filtration, scrubbing,
7
 or catalytic conversion, are employed to remove these impurities, ensuring that the syngas
meets the desired quality standards.

4. Syngas Utilization: The cleaned syngas, enriched in hydrogen and carbon monoxide, can
be utilized in various ways. It can be used as a feedstock for chemical processes, such as
the production of synthetic fuels or chemicals. Alternatively, the syn gas can be used for
power generation in gas turbines or combined heat and power (CHP) systems. Moreover,
hydrogen can be separated from the syngas for specific applications.

Pyrolysis hydrogen production is a thermochemical process that generates hydrogen gas (H2)
from organic materials through high-temperature decomposition in the absence of oxygen or with
limited oxygen supply.

Fig. 5 Pyrolysis hydrogen production

Here's a concise overview of the key points regarding pyrolysis hydrogen production:

Process: Pyrolysis involves subjecting organic feedstocks, such as biomass, plastics, or organic
waste, to elevated temperatures (typically 300°C to 800°C) in a controlled environment, which
prevents combustion.

Reactions: During pyrolysis, the feedstock undergoes thermal decomposition, leading to the
release of hydrogen gas as one of the primary products, along with other gases like carbon
monoxide, methane, and volatile hydrocarbons.

8
Syngas Formation: The gas produced during pyrolysis, often called "syngas" (synthetic gas),
contains a mixture of gases, including hydrogen. The composition of syngas depends on the
feedstock and process conditions.

Impurities: Syngas generated through pyrolysis may contain impurities, such as tars, particulates,
and other contaminants, which require removal through gas cleanup processes.

Hydrogen Separation: The hydrogen-rich syngas can be further processed to separate and
concentrate the hydrogen. Technologies like pressure swing adsorption (PSA) or membrane
separation are used for this purpose.

Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a thermochemical process that converts wet biomass, such
as algae, sewage sludge, or other organic materials containing high water content, into a range of
valuable products, including hydrogen gas (H 2). Here's a brief overview of hydrothermal
liquefaction for hydrogen production:

Fig. 6 Hydrothermal liquefaction

Process: In hydrothermal liquefaction, wet biomass is subjected to high temperatures and

pressures in the presence of water. The process takes place in a closed reactor, preventing the
escape of gases or water vapor.

9
Reactions: Under the high-temperature and high-pressure conditions, complex chemical reactions
occur, including the decomposition of organic materials and the reforming of molecules. These
reactions lead to the production of a mixture of products, including liquid bio -oil, gaseous products
(including hydrogen), and solid residues.

Hydrogen Production: Hydrogen gas is one of the gaseous products generated during
hydrothermal liquefaction. It is produced through the decomposition of organic matter, with water
(H2O) serving as the source of hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen-rich gas can be separated and
collected for various applications.

Other Products: Besides hydrogen, hydrothermal liquefaction can yield liquid bio-oil, which can
be further processed into biofuels or chemicals, and solid residues that may have applications as
biochar or as a source of nutrients.

2.3.4 Biological hydrogen production

Biological Hydrogen Production: Biological hydrogen production involves microorganisms such

as certain strains of bacteria or algae that can produce hydrogen gas through various metabolic
processes.

Fig. 7 Biological Hydrogen Production

Here's a simplified explanation:

• Microorganisms: Specialized microorganisms are used, such as hydrogen-producing

bacteria or algae.

10
 • Feedstock: These microorganisms are provided with a suitable feedstock, often organic
matter or wastewater containing organic compounds.

• Metabolic Processes: The microorganisms metabolize the feedstock and, as a result,

produce hydrogen gas as a metabolic byproduct.

• Hydrogen Harvesting: The hydrogen gas is then harvested and collected.

Biological hydrogen production methods are still in the research and development phase and may
have specific requirements for temperature, pH, and nutrient conditions to optimize hydrogen
production.

These are the basic working principles of some common methods of hy drogen production. Each
method has its advantages and limitations, making them suitable for different applications and
scenarios.

2.3.5 Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting

Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Water Splitting: Photoelectrochemical water splitting is a method

that uses sunlight to split water (H2O) into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2).

Fig. 8 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Water Splitting

Working

11
 • Photoelectrochemical Cell: The heart of this process is a photoelectrochemical cell, which
consists of a semiconductor material as the photoanode and a counter electrode.

• Sunlight Absorption: When sunlight (photons) strikes the photoanode, it excites electrons
within the semiconductor material, creating electron-hole pairs.

• Water Splitting Reaction: These excited electrons are then used to catalyze the water-
splitting reaction at the photoanode, where water molecules are oxidized to produce oxygen
gas (O2).

• Hydrogen Production: Simultaneously, the counter electrode facilitates the reduction of

protons (H+) from water to form hydrogen gas (H2).

• Gas Separation: The hydrogen and oxygen gases generated at the respective electrodes
are separated and collected for use.

PEC water splitting is an attractive method for clean hydrogen production, although it faces
challenges in terms of efficiency and materials development.

2.3.6 High Temperature Water Splitting

1. High-Temperature Water Splitting: High-temperature water splitting involves splitting

water at very high temperatures using materials like ceramics or metal oxides as catalysts.

Fig. 9 High-Temperature Water Splitting

12
 Working

• High Temperature: The process is conducted at elevated temperatures, typically above

1000°C.

• Catalyst: A catalyst, often made from metal oxides, is used to facilitate the reaction.
Common catalysts include cerium oxide or iron oxide.

• Water Decomposition: At high temperatures, the catalyst facilitates the decomposition of

water into hydrogen and oxygen. The oxygen is released, while hydrogen gas is collected.

• Gas Separation: The hydrogen and oxygen gases are separated and collected for their
respective applications.

High-temperature water splitting is efficient but requires high energy input due to the elevated
temperatures involved. It is often used in conjunction with concentrated solar energy or nuclear
reactors to provide the necessary heat.

2.3.7 Hydrogen Production from Biomass

Hydrogen Production from Biomass: Hydrogen can be produced from biomass through various
processes such as gasification or reforming.

Fig. 10 Hydrogen Production from Biomass

13
 Here's a simplified overview:

• Biomass Feedstock: Biomass, which can include organic materials like wood, crop
residues, or waste, is used as the feedstock.

• Gasification/Reforming: The biomass is subjected to gasification or reforming processes,

often involving high temperatures and sometimes the introdu ction of steam. These
processes release hydrogen gas from the biomass.

• Gas Cleanup: After the gasification or reforming, the hydrogen-containing gas stream is
cleaned to remove impurities.

• Hydrogen Collection: The purified hydrogen gas is collected for various applications.

Hydrogen production from biomass is renewable and can be considered carbon -neutral if the
biomass is sustainably sourced and managed.

2.3.8 Hydrogen Production from Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC)

Hydrogen Production from Nuclear Power: Nuclear reactors can produce high-temperature
heat, which can be used for high-temperature electrolysis or thermochemical hydrogen production.

Fig. 11 Hydrogen Production from Nuclear Power

Working:

14
 • Nuclear Heat: Nuclear reactors generate a significant amount of heat during operation at
very high temperature reactor.

• Heat Transfer: This heat is transferred to a high-temperature electrolysis system or a

thermochemical hydrogen production system.

• Hydrogen Production: In high-temperature electrolysis, water is split into hydrogen and

oxygen using the heat energy. In thermochemical processes, high temperatures drive
chemical reactions to release hydrogen.

• Gas Separation: The produced hydrogen gas is separated and collected for use.

Hydrogen production from nuclear power offers the advantage of a continuous and reliable heat
source but requires specialized infrastructure and safety considerations.

2.3.9 Hydrogen Production from Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC)

Hydrogen Production from Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC): Hydrogen production from
Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC) is a clean and efficient method that utilizes electricity to
split water (H2O) into hydrogen (H 2) and oxygen (O2). SOECs are a type of solid oxide fuel cell
operated in reverse mode.

Fig. 12 Hydrogen Production from Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC)

Working:
15
 • SOEC Structure: A Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell consists of a solid electrolyte
sandwiched between two electrodes, an anode, and a cathode. The solid electrolyte is
typically made of ceramic materials like yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) or scandia-
stabilized zirconia (ScSZ).

• Electrolysis Mode: In the electrolysis mode, an external source of electrical energy,

usually direct current (DC), is applied across the SOEC. This electrical energy initiates two
separate electrochemical reactions at the electrodes:

1. At the Anode (Oxidation): At the anode, negatively charged oxygen ions (O 2-)

migrate through the solid electrolyte toward the anode-electrolyte interface. At the
interface, oxygen ions combine with electrons from the external circuit to form
oxygen gas (O 2).

2. At the Cathode (Reduction): At the cathode, positively charged hydrogen ions

(protons, H+) move through the solid electrolyte toward the cathode -electrolyte
interface. At the interface, protons combine with electrons from the external circuit
to produce hydrogen gas (H2).

• Gas Separation: Hydrogen gas is collected at the cathode side of the SOEC, while oxygen
gas is collected at the anode side. Both gases are separated to avoid mixing.

• Hydrogen Purity: The hydrogen produced through SOEC is typically of high purity, as it
is free from contaminants or byproducts. The oxygen gas generated can also be of high
purity and may have other industrial applications.

Key advantages of hydrogen production from SOEC include high energy efficiency, the potential
for utilizing renewable electricity sources, and the ability to provide grid balancing services by
using surplus electricity to produce hydrogen during periods of excess power generation. SOEC
technology holds promise for clean and sustainable hydrogen production as part of a broader
strategy for green hydrogen generation.

The choice of hydrogen production method depends on factors like feedstock availability, energy
source, cost considerations, and environmental goals. As the demand for hydrogen grows and

16
renewable energy becomes more prevalent, there is a growing emphasis on producing "green
hydrogen" through methods like electrolysis and biomass conversion to reduce carbon emissions
associated with hydrogen production.

2.4 Storage of Hydrogen:

Certainly, hydrogen storage methods can be grouped into two main categories: physical-based
methods and material-based methods.

Fig. 13 Classification of Hydrogen storage

2.4.1 Physical-Based Methods:

1. Compressed Hydrogen Gas (CH 2): In this method, hydrogen gas is physically
compressed at high pressures into storage tanks. The working principle is straightforward:
the energy is stored by packing hydrogen molecules closely together under pressure. When

17
 needed, the high-pressure hydrogen can be released and used in various applications, such
as fueling vehicles with fuel cell technology.

Fig. 14 Compressed Hydrogen Gas (CH2)

2. Cold/Cryo Compressed Hydrogen: In this hybrid method, hydrogen gas is first cooled to
cryogenic temperatures and then compressed. The working principle combines the benefits
of both cryogenic storage and compression. Cooling the gas reduces its volume, making it
easier to compress and store at high pressure. This approach provides an efficient way to
store hydrogen at high densities for various applications.

Fig. 15 Cold/Cryo Compressed Hydrogen Gas

18
 3. Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen (LH 2): Hydrogen gas is cooled to extremely low
temperatures (around -253°C or -423°F) to become a liquid. The working principle
involves storing the hydrogen in its liquid state, where it occupies significantly less volume
compared to the gaseous state, thus achieving a high energy density. When needed, the
liquid hydrogen is vaporized and used, typically in rocket propulsion or fuel cell
applications.

Fig. 16 Liquid Hydrogen (LH 2)

2.5. Material Based Methods of Hydrogen Storage

1. Adsorbent-Based Hydrogen Storage: Porous materials, such as activated carbon or

metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), are used in this method. The working principle
involves adsorption, where hydrogen gas molecules are physically attracted to and held on
the surface of the porous material. When hydrogen is needed, the gas is released by
reducing the pressure or increasing the temperature, breaking the physical bonds between
hydrogen and the adsorbent material.

19
 Fig. 17 Adsorbent Method

2. Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHCs): LOHCs are organic compounds that can
reversibly absorb and release hydrogen through catalytic reactions. The working principle
centers on chemical bonding. Hydrogen is chemically bonded to the LOHC molecule when
storing, and the release process involves breaking these chemical bonds under specific
conditions, such as with the aid of a catalyst.

Fig. 18 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers

3. Interstitial Hydrides: Certain metals, like palladium, can absorb hydrogen atoms into the
gaps (interstitial sites) of their crystal lattice. The working principle relies on the formation
of metal hydrides, where hydrogen atoms are integrated into the metal's atomic structure.

20
 To release hydrogen, the metal hydride is heated or exposed to lower pressures, causing
the hydrogen atoms to desorb from the metal lattice.

Fig. 19 Interstitial Hydrides Method

4. Complex Hydrides: Compounds like sodium borohydride (NaBH4) contain hydrogen

combined with other elements. The working principle involves chemical reactions, where
hydrogen is either released or absorbed from the compound under specific conditions.
Catalysts or temperature changes can facilitate these reactions.

Fig. 20 Complex Hydrides

21
 5. Chemical Hydrogen Storage: Hydrogen is stored within chemical compounds, such as
ammonia (NH3). The working principle hinges on reversible chemical reactions that allow
the release or absorption of hydrogen from these compounds. Catalysts or changes in
temperature and pressure are used to drive these reactions.

Fig. 21 Chemical Hydrogen Storage

In summary, these hydrogen storage methods employ various physical and chemical mechanisms
to store and release hydrogen for different applications. The choice of method depends on factors
like energy density, safety, efficiency, and suitability for specific use cases.

22
Quiz
Question 1: What is the primary feedstock used in the Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) process
for hydrogen production?

Answer: Natural gas, primarily methane (CH4).

Question 2: In which method of hydrogen production is electricity used to split water into
hydrogen and oxygen?

Answer: Electrolysis.

Question 3: Which high-temperature process involves the decomposition of water into hydrogen
and oxygen using ceramic materials as catalysts?

Answer: High-temperature water splitting.

Question 4: What type of cells are used in Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC) for hydrogen
production?

Answer: Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cells (SOEC) use solid oxide fuel cells operated in reverse
mode.

Question 5: How does the working principle of biological hydrogen production differ from other
methods?

Answer: Biological hydrogen production involves specialized microorganisms that produce

hydrogen as a metabolic byproduct when provided with a suitable feedstock, such as organic
matter or wastewater.

23
 Course Name: Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy
Sources.
Topic Name: Hybrid Energy System
3.1 Introduction

A hybrid energy system is a combination of two or more different energy sources or technologies
that work together to generate, store, and deliver energy for various applications, including
electricity generation, heating, cooling, or transportation. These systems are designed to optimize
energy production, improve efficiency, and enhance reliability by integrating multiple energy
sources.

Let us consider an example, shown in fig 1.

System 1 is representing a solar panel which convert solar energy into electrical energy. System 2
is representing a wind turbine, which convert wind energy into electricity. Now the two systems
are integrated with each other, called as Solar-wind hybrid energy system. This hybrid systems
generates large amounts of electricity.

System 1 System 2 Hybrid System

Fig 1. Hybridization

3.2 Components of a Hybrid Energy System:

Different types of hybrid energy system given fig 2.

1. Primary Energy Sources: These are the main sources of energy in the hybrid system.
They can include renewable sources like solar panels, wind turbines, or biomass, as well
as conventional sources like fossil fuels or nuclear power.

2. Energy Storage: Hybrid systems often include energy storage solutions such as batteries,
thermal storage, or pumped hydro storage. Energy storage allows excess energy
generated during periods of high availability to be stored for later use when energy
production is lower.
 3. Control and Monitoring Systems: Advanced control and monitoring systems are
essential for optimizing the operation of the hybrid system. These systems adjust the
energy sources and storage elements in real-time based on demand, availability, and other
factors to maximize efficiency and reliability.

4. Conversion Technologies: Hybrid systems may incorporate conversion technologies like

inverters, fuel cells, or microturbines to convert energy from one form to another or to
provide backup power when needed.

Primary Energy Energy Storage Control & Monitoring

Sources system

Conversion
Technologies

Fig 2. Hybrid Energy System

3.3 Benefits of Hybrid Energy Systems:

1. Improved Reliability: Combining multiple energy sources can enhance system

reliability, ensuring a continuous power supply even when one source experiences
downtime or variability.

2. Increased Efficiency: Hybrid systems can achieve higher overall energy efficiency by
using the most appropriate energy source for each situation, reducing waste and
optimizing energy production.

3. Energy Independence: Hybrid systems can reduce dependence on a single energy

source, especially fossil fuels, by incorporating renewable energy sources, lead ing to
greater energy security.
 4. Environmental Benefits: By integrating renewable energy sources, hybrid systems can
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and minimize the environmental impact of energy
production.

3.4 Applications of Hybrid Energy Systems:

Here are some common applications of hybrid energy systems, given in fig 3.:

1. Remote Power Generation:

• Off-Grid Homes and Cabins: Hybrid energy systems can provide reliable
electricity to remote or off-grid residences by combining solar panels with wind
turbines, generators, or energy storage systems.

2. Rural Electrification:

• Microgrids for Villages: Hybrid systems are used to electrify rural and remote
areas where access to the main power grid is limited. They often integrate solar,
wind, and diesel generators.

3. Island and Coastal Communities:

• Island Power: Many islands and coastal regions use hybrid energy systems to
reduce reliance on expensive imported fossil fuels and transition to renewable
energy sources.

4. Telecommunications:

• Cell Towers: Remote cell towers often employ hybrid systems to ensure
uninterrupted power supply, combining solar panels, batteries, and backup
generators.

5. Military Applications:

• Forward Operating Bases: Hybrid energy systems are used in military operations
to reduce the logistical burden of fuel delivery and minimize the environmental
footprint.

6. Industrial and Commercial Sites:

• Mining Operations: Remote mines can use hybrid systems to power their
operations, combining renewable energy sources with traditional generators.

• Agricultural Facilities: Greenhouses and farms can employ hybrid energy systems
to reduce energy costs and enhance sustainability.

7. Transportation:
 • Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs): HEVs combine internal combustion engines
with electric propulsion systems to improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions.

8. Maritime Industry:

• Hybrid Ships: Hybrid power systems in ships integrate various energy sources,
such as diesel engines, batteries, and even wind or solar, to reduce fuel
consumption and emissions.

9. Data Centers:

• Backup Power: Data centers often use hybrid systems to ensure uninterrupted
power during outages, combining grid power with on-site generators and energy
storage.

10. Environmental Monitoring and Research:

• Remote Sensors and Instruments: Hybrid energy systems are used to power
equipment and sensors in remote or environmentally sensitive locations for
research and monitoring purposes.

11. Disaster Relief and Emergency Response:

• Mobile Power Units: Hybrid systems provide essential power during disaster
relief efforts, combining solar, wind, or generator power with energy storage.

12. Hydrogen Production:

• Renewable Hydrogen: Hybrid systems can be used to produce hydrogen using

renewable energy sources, which can then be used in fuel cells for electricity
generation or as a clean fuel.

13. Hybrid Grids:

• Smart Grids: Utility companies are exploring hybrid grid solutions that combine
traditional grid infrastructure with distributed energy resources like solar and
wind to improve grid resilience and reliability.
 Fig 3. Applications of Hybrid Energy System

Hybrid energy systems are versatile and adaptable, making them a valuable solution in various
sectors where energy reliability, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness are critical considerations.
They play a significant role in reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating the environmental
impact of energy production

3.5 Need of Hybridization

Hybridization in the context of power generation systems is the integration of multiple sources of
energy to create a more efficient, reliable, and sustainable energy solution. Switching between
sources when one is inactive reduces the unpredictability inherent in renewable energy and
improves the stability of the electricity supplied.

Some of the key advantgaes of hybridization are as follows:

1. Enhanced Reliability: Hybrid systems can provide more reliable energy supply by
combining multiple sources. This is particularly important in critical applications where
uninterrupted power is essential, such as hospitals, data centers, and remote installations.

2. Increased Efficiency: By utilizing the strengths of different technologies or energy

sources, hybrid systems can operate more efficiently. For example, combining a
renewable energy source with a backup generator can optimize power generation and
reduce fuel consumption.
3. Energy Cost Savings: Hybrid systems can help reduce energy costs by using cheaper or
more abundant energy sources when available. This is especially beneficial in
applications where energy expenses are a significant portion of operational costs.

4. Environmental Benefits: Hybrid systems can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and
environmental impact. Incorporating renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind,
into hybrid systems helps lower carbon footprints and mitigates pollution.

5. Energy Independence: Hybrid systems can provide energy independence by relying on

a mix of energy sources, reducing dependence on a single source or the grid. This can
enhance energy security and resilience.

6. Flexible Deployment: Hybrid systems can be customized to meet specific needs and
challenges. They can be designed for a wide range of applications, from remote power
generation to grid integration and transportation.

7. Load Matching: Hybrid systems can be optimized to match energy production with
energy demand. For instance, combining solar panels with energy storage can ensure
power availability during peak demand times or when solar energy production is low.

8. Peak Shaving: In hybrid systems with energy storage, excess energy can be stored when
production is high and released during peak demand periods, helping to reduce electricity
costs.

9. Scalability: Hybrid systems can often be expanded or scaled down to accommodate

changing energy needs. This scalability makes them suitable for a variety of applications,
from small residential systems to large industrial installations.

10. Remote Access: In off-grid or remote locations, hybrid systems can provide access to
reliable power sources, enabling development and improving the quality of life for
communities that lack connection to the traditional grid.

11. Reduced Transmission Losses: By generating power closer to the point of use, hybrid
systems can reduce energy losses associated with long-distance transmission, which is
especially beneficial in remote areas.

12. Technological Synergy: Combining different technologies can lead to synergy, where the
strengths of one technology compensate for the weaknesses of another. For example,
using renewable energy sources with energy storage can overcome intermittent energy
production.

13. Grid Stability: In grid-connected applications, hybrid systems can contribute to grid
stability by providing backup power during grid outages or by supporting the grid with
distributed generation.
Overall, hybrid systems offer a versatile and adaptable approach to meeting energy needs
efficiently, sustainably, and reliably across a wide range of applications, contributing to
economic, environmental, and energy security benefits.

3.6 Types of “Hybrid System”

Here various distributed power generation system is illustrated in fig 4. Combination of these
system converts into hybrid systems. Renewable, non renewable and Stroage systems are
combined together for the hybridization. In renewable Solar, wind, hydro, biomass, tidal, various
systems are considered. Whereas, in non renewable: Micro turbine, combustion engine, gas
turbine systems are considered. And lastly for storage: fywheel, batteries, Superconducting
magnetic energy storage

Fig 4. Classification of Hybrid Energy System

3.7 Hybrid System 1: (Solar+Wind Energy)

Fig 5 illustrates the practical model and Fig 6 illustrates the block diagram of “Solar-Wind
Hybrid Energy System”. This hybrid energy system operates by harnessing energy from both
sunlight and wind. Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity, while wind turbines capture the
kinetic energy of the wind. The electricity generated from both sources is then combined,
allowing for a more consistent power output as solar and wind resources often complement each
other. Optionally, excess energy can be stored in batteries for later use, and the system can be
connected to the electrical grid to export surplus power or draw from it when needed. A control
and monitoring system oversees the operation of the components, ensuring efficient energy
generation and distribution. This integration of solar and wind power sources provides a reliable
and sustainable solution for areas with varying weather conditions or fluctuating energy
demands.

Basic Components are given as follows:

1. Solar Panel Array

2. Inverter (for Solar Panels)
3. Wind Turbines
4. Generator (for Wind Turbines)
5. Charge Controller (optional): In some systems, a charge controller may be included to
regulate the charging of batteries if they are part of the system. This prevents
overcharging and extends the lifespan of the batteries.
6. Battery Storage (optional): If the system includes energy storage, excess electricity fro m
both the solar panels and wind turbines can be stored in batteries.
7. Grid Connection (optional): This allows surplus electricity to be exported to the grid
when generation exceeds demand, and to draw power from the grid when needed.
8. Load Distribution system
9. Control and Monitoring System

Fig 5. Experimental setup of combined PV array and Wind Turbine

 Fig 6. Block Diagram

3.8 Hybrid System 2: (Fuel cell Gas Turbine)

Fig 7. Fuel cell Gas Turbine Hybrid System

A fuel cell-gas turbine hybrid system (shown in fig 7) combines the benefits of both fuel cell and
gas turbine technologies for efficient electricity generation. In this system, a f uel cell converts
hydrogen-rich fuel (usually natural gas) directly into electricity through an electroche mical
process, offering high efficiency and low emissions. The waste heat from the fuel cell is then
used to drive a gas turbine, further generating additional electricity through a conventional
combustion process. This setup, known as a combined cycle, significantly enhances overall
efficiency by utilizing both the chemical reaction in the fuel cell and the combustion process in
the gas turbine. The system's flexibility allows for a seamless transition between dif ferent load
demands, making it a promising solution for power generation with reduced environmental
impact and increased energy efficiency.
3.9 Hybrid System 3 (Hydro-Solar Hybrid System)

Fig 8. Hybrid PV-battery-hydro system to harvest rainfall for power generation

The integration of rainfall based hydro system with solar PV-battery is very interesting (Shown
in Fig 8). When the PV system fails to produce power due to rain, the hydro system will still be
producing power by utilizing rainwater. Thus, the novel hybrid PV-Battery-hydro system,
presented in this study, can ensure the high reliability of power supply with less numbers of
expensive batteries. Further, when the PV-battery-hydro system with pumped-storage system is
optimized, it can lead to generate reliable power with comparative lower unit cost.

3.10 Hybrid System 4: (Solar Biomass Hybrid System)

Fig 9. Solar-Biomass Hybrid System

The system would be convenient in rural communities, where farms have large amounts of
biomass in the form of agricultural waste that can be combined with solar power to close the
urban-rural electricity gap and help the environment in the process. A Solar Biomass hybrid
system combines solar energy and biomass energy technologies to generate electricity (shown in
fig 9). Solar panels convert sunlight into electricity through photovoltaic cells, while biomass
energy is produced by burning organic materials. Both sources contribute to a shared electrical
output. Optionally, excess energy can be stored in batteries, and the system can be connected to
the grid for exporting surplus power or drawing from it as needed. This integration ensures a
reliable power supply, as solar energy provides a steady source during the day, while biomass
offers consistent energy regardless of weather conditions.

3.11 Hybrid System 5 (Fuel Cell-Solar Hybrid System)

Fig 10. Fuel Cell- Solar Power hybrid system

A Fuel Cell-Solar hybrid system operates by harnessing energy from sunlight and converting it
into electricity through solar panels, which generate direct current (DC) power. The detail
connections are given in fig 10. This electricity is then converted into alternating current (AC)
using an inverter. Simultaneously, surplus electricity can be used to perform water electrolysis,
producing hydrogen for later use. The generated hydrogen is stored and fed into a fuel cell,
where it reacts with oxygen from the air to produce electricity through an electrochemical
process. This electricity is then converted to AC if necessary. The system also includes
components for load distribution, battery storage (optional), and a control and monitoring system
to manage the operation of all elements.
Course Name: Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy Sources
Topic Name: Fuel Cell Integration
4.1Introduction
• Fuel cell integration refers to the process of incorporating fuel cell technology into
various applications, systems, and industries to generate electricity, provide power, or
meet specific energy needs.
• Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel (usually
hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (usually oxygen from the air) into electrical energy,
heat, and water.
• They offer a clean and efficient alternative to traditional combustion -based power
generation and have a wide range of potential applications, from transportation and
stationary power generation to portable electronics and backup power systems.
• Integrating fuel cells into these applications involves designing, engineering, and
implementing systems that harness the unique capabilities of fuel cells while addressing
technical, economic, and logistical challenges.
• This integration can lead to reduced greenhouse gas emissions, increased energy
efficiency, and improved energy reliability, making fuel cells a promising so lution f or a
sustainable and clean energy future.
4.2Advantages of fuel cell integration
The integration of fuel cells into vehicles is an important technological advancement that holds
several potential benefits seen from fig. 1. Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert
hydrogen and oxygen into electricity, with water and heat as the byproducts. When integrated
into vehicles, fuel cells can offer several advantages:

Fig.1 Benefits of Fuel cell

 1. Zero Emissions: Fuel cell vehicles produce zero tailpipe emissions, making them an
environmentally friendly option. The only byproduct of the fuel cell reaction is water
vapor, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution.

2. Efficiency: Fuel cells are highly efficient in converting the chemical energy of hydrogen
into electricity, typically more efficient than internal combustion engines. This efficiency
can lead to improved fuel economy and longer driving ranges compared to traditional
gasoline or diesel vehicles.

3. Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels: Hydrogen, the primary fuel for fuel cells, can be
produced from a variety of sources, including renewable energy and natural gas. This
diversification of fuel sources can reduce dependence on fossil f uels and contribute to
energy security.

4. Quick Refueling: Fuel cell vehicles can be refueled quickly, similar to conventional
vehicles. Hydrogen refueling stations can fill a tank in a matter of minutes, which is
faster than charging an electric vehicle, offering convenience to drivers.

5. Extended Driving Range: Fuel cell vehicles often have longer driving ranges compared
to battery electric vehicles (BEVs). This makes them suitable for applications where long
distances between refueling are necessary, such as certain types of commercial vehicles.

6. High-Power Applications: Fuel cells are suitable for high-power applications, which can
be important for heavy-duty and commercial vehicles like buses, trucks, and trains.

7. Quiet Operation: Fuel cell vehicles are quieter than internal combustion engine vehicles.
The absence of engine noise contributes to a quieter and more comfortable driving
experience.

8. Reduced Heat Emissions: Unlike internal combustion engines, fuel cells produce less
waste heat. This can help reduce the urban heat island effect in densely populated areas.

9. Hydrogen Production Potential: Hydrogen can be produced using renewable energy

sources like wind, solar, and hydropower. This "green hydrogen" has the potential to
make fuel cell vehicles even more environmentally friendly.

4.3Challenges in Fuel cell Integration

Integrating fuel cells into various applications presents several challenges, primarily related to
technology, cost, and infrastructure, it can seen from fig. 2.
 Fig. 2 Key Challenges in fuel cell integration

Here are some of the key challenges in fuel cell integration:

1. Cost and Efficiency:

• High Initial Costs: Fuel cell systems can be expensive to manufacture and install,
making them less competitive with other power generation technologies.

• Efficiency Concerns: Improving the overall efficiency of fuel cell systems,

including hydrogen production, storage, and conversion, is crucial to reduce
operating costs and environmental impact.

2. Hydrogen Storage and Transportation:

• Hydrogen Infrastructure: Developing a widespread hydrogen infrastructure f or

production, transportation, and storage is a significant challenge. Safe and
efficient hydrogen storage solutions are still evolving.

• Transportation Costs: Hydrogen transportation can be costly due to its low

energy density, which results in larger storage and transportation volumes
compared to conventional fuels.

3. Fuel Source and Supply Chain:

 • Sourcing Hydrogen: Ensuring a reliable and sustainable source of hydrogen is
challenging. Currently, most hydrogen production relies on natural gas reforming,
which generates greenhouse gas emissions.

• Supply Chain Resilience: The supply chain for hydrogen and fuel cell
components needs to be robust to ensure uninterrupted operation.

4. Durability and Longevity:

• Cell Durability: Fuel cells have limited lifespans and can degrade over time due
to factors like fuel impurities, temperature fluctuations, and electrode catalyst
degradation. Prolonging their durability is crucial to reducing maintenance and
replacement costs.

5. System Integration and Control:

• Integrating with Existing Infrastructure: Retrofitting existing systems or

integrating fuel cells into complex industrial processes can be technically
challenging.

• Control Systems: Developing sophisticated control systems to manage the

dynamic nature of fuel cells and optimize their performance is essential.

6. Fuel Cell Size and Weight:

• Size Constraints: In applications like automotive and aerospace, the size and
weight of fuel cell systems must be minimized to ensu re practicality and
efficiency.

7. Safety and Regulations:

• Hydrogen Safety: Handling and storing hydrogen safely is vital, as it is highly

flammable and can pose risks if not managed properly.

• Regulatory Framework: Developing and implementing regulations and

standards for fuel cell technology is essential to ensure safety and compliance.

8. Infrastructure Development:

• Refueling and Charging Stations: Expanding the network of hydrogen refueling

stations for fuel cell vehicles and filling stations for industrial applications is
essential for widespread adoption.

9. Market Adoption and Competition:

 • Competing Technologies: Fuel cells face competition from other clean energy
technologies like batteries and supercapacitors, making it challenging to gain
market share.

10. Public Perception and Education:

• Awareness and Acceptance: Educating the public and stakeholders about the
benefits and safety of fuel cell technology is crucial for its wider acceptance and
adoption.

Addressing these challenges requires collaborative efforts from governments, industries, and
research institutions to advance fuel cell technology, reduce costs, and build the necessary
infrastructure for its integration into various applications.

4.4 Needs of hybridzation

In thermal systems, which involve the transfer of heat energy for various applications, can f ace
several issues that impact their performance and efficiency. These issues can vary depending on
the specific type of thermal system and its application. Here are some common issues in thermal
systems:

1. Heat Losses:

• Insufficient Insulation: Inadequate insulation can lead to heat losses, reducing

the efficiency of heating and cooling systems, and increasing energy
consumption.

2. Scaling and Fouling:

• Heat Exchangers and Boilers: Scaling and fouling on heat exchange surfaces
can decrease heat transfer efficiency, requiring more energy to maintain desired
temperatures.

3. Incomplete Combustion:

• Combustion Systems: Incomplete combustion in furnaces, boilers, and industrial

burners can result in wasted fuel, increased emissions, and reduced system
efficiency.

4. Uneven Heating/Cooling:

• Improper Distribution: Poor distribution of heat or cooling in HVAC systems

can lead to temperature variations, discomfort, and inefficient operation.

5. Equipment Sizing:
 • Oversized or Undersized Equipment: Incorrectly sized heating or cooling
equipment can lead to inefficiencies and discomfort due to inadequate or
excessive heating or cooling.

6. Control System Issues:

• Faulty Controls: Malfunctioning or improperly configured control systems can

result in temperature fluctuations and inefficient system operation.

7. Steam Trap Failures:

• Steam Systems: Steam trap failures in industrial steam systems can cause energy
losses, reduced heat transfer, and potential equipment damage.

8. Leakage:

• Duct or Pipe Leaks: Leaks in ductwork or piping systems for heating and
cooling can lead to energy wastage and reduced system effectiveness.

9. Sediment Buildup:

• Water Heaters: Sediment buildup in water heaters can reduce efficiency and
increase energy consumption.

10. Maintenance Neglect:

• Lack of Regular Maintenance: Failing to perform routine maintenance and

inspections can result in decreased system efficiency and increased repair costs.

11. Outdated Technology:

• Obsolete Equipment: Using outdated or inefficient equipment can signif icantly

impact energy performance and operational costs.

12. Environmental Factors:

• Extreme Weather Conditions: Extremely hot or cold weather can strain HVAC
systems, reducing their efficiency and effectiveness.

13. Heat Recovery Opportunities:

• Missed Heat Recovery: Failing to capture and utilize waste heat from processes
can lead to lost energy-saving opportunities.

14. Mismatched Loads:

 • Partial Load Efficiency: Systems not designed to match actual load requirements
may run inefficiently at partial loads.

15. Corrosion and Erosion:

• Piping and Heat Exchanger Damage: Corrosion and erosion can damage pipes
and heat exchanger components, reducing their lifespan and efficiency.

Addressing these issues often requires a combination of regular maintenance, equipment

upgrades, improved insulation, proper system design, and better control systems.

Implementing energy-efficient practices and technologies can help mitigate these challenges and
optimize the performance of thermal systems.

Through hybridiation the issue related to system performance can be addeses effectively.

Throguh Fuel cell hybridization issues realted to lack of power, waste heat utlization, size and
weight ratio, fuel compatibilty, power range can be address perfectly.

The fig. 3 shows the fuel cell integration with other application make hybrid thermal system.

Fig. 3 Fuel Cell Hybridization and Applications

4.5 Various configuration of fuel cell integrated hybrid system
4.5.1 Integration of Fuel cell (SOFC) with another fuel cell (PEMFC)

Fig. 4 shows the Integration of Fuel cell (SOFC) with another fuel cell (PEMFC)

Fig. 4 SOFC-PEMFC

In this configuration we have:

1 Fuel compressor, 1 Air compressor, 1 condenser, 1 humidfier, 4 Heat exchanger, Fuel cell
SOFC & PEMFC, Combustion chamber, 1 pre oxidizer.

Air and fuel are compressed to the desired pressure which passes through the heat exchanger and
enters the SOFC stack cathode and anode side respectively. Recirculating compressed fuel
supports steam reforming reaction. At this point, SOFC creates some electricity, and the
remaining fuel can be used for other applications. Here PEMFC integrates with SOFC to makes
hybrid system. Some of the unused fuel is cool & is again pass through the high-temperature
water–gas shift (HT-WGS) reaction and then through the Low Temperature-WGS. These two
procedures can cut carbon monoxide significantly and condenser receives rich hydrogen. To
decrease exhaust gas temperature, humidity the air coming from the compressor which is
available for SOFC at the cathode side. Finally, hydrogen enters the PEMFC stack from the
anode and reacts with humidified air at the cathode to generate electricity.
4.5.2 Integration of Fuel cell (SOFC) with fuel cell Gas Turbine and Steam Turbine

Fig. 5 SOFC-GT-ST

In this configuration we have

1 Fuel compressor, 1 Air compressor, 1 gas turbine, 1 Combustion chamber, 1 preheater, 1 air
heater, 1 condenser, 1 heat recovery stream generator HRSG (Economizer, Evaporator,
Superheater), 1 pump, Steam Turbine.

The system uses both fuel and air recuperation utilizing the GT exhausts prior to steam
production in the HRSG of the ST cycle (single pressure). The system schematic is shown in Fig.
3. 30% fuel reforming is considered in the PR which is achieved by mixing steam extracted from
the ST at the desired pressure. Fuel (Methane) and air are compressed in the fuel compressor
(FC) and air compressor (AC) respectively. Certain amount of compressed fuel is fed into the
SOFC anode via the FR and the PR. The amount of steam extracted for mixing with the fuel
prior to its entry to the PR is taken as 2.5 times of the fuel flow rate (FFR). Some additional
amount of compressed fuel flows directly into the combustor (by-passing the FR, PR and the
SOFC) which is burnt along with the SOFC off residual fuels (hydrogen, methane and carbon
monoxide) and excess air. This is done mainly to increase the power output from the GT and
particularly the ST plant. The compressed air stream is preheated in the air recuperator (AR)
before it is fed into the SOFC cathode.

4.5.3 Integration of Fuel cell (SOFC) with CHP system

Fig. 6 SOFC-CHP

In this configuration we have

1 Fuel compressor, 1 Air compressor, 3 heat exchanger, 1 water pump, 1 Fuel cell (SOFC), 1
After burner.

The proposed system consists of a stack of tubular solid oxide fuel cell with direct internal
reforming, an afterburner chamber, an air compressor, a fuel compressor, a water pump, and
three recuperators. The energies utilized in a building include the heating, cooling, and the
electrical loads, and the proposed SOFC-CHP system should be able to provide them. The heat
obtained from the third recuperator can supply the heating load and the sanitary warm water of a
building in the winter time. In the summer, this generated heat can be used in a warm -water
absorption chiller to provide the cooling load and the sanitary warm water of a building. The
electricity produced by the fuel cell can be utilized as the electrical load that the building needs.
4.5.4 Integration of Fuel cell (SOFC), Brayton Cycle with Cheng Cycle

Fig. 7 SOFC+ Brayton Cycle with Cheng Cycle

In this configuration we have

1 Air compressor, 1 gas turbine, 1 heat exchanger, 1 Combustion chamber, 1 heat recovery
stream generator HRSG.

Cheng cycle is an exhaust heat recovery cycle for specially optimizing the performance of
Brayton cycle. Fig. 5 shows a configuration of Cheng cycle combined with SOFC and Brayton
cycle. A heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is added for producing the steam, which is
injected into the gases before the turbine. The exhaust heat is utilized in HRSG, thus increasing
the system energy efficiency. Because the turbine is a mass-flow device, combining the steam
with the high-temperature gases will increase the total electrical power produced. Part of the
steam produced in the HRSG can also be used for steam load. Therefore, Cheng cycle is a good
option for following the electrical loads or steam loads via controlling the steam injection.
Simulation results showed that the addition of a Cheng cycle to the pressurized SOFC/Brayton
cycle improved the electrical efficiency by 1–3%. But Cheng cycle decreases the temperature in
the interior of the turbine, which permits to gain more efficiency via increasing the temperature
of the fuel combustion.
4.5.5 Integration of a SOFC that uses indirect heat transfer.

Fig. 8 Integration of a SOFC that uses indirect heat transfer

In this configuration we have 1 Fuel cell (SOFC), 2 Heat exchanger, and two closed power cycle.

An alternative thermal coupling scheme involves indirect heat transfer. As shown in Fig 6. the
indirect thermal coupling scheme includes two closed cycles. Aside from the SOFC cycle, the
other closed cycle may be a thermal power generation plant (Rankine cycle, Brayton cycle or
TPV) or a thermal utilization module (such as the combined heat and power (CHP) system with a
refrigeration cycle). The two cycles operate at different pressures and with different working
media. Often in the applications of CHP and refrigeration systems, the hot SOFC exhaust gas is
first channeled to an air pre-heater HE2 and then to HE1. This mainly depends on the operating
temperature of the closed cycles.
 Course Name: Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy
Sources.
Topic Name: Fuel Cell Technology: Hybrid Vehicles

5.1 Introduction

Hybridization is a technology that involves combining two or more different power sources or
energy systems to work together in a synergistic manner.

In the context of vehicles, hybridization refers to the integration of an internal combustion engine
(typically petrol or diesel) with an electric propulsion system.

The combination allows the vehicle to operate on either or both of these power sources, offering
advantages in terms of fuel efficiency, emissions reduction, and overall performance.

The goal of hybridization in the automotive industry is often to create more environmentally
friendly and energy-efficient vehicles while retaining the convenience and range associated with
traditional vehicles.

5.2 Why Hybridization is Needed in Today's Era:

1. Environmental Concerns: One of the primary reasons for the need for hybridization is
the growing concern over environmental issues, particularly related to the transportation
sector. Conventional vehicles powered solely by internal combustion engines are m ajor
contributors to air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Hybrid vehicles help address
this problem by reducing emissions and improving fuel economy.

2. Energy Efficiency: Hybrid vehicles utilize electric power, which is highly efficient and
can be generated from various sources, including renewable energy. This efficiency
contributes to reducing our dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating the impact of
energy resource depletion.

3. Transition to Electric Mobility: While fully electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming
increasingly popular, the infrastructure for charging EVs is still developing in many
 regions. Hybrids offer a transitional solution by providing the benefits of electric
propulsion while retaining the convenience of refueling at traditional gas stations.

5.3 Future Significance of Hybridization:

1. Improved Fuel Efficiency: Hybrid technology will continue to evolve, resulting in even
greater fuel efficiency. As battery technology improves, hybrids will be able to operate
for longer distances on electric power alone, further reducing fuel consumption.

2. Emissions Reduction: Hybrid vehicles will play a critical role in meeting increasingly
stringent emissions regulations. They will continue to contribute to lowering harmful
emissions and supporting the global effort to combat climate change.

3. Diverse Hybrid Configurations: Manufacturers are likely to introduce a wider range of

hybrid configurations, including plug-in hybrids and mild hybrids, to cater to different
consumer needs and preferences.

4. Enhanced Performance: Future hybrids may offer improved performance, with more
powerful electric motors providing quicker acceleration and better overall driving
experiences.

5. Market Expansion: As technology matures and becomes more affordable, hybrid

vehicles will likely become more accessible to a broader range of consumers,
contributing to their increased market share.

6. Integration with Emerging Technologies: Hybridization will likely integrate with

emerging technologies like autonomous driving and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems,
making vehicles smarter, more efficient, and better integrated into transportation
networks.

In summary, hybridization is a vital technology in today's era due to its role in addressing
environmental concerns, improving energy efficiency, and facilitating the transition to cleaner
transportation. Its future significance lies in continued advancements that promise even greater
fuel efficiency, reduced emissions, and a more sustainable and diversified transportation
landscape.

5.4 Various Types of Hybrid Vehicles

Hybrid vehicles are currently categorized in three types.

• Mild hybrid
• Full hybrid
• Plug-in hybrid

5.4.1 Mild Hybrids:

A mild hybrid vehicle, also known as a "light hybrid" or "42-volt hybrid," is a type of hybrid car
that combines a traditional internal combustion engine (usually a gasoline or diesel engine) with
a small electric motor and a 42-volt electrical system. Unlike full hybrid or plug-in hybrid
vehicles, mild hybrids have a relatively small electric motor and a sm aller battery pack.

Fig 1. Examples of mild hybrid system

Here are some key characteristics and features of mild hybrid vehicles:

1. Electric Component: Mild hybrids have a small electric motor, often referred to as a
"belt-alternator-starter" (BAS) or an integrated starter-generator.

2. Regenerative Braking: Mild hybrids use regenerative braking technology, which

captures energy during braking and converts it into electricity to charge a small 42 to 4 8 -
volt battery. This captured energy can be used to assist the engine during acceleration.

3. Electric Power Assistance: The electric motor in a mild hybrid primarily serves to
provide additional power to assist the internal combustion engine, especially during
 acceleration or when climbing hills. It helps reduce the load on the engine, improving
fuel efficiency.

4. Engine Start-Stop: Mild hybrids often have engine start-stop systems that automatically
shut off the engine when the vehicle comes to a stop, such as at traffic lights. The electric
motor can quickly restart the engine when needed, conserving fuel during idle periods.

5. Limited Electric-Only Driving: Mild hybrids do not typically offer long electric-only
driving ranges like full hybrids or plug-in hybrids. The electric motor's power is relatively
low, and it is primarily used to supplement the engine rather than drive the vehicle on its
own.

6. Improved Fuel Efficiency: Mild hybrids are designed to improve fuel efficiency and
reduce emissions compared to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles . They
achieve this by optimizing the engine's operation and providing extra power when
needed.

7. Simplified Hybrid System: Mild hybrids are less complex and less expensive to
manufacture than full hybrids and plug-in hybrids because they have smaller batteries and
electric motors.

8. Limited All-Electric Mode: Some mild hybrid vehicles may have a limited "coast and
glide" mode where the engine temporarily shuts off, and the vehicle coasts using stored
electrical energy. However, this electric-only mode is usually brief and occurs at low
speeds.

9. Environmental Benefits: While not as environmentally friendly as full hybrids or

electric vehicles, mild hybrids help reduce fuel consumption and greenhouse gas
emissions, contributing to improved overall vehicle efficiency.

Mild hybrid technology is often used in a wide range of vehicle types, including compact cars,
sedans, and SUVs, It provides a cost-effective way to improve fuel efficiency and reduce the
carbon footprint of internal combustion engine vehicles while still offering the convenience and
range of traditional gasoline or diesel-powered cars.

Examples:
 • The Honda Accord are example of mild hybrid is shown in fig. 1.

5.4.2 Full Hybrids:

A full hybrid vehicle, also known simply as a "hybrid" or a "strong hybrid," is a type of vehicle
that combines two or more power sources to propel the vehicle. These power sources typically
include an internal combustion engine (usually gasoline) and an electric motor, along with a
high-capacity battery pack. Full hybrids are known for their ability to operate in electric-only
mode, as well as in a combined mode where both the engine and electric motor work together.

Overview:

• Electric Component: Full hybrids have a more substantial electric motor and a larger
battery pack compared to mild hybrids.

Functionality:

• Electric Propulsion: Can operate on electric power alone at low speeds and for short
distances.

• Regenerative Braking: Captures and stores energy during braking, enhancing overall
efficiency.

• Seamless Switching: Can seamlessly transition between electric and internal combustion
power.

Benefits:

• Fuel Efficiency: Full hybrids excel in fuel efficiency, especially in stop-and-go traffic
and urban driving.

• Reduced Emissions: Significantly reduces emissions compared to traditional vehicles.

Examples:

• The Toyota Prius and Ford Fusion Hybrid are well-known examples of full hybrids, given
in fig. 2.
 Toyota Plus Honda Insight

Ford Fusion Hybrid

Fig. 2 Example of Fuell Hybrid

5.4.3 Plug-in Hybrids (PHEVs):

A plug-in hybrid vehicle, often referred to as a PHEV (Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle), is a type
of hybrid car that combines an internal combustion engine (usually gasoline or diesel) with an
electric motor and a larger battery pack. The distinctive feature of a PHEV is its ability to charge
the battery by plugging it into an external power source, such as a standard electrical outlet or a
charging station.

Overview:

• Electric Component: Plug-in hybrids have a larger battery pack than full hybrids, and
they can be externally charged.

Functionality:

• Extended Electric Range: Can operate on electric power alone for an extended range
(typically between 20 to 50 miles or more).

• Hybrid Mode: Switches to a hybrid mode using the internal combustion engine when the
electric range is depleted.
 • External Charging: Can be charged from an external power source, like a wall outlet or
a charging station.

Benefits:

• Versatility: Offers the flexibility of electric-only driving for short trips and the
convenience of hybrid operation for longer journeys.

• Reduced Dependence on Gasoline: Reduces overall gasoline consumption, especially

for short-distance commuting.

Chevrolet Volt

Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV

BMW i3

Fig 3. Examples of Plug-in Hybrid (PHEVs)

Examples:

• The Chevrolet Volt (discontinued), Toyota Prius Prime, and the BMW 330e are examples
of plug-in hybrids, shown in fig. 3.
In summary, the key differences lie in the size and capability of the electric components, the
ability to operate on electric power alone, and the external charging capability. Mild hybrids
provide limited electric assistance, full hybrids offer more significant electric power, and plug-in
hybrids provide an extended electric-only driving range with the ability to recharge externally.

5.5 Hybridization Technologies

From the figure, we can see series and parallel systems in fig 4 and fig 5 respectively.
5.5.1 Series Hybrid System:

Overview:

• Configuration: In a series hybrid system, the internal combustion engine is used solely
as a generator to produce electricity.

• Power Sources: The electric motor is the primary source of propulsion, powered by
electricity generated by the internal combustion engine.

Fig 4. Series System

Functionality:

• Operation:

• Electric-Only Driving: The vehicle can operate on electric power alone.

 • Range Extender: The internal combustion engine acts as a generator to produce
electricity, extending the vehicle's range when the battery is depleted.

• High-Efficiency Charging: The internal combustion engine operates at its optimal

efficiency to generate electricity for the electric motor.

Advantages:

• Fuel Efficiency: Series hybrids can be highly fuel-efficient, especially in situations where
the internal combustion engine operates at its most efficient RPM range.

• Reduced Emissions: The primary propulsion source is the electric motor, leading to lower
emissions compared to traditional vehicles.

5.5.2 Parallel Hybrid System:

Overview:

• Configuration: In a parallel hybrid system, both the internal combustion engine (ICE)
and the electric motor are mechanically connected to the vehicle's transmission.

• Power Sources: The vehicle can be powered by the internal combustion engine, the
electric motor, or a combination of both simultaneously.

Fig 5. Parallel System

Functionality:
 • Modes of Operation:

• Electric Mode: The vehicle can operate on electric power alone, suitable for low -
speed and short-distance driving.

• Combination Mode: Both the internal combustion engine and the electric motor
work together to provide additional power during acceleration or high -speed
driving.

• Engine-Only Mode: In certain situations, like highway cruising, the internal

combustion engine can power the vehicle independently.

Advantages:

• Efficiency: The parallel configuration allows for efficient power distribution and
utilization of both power sources.

• Flexibility: The ability to operate on different power sources provides flexibility and
optimization for various driving conditions.

5.5.3 Power Split or Planetary Gear Hybrid System:

Overview:

• Configuration: The power split hybrid system uses a planetary gear set to blend power
from the internal combustion engine and the electric motor, shown in fig. 6.

• Power Distribution: The planetary gear set allows for variable power distribution
between the internal combustion engine and the electric motor.

Functionality:

• Modes of Operation:

• Electric Mode: The vehicle can operate on electric power alone.

• Combination Mode: Both the internal combustion engine and the electric motor
contribute to propulsion.
 • Engine-Only Mode: The internal combustion engine can power the vehicle
independently.

Fig 6. Planetary Gear Hybrid System

Advantages:

• Smooth Transitions: The planetary gear set enables seamless transitions between different
power modes, providing a smooth and efficient driving experience.

• Optimized Performance: The system can automatically adjust power distribution based
on driving conditions, optimizing performance and efficiency.

5.5.4 Regenerative Braking:

Overview:

• Functionality: Regenerative braking is a technology that captures and converts kinetic

energy during braking into electrical energy, shown in fig. 7.

• Mechanism: When the vehicle slows down or brakes, the electric motor operates in
reverse as a generator, converting the kinetic energy into electricity.

• Storage: The generated electricity is then stored in the vehicle's battery for later use.

Advantages:
 • Improved Efficiency: By reclaiming energy during braking, regenerative braking
improves overall efficiency and reduces energy waste.

• Extended Range: The captured energy can be used to supplement the electric powertrain,
potentially increasing the overall electric driving range.

Fig 7. Regenerative Breaking

5.6 Hybridization Technologies

5.6.1 Integration with Autonomous Driving:

Overview:

• Collaboration of Hybrid and Autonomous Technologies: The integration of hybrid

technology with autonomous driving systems is an emerging trend that aims to create
more efficient and intelligent vehicles shown in fig. 8.

• Symbiotic Relationship: Hybrids can complement autonomous driving by providing

electric-only modes for low-speed urban driving and seamless transitions between power
sources.

Benefits:

• Energy Efficiency: Autonomous driving systems can optimize energy usage by leveraging
hybrid systems, choosing the most energy-efficient mode based on traffic conditions and
driving scenarios.
 • Enhanced Safety: Hybrid systems can enhance safety during autonomous operation by
providing redundant power sources and increasing overall system reliability.

Fig 8. Integration with Autonomous Driving

Challenges:

• Complex Integration: Combining autonomous and hybrid technologies poses challenges

related to system integration, communication, and synchronization between the various
components.

5.6.2 Advances in Battery Technology:

Overview:

• Continued Improvements: Ongoing research and development are focusing on

advancing battery technology for hybrid vehicles, shown in fig. 9.

• Energy Density and Fast Charging: Future trends include improvements in energy
density, allowing for more extended electric-only ranges, and faster charging capabilities
to reduce downtime.

Benefits:
 • Extended Electric Range: Higher energy density batteries will enable hybrids to cover
longer distances in electric-only mode, reducing reliance on internal combustion engines.

• Reduced Charging Time: Faster charging times enhance the convenience of plug-in
hybrids, making them more attractive to consumers.

Challenges:

• Cost Considerations: While advancements are being made, the cost of advanced battery
technologies remains a challenge. Ongoing efforts are directed toward making these
technologies more cost-effective.

Fig 9. Advanced Battery System

5.6.3 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Hybrids:

Overview:

• Combining Hydrogen Fuel Cells with Hybrid Systems: Hydrogen fuel cell hybrids are
emerging as a potential alternative to traditional hybrids, combining the benefits of
hydrogen fuel cells with electric drivetrains, shown in fig. 10.

• Efficient Energy Conversion: Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity through the
electrochemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, offering a clean and efficient
power source.

Benefits:

• Zero Emissions: Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity without emitting harmful
pollutants, contributing to a cleaner environment.

• Quick Refueling: Hydrogen fuel cells can be refueled quickly, addressing one of the
limitations of battery electric vehicles.
Challenges:

• Infrastructure Development: The infrastructure for hydrogen fueling stations is currently

limited, posing a challenge for widespread adoption.

• Costs and Efficiency: Hydrogen production and fuel cell technology are currently more
expensive and less efficient than some other alternatives.

Fig 10. Hydrogen Fuel Cell Hybrids

 Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy
Sources (ETRES)

Energy Audit Strategies

Let us understand - What is energy audit…?

An energy audit is an inspection survey and an analysis of energy flows

for energy conservation in a building. It may include a process or system to
reduce the amount of energy input into the system without negatively
affecting the output. In commercial and industrial real estate, an energy
audit is the first step in identifying opportunities to reduce energy expense
and carbon footprint. When the object of study is an occupied building then
reducing energy consumption while maintaining or improving human
comfort, health and safety are of primary concern. Beyond simply identifying
the sources of energy use, an energy audit seeks to prioritize the energy
uses according to the greatest to least cost-effective opportunities for energy
savings. Energy Audit is the key to a systematic approach for decision-
making in the area of energy management. It attempts to balance the total
energy inputs with its use, and serves to identify all the energy streams in a
facility. It quantifies energy usage according to its discrete functions.
Industrial energy audit is an effective tool in defining and pursuing
comprehensive energy management programme. As per the Energy
Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is defined as "the verification,
monitoring and analysis of use of energy including submission of technical
report containing recommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost
benefit analysis and an action plan to reduce energy consumption".

Now, let us understand - What is the need of energy audit…?

In any industry, the three top operating expenses are often found to be
energy (both electrical and thermal), labour and materials. If one were to
relate to the manageability of the cost or potential cost savings in each of the
above components, energy would invariably emerge as a top ranker, and
thus energy management function constitutes a strategic area for cost
reduction. Energy Audit will help to understand more about the ways energy
and fuel are used in any industry, and help in identifying the areas where
waste can occur and where scope for improvement exists. The Energy Audit
would give a positive orientation to the energy cost reduction, preventive
maintenance and quality control programmes which are vital for production
and utility activities. Such an audit programme will help to keep focus on
variations which occur in the energy costs, availability and reliability of
supply of energy, decide on appropriate energy mix, identify energy
conservation technologies, retrofit for energy conservation equipment etc. In
general, Energy Audit is the translation of conservation ideas into realities,
by lending technically feasible solutions with economic and other
organizational considerations within a specified time frame. The primary
objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to reduce energy
consumption per unit of product output or to lower operating costs. Energy
Audit provides a " bench-mark" (Reference point) for managing energy in the
organization and also provides the basis for planning a more effective use of
energy throughout the organization.

Now, let us understand what are the various energy audit strategies…?

The type of Energy Audit to be performed depends on: - Function and type of
industry - Depth to which final audit is needed, and - Potential and
magnitude of cost reduction desired Thus Energy Audit can be classified
into the following three types. i) Preliminary Audit ii) Targeted Audit and iii)
Detailed Audit.

Quality control in the context of energy audits refers to the measures

taken to ensure the accuracy, reliability, and consistency of the energy
audit process and its results. Conducting a high-quality energy audit is
essential to make informed decisions about energy efficiency
improvements and to achieve the desired energy-saving outcomes.
Here are some key aspects of quality control in energy audits:
Quality Control in Energy Audits: Proper Maintenance of Equipment,
Substitution with Efficient Equipment, Fuel Substitutions, and
Recycling

Quality control in energy audits involves various strategies to optimize

energy efficiency, minimize energy waste, and ensure the effective
implementation of energy-saving measures. Here are some specific
approaches to quality control in energy audits related to proper equipment
maintenance, equipment substitution, fuel substitutions, and recycling:

1. Proper Maintenance of Equipment: One critical aspect of quality control

is ensuring that the existing equipment and systems are properly
maintained. Regular maintenance helps prevent energy waste due to
malfunctions, leaks, or inefficiencies. Implementing a robust maintenance
schedule ensures that all equipment operates optimally and as per
manufacturer specifications. This can include HVAC systems, lighting
fixtures, motors, and other energy-consuming devices. Regular maintenance
also contributes to the longevity of the equipment and reduces the need for
premature replacements.

2. Substitution with Efficient Equipment: A key recommendation from

energy audits is often the replacement of older, less efficient equipment with
newer, more energy-efficient alternatives. Quality control in this aspect
ensures that the selection of new equipment is based on accurate and
reliable data, considering factors such as energy performance, lifecycle cost
analysis, and compatibility with existing systems. Choosing energy-efficient
equipment leads to long-term energy savings and improved overall energy
efficiency.

3. Fuel Substitutions: In some cases, energy audits may identify

opportunities for fuel substitution. This involves replacing conventional
energy sources with cleaner, more sustainable alternatives. For instance,
transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources like solar, wind,
or biomass can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and minimize
environmental impact. Quality control in fuel substitution includes
assessing the feasibility, safety, and reliability of the new energy sources to
ensure a smooth transition.

4. Quality Control and Recycling: Energy audits may recommend

implementing recycling and waste management programs as part of energy-
saving initiatives. Proper recycling of materials and waste helps reduce
energy consumption associated with resource extraction, manufacturing,
and disposal processes. Quality control in recycling involves setting up
efficient recycling processes, ensuring proper waste segregation, and
partnering with reputable recycling facilities to handle recyclable materials
responsibly.

Benefits of Quality Control in Energy Audits:

 Accurate Recommendations: Quality control measures ensure that

energy-saving recommendations are based on accurate data and
analysis, leading to reliable outcomes.

 Long-Term Savings: Implementing energy-efficient measures through

quality control leads to sustainable cost savings on energy bills over
the equipment's lifecycle.

 Environmental Impact: Proper equipment maintenance, efficient

equipment substitution, fuel substitutions, and recycling contribute to
reduced carbon emissions and environmental preservation.

 Compliance and Safety: Quality control ensures that energy audits

comply with industry standards, regulations, and safety guidelines,
promoting safe and effective energy-saving measures.

In conclusion, quality control is essential in energy audits to ensure that the

proposed energy-saving measures are accurate, feasible, and aligned with
organizational goals. Proper maintenance, equipment substitution, fuel
substitutions, and recycling are all crucial components of quality energy
audits, enabling organizations to achieve long-term energy efficiency and
sustainability.
2. Proper maintenance of equipment is a systematic approach to ensure
that machinery, systems, and devices are operating efficiently, reliably, and
safely throughout their operational life. Maintenance activities are essential
for preventing equipment breakdowns, reducing energy waste, extending the
equipment's lifespan, and maintaining overall productivity. Here's a more
detailed explanation of proper equipment maintenance:

1. Scheduled Maintenance:

Scheduled maintenance involves performing routine inspections, checks,

and servicing based on manufacturer recommendations and industry best
practices. This could include daily, weekly, monthly, or annual maintenance
tasks to identify and address potential issues before they lead to equipment
failure.

2. Preventive Maintenance:

Preventive maintenance involves planned activities to prevent equipment

failures and downtime. It includes tasks like cleaning, lubrication, filter
replacements, belt adjustments, and calibration. Preventive maintenance
helps identify and fix minor issues before they escalate into major problems,
improving overall equipment reliability and energy efficiency.

3. Predictive Maintenance:

Predictive maintenance utilizes advanced technologies, such as sensors and

data analytics, to monitor equipment health and predict when maintenance
is required. By analyzing real-time data and trends, potential issues can be
detected early, allowing for timely interventions and minimizing downtime.

4. Corrective Maintenance:
Corrective maintenance is performed in response to equipment malfunctions
or breakdowns. While preventive maintenance aims to reduce the need for
corrective actions, occasional failures may still occur. Quality equipment
maintenance addresses these issues promptly to restore the equipment to
optimal performance.

5. Inspection and Auditing:

Regular inspections and audits are essential to assess the overall condition
of the equipment and identify any signs of wear, damage, or inefficiencies.
These inspections help prioritize maintenance tasks and guide decision-
making on necessary repairs or replacements.

6. Training and Skill Development:

Proper equipment maintenance requires skilled personnel with the

necessary training and expertise. Investing in employee training and skill
development ensures that maintenance tasks are carried out effectively and
safely.

7. Records and Documentation:

Maintaining comprehensive records of maintenance activities, including

dates, tasks performed, and parts replaced, is crucial for tracking
equipment health, analyzing trends, and ensuring compliance with
warranties or regulations.

8. Calibration and Testing:

Regular calibration of equipment ensures that it operates within specified

accuracy and performance parameters. Testing equipment to verify its
functionality and efficiency is a critical aspect of proper maintenance.
9. Use of Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) Parts:

Using genuine OEM parts for repairs and replacements ensures the
equipment retains its intended performance and reduces the risk of
compatibility issues.

10. Safety and Compliance:

Equipment maintenance should always prioritize safety. Regular checks for

safety features, adherence to safety guidelines, and compliance with
industry regulations are essential aspects of proper equipment maintenance.

Benefits of Proper Equipment Maintenance:

Enhanced Equipment Efficiency: Regular maintenance improves equipment

performance, reducing energy waste and optimizing energy efficiency.

Extended Equipment Lifespan: Proper maintenance extends the operational

life of equipment, reducing the need for premature replacements.

Reduced Downtime: Preventive and predictive maintenance help minimize

unexpected breakdowns and downtime, improving overall productivity.

Cost Savings: Investing in maintenance is more cost-effective than dealing

with major breakdowns or replacing equipment prematurely.

Safety and Reliability: Properly maintained equipment operates safely and

reliably, reducing the risk of accidents and ensuring consistent performance.

In conclusion, proper equipment maintenance is a crucial element of energy

management, as it directly impacts energy efficiency, equipment reliability,
and overall productivity. Adopting a proactive and systematic approach to
maintenance helps organizations optimize their energy usage and achieve
sustainable and cost-effective operations.
Preliminary Energy Audit

A preliminary audit is fieldwork performed by auditors before the end of the

period under examination. By engaging in this advance work, the auditors
can reduce the volume of activities that must be completed after the client
has closed its books. No audit report is issued as part of a preliminary audit;
instead, this work should be considered an early phase of the regular audit
that an organization undergoes. There are a number of tasks that can be
completed during a preliminary audit, including the following: Examination
of client controls, Preliminary analysis of account balances and Adjustment
of planning for subsequent audit work, based on the first two items. The
advantages of a Preliminary Audit are: The auditors shift work out of their
core work period, when many clients want to have audits completed. The
audit staff can be kept occupied during slack periods. The auditors can
issue opinions faster than might otherwise be the case. This is a particular
concern for public companies, which must issue audited financial
statements by mandated deadlines. The auditors can examine the books
and controls for a new client, which helps them to plan for the regular audit
later in the year. Preliminary energy audit is a relatively quick exercise to:
Establish energy consumption in the organization, estimate the scope for
saving, identify the most likely (and the easiest areas for attention), identify
immediate (especially no-/low-cost) improvements/ savings, set a 'reference
point', identify areas for more detailed study/measurement and preliminary
energy audit uses existing, or easily obtained data.

Targeted Energy Audit

Targeted energy audits are mostly based upon the outcome of the
preliminary audit results. They provide data and detailed analysis on
specified target projects. As an example, an organisation may target its
lighting system or boiler system or compressed air system with a view to
bring about energy savings. Targeted audits therefore involve detailed
surveys of the target subjects/areas with analysis of the energy flows and
costs associated with those targets.
Detailed Energy Audit

A comprehensive audit provides a detailed energy project implementation

plan for a facility, since it evaluates all major energy using systems. This
type of audit offers the most accurate estimate of energy savings and cost. It
considers the interactive effects of all projects, accounts for the energy use
of all major equipment, and includes detailed energy cost saving
calculations and project cost. In a comprehensive audit, one of the key
elements is the energy balance. This is based on an inventory of energy
using systems, assumptions of current operating conditions and
calculations of energy use. This estimated use is then compared to utility
bill charges. Detailed energy auditing is carried out in three phases: Phase I,
II and III.

Phase I: Pre-Audit Phase

Step1:

Plan of action:

Plan and organise. Walk through audit. Informal interview with energy
manager, production/plant manager.

Purpose/Results:

Resource planning, Establish/organize an energy audit team. Organize

instruments and time frame. Macro Data collection (suitable to type of
industry.) Familiarization of process/plant activities. First hand observation
& assessment of current level operation and practices.

Step2:

Plan of action:

Conduct of brief meeting/awareness program with all divisional heads and

persons concerned (2-3 hrs.)

Purpose/Results:
Building up cooperation. Issue questionnaire for each department.
Orientation, awareness creation.

Phase II: Audit Phase

Step3:

Plan of action:

Primary data gathering, Process Flow Diagram, & Energy Utility Diagram.

Purpose/Results:

Historic data analysis, Baseline data collection. Prepare process flow charts.
All service utilities system diagram (Example: Single line power distribution,
compressed air & steam distribution.) Design, operating data and schedule
of operation. Annual Energy Bill and energy consumption pattern (Refer
manual, log sheet, name plate, interview)

Step4:

Plan of action:

Conduct survey and monitoring.

Purpose/Results:

Measurements: Motor survey, Insulation, and Lighting survey with portable

instruments for collection of more and accurate data. Confirm and compare
operating data with design data.

Step5:

Plan of action:

Conduct of detailed trials/experiments for selected energy guzzlers.

Purpose/Results:
Trials/Experiments: 24 hours power monitoring (MD, PF, kWh etc.), Load
variations trends in pumps, fan compressors etc. Boiler/Efficiency trials for
(4-8 hours), Furnace Efficiency trials and Equipment's Performance
experiments etc.

Step6:

Plan of action:

Analysis of energy use.

Purpose/Results:

Energy and Material balance & energy loss/waste analysis.

Step7:

Plan of action:

Identification and development of energy conservation (ENCON)

opportunities.

Purpose/Results:

Identification & Consolidation ENCON measures, conceive, develop, and

refine ideas, review the previous ideas suggested by unit personal, review
the previous ideas suggested by energy audit if any, use brainstorming and
value analysis techniques and contact vendors for new/efficient technology.

Step8:

Plan of action:

Cost benefit analysis

Purpose/Results:

Assess technical feasibility, economic viability and prioritization of ENCON

options for implementation, select the most promising projects and prioritize
by low, medium, long term measures.

Step9:
Plan of action:

Reporting & Presentation to the Top Management.

Purpose/Results:

Documentation, Report Presentation to the top Management.

Phase III: Post-Audit Phase

Step10:

Plan of action:

Implementation and Follow-up

Purpose/Results:

Assist and implement (ENCON Energy) Conservation recommendation

measures and monitor the performance

Purpose/Results: The purpose of this step is to assist in implementing the

Energy Conservation (ENCON) recommendations identified during the
energy audit and closely monitor the performance of the implemented
measures. This phase aims to ensure that the energy-saving measures are
effectively put into action and continue to deliver the expected results over
time.

Plan of Action:

Project Prioritization: Prioritize the ENCON recommendations based on their

potential energy savings, cost-effectiveness, and ease of implementation.
Identify which measures should be implemented first and create a timeline
for each project.

Resource Allocation: Allocate the necessary budget, personnel, and

resources required for implementing the ENCON measures. Ensure that the
responsible team or individuals are assigned to oversee the implementation
process.

Procurement: Procure any necessary equipment, materials, or services

needed to implement the energy-saving measures. Ensure that all purchases
meet the required quality standards and are compatible with existing
systems.

Engineering and Design: If necessary, engage engineering and design teams

to develop detailed plans and specifications for the implementation of
complex ENCON measures.

Installation and Commissioning: Carry out the installation of energy-

efficient equipment and systems according to the prescribed guidelines and
specifications. Thoroughly test and commission the newly installed
measures to verify their proper functioning.

Training and Awareness: Provide training to relevant staff members on how

to operate and maintain the new energy-efficient systems. Create awareness
campaigns to educate employees about the importance of energy
conservation and their role in the process.

Performance Monitoring: Implement a robust monitoring and data collection

system to track the energy consumption before and after the implementation
of ENCON measures. Regularly collect data on energy usage to assess the
effectiveness of the initiatives.
Data Analysis: Analyze the collected data to evaluate the performance of
each implemented measure. Compare the actual energy savings with the
projected savings to identify any discrepancies and take corrective actions if
needed.

Continuous Improvement: Use the data analysis to identify opportunities for

further energy efficiency improvements. Implement a continuous
improvement process to refine existing measures and identify new
opportunities for energy savings.

Reporting and Communication: Provide regular progress reports to

stakeholders, management, and relevant authorities to keep them informed
about the outcomes of the ENCON implementation. Celebrate successes and
address any challenges encountered during the process.

Maintenance and Upkeep: Establish a comprehensive maintenance plan to

ensure that the energy-efficient systems continue to perform optimally over
time. Regularly inspect, clean, and service equipment to prevent any
performance degradation.

Recognition and Incentives: Recognize and reward individuals or teams that

contribute significantly to the success of the ENCON program. Implement
incentives for employees who actively participate in energy-saving efforts.

By following this plan of action and maintaining a proactive approach to

energy management, the organization can successfully implement the
ENCON recommendations, optimize energy consumption, and achieve long-
term energy savings and sustainability goals.
“Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy

Sources”

Quality control by Energy Audit

Let us understand - What is quality control…?

Quality control in energy audits involves various strategies to optimize

energy efficiency, minimize energy waste, and ensure the effective
implementation of energy-saving measures. Here are some specific
approaches to quality control in energy audits related to proper equipment
maintenance, equipment substitution, fuel substitutions, and recycling:

1. Proper Maintenance of Equipment:

One critical aspect of quality control is ensuring that the existing equipment
and systems are properly maintained. Regular maintenance helps prevent
energy waste due to malfunctions, leaks, or inefficiencies. Implementing a
robust maintenance schedule ensures that all equipment operates optimally
and as per manufacturer specifications.

2. Substitution with Efficient Equipment:

A key recommendation from energy audits is often the replacement of older,

less efficient equipment with newer, more energy-efficient alternatives.
Quality control in this aspect ensures that the selection of new equipment is
based on accurate and reliable data, considering factors such as energy
performance, lifecycle cost analysis, and compatibility with existing systems.
Choosing energy-efficient equipment leads to long-term energy savings and
improved overall energy efficiency.
3. Fuel Substitutions:

In some cases, energy audits may identify opportunities for fuel substitution.
This involves replacing conventional energy sources with cleaner, more
sustainable alternatives. For instance, transitioning from fossil fuels to
renewable energy sources like solar, wind, or biomass can reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and minimize environmental impact.

4. Quality Control and Recycling:

Energy audits may recommend implementing recycling and waste

management programs as part of energy-saving initiatives. Proper recycling
of materials and waste helps reduce energy consumption associated with
resource extraction, manufacturing, and disposal processes.

Benefits of Quality Control in Energy Audits:

Accurate Recommendations: Quality control measures ensure that energy-

saving recommendations are based on accurate data and analysis, leading
to reliable outcomes.

Long-Term Savings: Implementing energy-efficient measures through quality

control leads to sustainable cost savings on energy bills over the
equipment's lifecycle.

Environmental Impact: Proper equipment maintenance, efficient equipment

substitution, fuel substitutions, and recycling contribute to reduced carbon
emissions and environmental preservation.

Compliance and Safety: Quality control ensures that energy audits comply
with industry standards, regulations, and safety guidelines, promoting safe
and effective energy-saving measures.

In conclusion, quality control is essential in energy audits to ensure that the

proposed energy-saving measures are accurate, feasible, and aligned with
organizational goals. Proper maintenance, equipment substitution, fuel
substitutions, and recycling are all crucial components of quality energy
audits, enabling organizations to achieve long-term energy efficiency and
sustainability.

1. Proper Maintenance of Equipment:

Proper maintenance of equipment is a systematic approach to ensure that

machinery, systems, and devices are operating efficiently, reliably, and
safely throughout their operational life. Maintenance activities are essential
for preventing equipment breakdowns, reducing energy waste, extending the
equipment's lifespan, and maintaining overall productivity. Here's a more
detailed explanation of proper equipment maintenance:

1. Scheduled Maintenance:

Scheduled maintenance involves performing routine inspections, checks,

and servicing based on manufacturer recommendations and industry best
practices. This could include daily, weekly, monthly, or annual maintenance
tasks to identify and address potential issues before they lead to equipment
failure.

2. Preventive Maintenance:

Preventive maintenance involves planned activities to prevent equipment

failures and downtime. It includes tasks like cleaning, lubrication, filter
replacements, belt adjustments, and calibration. Preventive maintenance
helps identify and fix minor issues before they escalate into major problems,
improving overall equipment reliability and energy efficiency.

3. Predictive Maintenance:

Predictive maintenance utilizes advanced technologies, such as sensors and

data analytics, to monitor equipment health and predict when maintenance
is required. By analyzing real-time data and trends, potential issues can be
detected early, allowing for timely interventions and minimizing downtime.

4. Corrective Maintenance:

Corrective maintenance is performed in response to equipment malfunctions

or breakdowns. While preventive maintenance aims to reduce the need for
corrective actions, occasional failures may still occur. Quality equipment
maintenance addresses these issues promptly to restore the equipment to
optimal performance.

5. Inspection and Auditing:

Regular inspections and audits are essential to assess the overall condition
of the equipment and identify any signs of wear, damage, or inefficiencies.
These inspections help prioritize maintenance tasks and guide decision-
making on necessary repairs or replacements.

6. Training and Skill Development:

Proper equipment maintenance requires skilled personnel with the

necessary training and expertise. Investing in employee training and skill
development ensures that maintenance tasks are carried out effectively and
safely.

7. Records and Documentation:

Maintaining comprehensive records of maintenance activities, including

dates, tasks performed, and parts replaced, is crucial for tracking
equipment health, analyzing trends, and ensuring compliance with
warranties or regulations.
8. Calibration and Testing:

Regular calibration of equipment ensures that it operates within specified

accuracy and performance parameters. Testing equipment to verify its
functionality and efficiency is a critical aspect of proper maintenance.

9. Use of Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) Parts:

Using genuine OEM parts for repairs and replacements ensures the
equipment retains its intended performance and reduces the risk of
compatibility issues.

10. Safety and Compliance:

Equipment maintenance should always prioritize safety. Regular checks for

safety features, adherence to safety guidelines, and compliance with
industry regulations are essential aspects of proper equipment maintenance.

Benefits of Proper Equipment Maintenance:

Enhanced Equipment Efficiency: Regular maintenance improves equipment

performance, reducing energy waste and optimizing energy efficiency.

Extended Equipment Lifespan: Proper maintenance extends the operational

life of equipment, reducing the need for premature replacements.

Reduced Downtime: Preventive and predictive maintenance help minimize

unexpected breakdowns and downtime, improving overall productivity.

Cost Savings: Investing in maintenance is more cost-effective than dealing

with major breakdowns or replacing equipment prematurely.

Safety and Reliability: Properly maintained equipment operates safely and

reliably, reducing the risk of accidents and ensuring consistent performance.
In conclusion, proper equipment maintenance is a crucial element of energy
management, as it directly impacts energy efficiency, equipment reliability,
and overall productivity. Adopting a proactive and systematic approach to
maintenance helps organizations optimize their energy usage and achieve
sustainable and cost-effective operations.

2. Substitution with Efficient Equipment

Substitution with efficient equipment is a key energy management strategy

that involves replacing older, less energy-efficient equipment with newer,
more advanced, and energy-efficient alternatives. This approach is highly
effective in reducing energy consumption, lowering operational costs, and
improving overall energy efficiency. Here's a closer look at the process of
substituting with efficient equipment:

1. Energy Audit and Assessment:

The process begins with conducting an energy audit or assessment to

identify energy-intensive equipment and systems within the organization.
This audit helps identify opportunities for equipment substitution and
provides valuable data for making informed decisions.

2. Identifying Inefficient Equipment:

The next step is to identify equipment that is outdated, inefficient, or

consuming excessive energy compared to modern, energy-efficient models.
This may include HVAC systems, lighting fixtures, industrial machinery,
pumps, motors, and other energy-consuming devices.

3. Lifecycle Cost Analysis:

Performing a lifecycle cost analysis is crucial when considering equipment
substitution. It involves evaluating the total cost of ownership over the
equipment's expected lifespan, considering initial purchase costs, operating
costs, maintenance expenses, and potential energy savings.

4. Energy Performance Comparison:

Comparing the energy performance of existing equipment with that of

potential replacements is essential. Energy performance data, such as
energy efficiency ratings, helps determine how much energy can be saved by
upgrading to efficient equipment.

5. Energy-Efficient Equipment Selection:

Choosing energy-efficient equipment involves selecting models that meet or

exceed industry energy efficiency standards and certifications. Equipment
with Energy Star labels or other reputable certifications is typically a good
choice.

6. Compatibility and Integration:

Ensuring the new equipment is compatible with existing systems and

processes is crucial. Integration with the building's automation system or
other control systems may be necessary to optimize its performance.

7. Financial Analysis:

Conducting a financial analysis helps determine the payback period for the
investment in energy-efficient equipment. It allows organizations to evaluate
the financial feasibility and long-term benefits of the substitution.

8. Implementation and Installation:

The installation of the new equipment should be carried out by trained
professionals to ensure proper setup and performance. After installation,
commissioning and testing help verify that the equipment operates as
intended.

9. Training and Familiarization:

Proper training for staff and operators on using the new equipment
optimally is essential. This helps ensure that the equipment is operated
efficiently and that all energy-saving features are utilized effectively.

10. Monitoring and Verification:

Continuous monitoring of the new equipment's performance is crucial to

verify that it is delivering the expected energy savings. Periodic checks and
adjustments help maintain optimal efficiency over time.

Benefits of Substituting with Efficient Equipment:

Energy Savings: Energy-efficient equipment consumes less energy, resulting

in reduced energy bills and operational costs.

Environmental Impact: Lower energy consumption leads to reduced

greenhouse gas emissions and a smaller carbon footprint.

Improved Performance: Efficient equipment often offers enhanced

performance, productivity, and reliability.

Long-Term Savings: Although efficient equipment may have higher upfront

costs, the long-term savings from reduced energy consumption often
outweigh the initial investment.

Regulatory Compliance: Substituting with efficient equipment helps

organizations meet energy efficiency regulations and sustainability goals.
In conclusion, substituting with efficient equipment is a powerful strategy in
energy management, offering substantial energy savings and environmental
benefits. By carefully evaluating options, selecting suitable models, and
implementing proper installation and training, organizations can achieve
significant improvements in energy efficiency and reduce their overall energy
footprint.

3. Fuel substitution it is a practice in energy management that involves

replacing one type of fuel with another to achieve various objectives, such as
reducing energy costs, enhancing energy security, or minimizing
environmental impact. This strategy is commonly employed in industrial
processes, power generation, transportation, and heating systems. Here's a
closer look at fuel substitutions and their benefits:

1. Types of Fuel Substitutions:

Fuel substitutions can involve several scenarios, including:

Renewable to Conventional: Replacing renewable energy sources (e.g., solar,

wind, biomass) with conventional fuels (e.g., coal, natural gas) when
renewable sources are not available or insufficient.

Conventional to Renewable: Transitioning from conventional fossil fuels to

renewable energy sources to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote
sustainability.

Higher Carbon to Lower Carbon Fuels: Substituting high-carbon fuels (e.g.,

coal, heavy oil) with lower-carbon fuels (e.g., natural gas, light oil) to reduce
carbon emissions.

Non-renewable to Renewable: Replacing non-renewable fuels (e.g., fossil

fuels) with renewable energy sources to enhance long-term energy security
and reduce dependence on finite resources.

2. Benefits of Fuel Substitutions:

Economic Savings: In some cases, using more cost-effective fuels can lead to
immediate energy cost savings and better budget management.

Environmental Impact: Replacing fossil fuels with renewable or lower-carbon

alternatives reduces greenhouse gas emissions and contributes to mitigating
climate change.

Energy Security: Shifting towards locally available renewable sources

enhances energy security by reducing reliance on imported fossil fuels.

Sustainability: Fuel substitutions promote a more sustainable energy mix

and support the transition to cleaner, more environmentally friendly energy
systems.

Regulatory Compliance: In regions with emissions reduction targets and

regulations, fuel substitutions can help organizations comply with
environmental standards.

3. Considerations for Fuel Substitutions:

Energy Characteristics: Assessing the energy characteristics of the current

and potential fuels, such as energy density, combustion efficiency, and
energy content, is crucial for compatibility and optimal performance.

Infrastructure Compatibility: Ensuring that existing equipment and

infrastructure can handle the new fuel type is essential to avoid costly
modifications or replacements.

Storage and Handling: Different fuels have specific storage and handling
requirements, which must be considered during the substitution process to
ensure safety and efficiency.

Supply Availability: Availability and accessibility of the new fuel source in

the desired quantity and quality are critical factors to consider to ensure a
reliable supply.
Cost-Benefit Analysis: Conducting a cost-benefit analysis, including factors
like capital investment, operational costs, and potential energy savings,
helps evaluate the viability of fuel substitutions.

4. Examples of Fuel Substitutions:

Replacing coal-fired power plants with natural gas-fired plants to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions.

Transitioning from gasoline or diesel-powered vehicles to electric vehicles

powered by renewable energy sources.

Substituting traditional fossil fuels with biogas or biodiesel in industrial

processes or transportation.

Using wood pellets or biomass as a substitute for heating oil or natural gas
in residential heating systems.

In conclusion, fuel substitutions are an important strategy in energy

management to achieve economic, environmental, and sustainability goals.
Careful evaluation of energy characteristics, infrastructure compatibility,
supply availability, and cost considerations is essential to successfully
implement fuel substitutions and optimize their benefits.

4.Quality Control and Recycling

Quality Control and Recycling in Energy Management:

Quality control and recycling play vital roles in energy management as they
contribute to environmental sustainability, resource conservation, and
overall efficiency. Integrating quality control measures into recycling
practices ensures that the recycling process is efficient, effective, and
environmentally responsible. Let's explore how quality control and recycling
are essential components of energy management:

1. Quality Control in Recycling:

Quality control in recycling involves implementing measures to ensure that

the materials collected for recycling are properly sorted, processed, and
transformed into usable products. This includes the following aspects:

Material Sorting and Contamination Reduction: Properly sorting recyclable

materials, such as paper, plastics, glass, and metals, is crucial to maximize
the value of recycled materials. Quality control processes ensure that
contaminants are minimized to enhance the quality of recycled products.

Material Testing and Analysis: Quality control may involve material testing
and analysis to ensure that the recycled materials meet the required
standards and are suitable for their intended applications.

Process Monitoring and Optimization: Regular monitoring of recycling

processes helps identify inefficiencies and allows for adjustments to optimize
recycling rates and reduce energy consumption.

Compliance with Regulations and Standards: Quality control ensures that

recycling practices comply with local regulations and industry standards for
environmental protection and waste management.

2. Energy Recovery from Recycling:

Recycling itself is an energy-efficient process compared to producing
materials from raw resources. Recycling reduces the need for energy-
intensive extraction, refining, and manufacturing processes, leading to
reduced greenhouse gas emissions and energy conservation.

3. Waste-to-Energy Technologies:

In cases where recycling is not feasible due to material characteristics or

contamination, waste-to-energy technologies can be employed. These
technologies convert non-recyclable waste into energy through processes
like incineration or anaerobic digestion, contributing to energy generation
while reducing landfill waste.

4. Recycling in Energy-Intensive Industries:

Energy-intensive industries, such as steel, aluminum, and paper production,

benefit significantly from recycling practices. Recycling scrap materials in
these industries reduces the need for raw material extraction and processing,
resulting in energy savings and reduced environmental impact.

5. Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs):

Quality control and recycling are also integrated into life cycle assessments
of products and materials. LCAs analyze the environmental impact of a
product or material throughout its entire life cycle, from raw material
extraction to manufacturing, use, and disposal (including recycling). This
helps identify opportunities for recycling and improved material choices to
reduce the overall environmental footprint.

Benefits of Quality Control and Recycling in Energy Management:

Resource Conservation: Recycling conserves natural resources by reducing
the need for raw material extraction.

Energy Savings: Recycling generally requires less energy than producing

materials from virgin resources.

Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Recycling reduces greenhouse gas

emissions associated with manufacturing processes and waste disposal.

Sustainable Waste Management: Recycling diverts waste from landfills,

promoting more sustainable waste management practices.

Environmental Protection: Quality control in recycling ensures that recycled

materials meet environmental standards, contributing to a healthier
environment.

In conclusion, quality control and recycling are integral parts of energy

management, promoting sustainable resource use, waste reduction, and
environmental protection. By incorporating quality control measures into
recycling practices and adopting efficient recycling techniques, organizations
and individuals contribute to a more sustainable and energy-efficient future.
 “Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy
Sources”
Lecture 3 : Energy Audit Survey Items

what is Energy Audit Survey Items?

Energy audit survey items are the specific aspects or components that
energy auditors assess and evaluate during an energy audit. These items
cover various aspects of energy consumption, energy efficiency, and energy-
saving opportunities within a building, facility, or industrial process. The
purpose of energy audit survey items is to identify areas where energy is
being used inefficiently and to recommend measures for improving energy
efficiency and reducing energy consumption.

The specific energy audit survey items may vary depending on the type of
audit (e.g., residential, commercial, industrial) and the scope of the
assessment. However, some common energy audit survey items include:

Building Envelope: This item involves assessing the building's insulation,

windows, doors, roofing, and other components that impact heat gain or loss.

Lighting Systems: Auditors examine the types of lighting fixtures, bulbs,

controls, and lighting usage patterns to identify opportunities for energy-
efficient lighting solutions.
HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) Systems: This includes
evaluating the efficiency of heating and cooling equipment, ventilation
systems, and thermostat settings.

Appliances and Equipment: Auditors assess the efficiency of appliances and

equipment such as refrigerators, ovens, computers, and other devices that
consume energy.

Energy Consumption Patterns: Analyzing energy consumption patterns,

such as peak usage times and off-peak periods, to develop strategies for load
management.

Electricity Usage: This item involves examining electricity consumption for

lighting, appliances, equipment, and other electrical loads.

Natural Gas or Fuel Oil Usage: Auditors assess the consumption of natural
gas or fuel oil for heating, hot water, and industrial processes.

Water Heating Systems: This item focuses on the efficiency of water heating
systems, including water heaters and boilers.

Insulation and Weatherization: Evaluating the insulation levels, air leaks,

and weatherization measures to improve energy efficiency.

Renewable Energy Sources: Identifying opportunities to integrate renewable

energy sources such as solar panels or wind turbines to offset energy
consumption.
Compressed Air Systems: Assessing the efficiency of compressed air systems
and identifying potential air leaks.

Steam Systems: This item involves evaluating the efficiency of steam

generation and distribution systems.

Process Energy Usage: For industrial audits, analyzing energy consumption

within specific processes and identifying potential optimizations.

Water Usage: Assessing water consumption patterns and identifying

opportunities for water conservation.

Waste Heat Recovery: Identifying opportunities to capture and utilize waste

heat generated by industrial processes or equipment.

Energy Management Systems: Evaluating the use of energy management

systems or building automation systems to optimize energy usage.

Behavioral Energy Use: Examining occupant behavior and energy-use

practices to identify areas for energy-saving behavior modifications.

Financial Analysis: Conducting a cost-benefit analysis for potential energy-

saving measures to determine the return on investment.
These survey items are systematically evaluated by energy auditors to
develop comprehensive energy-saving recommendations tailored to the
specific needs and characteristics of the audited facility or process. The
ultimate goal of energy audit survey items is to help organizations and
individuals optimize their energy usage, reduce operational costs, and
contribute to environmental sustainability.

Energy audits are systematic assessments of energy usage in various sectors

to identify energy-saving opportunities and improve overall energy efficiency.
Conducting energy audits in buildings and industrial facilities is essential
for optimizing energy consumption and reducing operational costs. In this
lecture note, we will cover the key survey items for each of the important
topics:

1. Buildings:

Building Envelope: Assess the insulation levels, windows, doors, and roofing
to identify areas of potential heat gain or loss.

HVAC Systems: Evaluate the efficiency of heating, ventilation, and air

conditioning systems to optimize temperature control and ventilation.

Lighting: Analyze the lighting fixtures, bulbs, and controls to identify

opportunities for energy-efficient lighting solutions.

Occupancy and Use Patterns: Understand the building's occupancy

schedules and usage patterns to develop tailored energy-saving strategies.

2. Lightings:
Lighting Fixture Types: Identify the types of lighting fixtures used and their
energy efficiency.

Lighting Controls: Examine the presence of occupancy sensors, timers, and

dimmers to optimize lighting usage.

Lighting Retrofit Opportunities: Identify areas where older lighting

technologies can be replaced with energy-efficient options such as LED
lighting.

3. HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning):

HVAC System Type: Determine the type and capacity of the HVAC system to
evaluate its efficiency.

Air Filters and Maintenance: Assess the condition of air filters and verify if
regular maintenance is being carried out.

Thermostat Settings: Review thermostat settings and temperature control

strategies for optimum energy usage.

4. Furnaces & Ovens:

Combustion Efficiency: Assess the combustion efficiency of furnaces and

ovens to minimize energy waste.

Insulation: Check the insulation of furnaces and ovens to reduce heat losses
during operation.

Maintenance: Ensure that regular maintenance and tuning of furnaces and

ovens are performed to optimize efficiency.

5. Boilers and Steam Lines:

Boiler Efficiency: Evaluate the efficiency of boilers to reduce fuel

consumption.
Steam Trap Inspection: Inspect steam traps to ensure proper functioning
and prevent energy losses.

Steam Line Insulation: Check the insulation of steam distribution lines to

minimize heat losses.

6. Compressed Air Distribution Lines:

Compressed Air System Efficiency: Assess the efficiency of compressed air

generation and distribution.

Leak Detection: Identify and fix compressed air leaks to reduce wastage and
energy consumption.

7. Chillers and Chilled Water Distribution Lines:

Chiller Efficiency: Evaluate the efficiency of chillers and cooling systems.

Chilled Water System Insulation: Inspect the insulation of chilled water

distribution lines to minimize energy losses.

8. Process Water Generation and Distribution Lines:

Water Heating Efficiency: Assess the efficiency of water heating systems.

Water Distribution System: Optimize water distribution to reduce water

waste and energy consumption.

Conclusion:

Energy audit survey items for buildings, lightings, HVAC, furnaces & ovens,
boilers and steam lines, compressed air distribution lines, chillers and
chilled water distribution lines, and process water generation and
distribution lines are essential for identifying energy-saving opportunities
and optimizing energy efficiency in various sectors. By conducting
comprehensive energy audits and implementing recommended energy-
saving measures, organizations and industries can achieve significant cost
savings and contribute to environmental sustainability.

1. Buildings:

Buildings are a significant focus of energy audits as they consume a

substantial amount of energy for heating, cooling, lighting, and other
operations. During an energy audit of buildings, various aspects are
assessed to identify energy-saving opportunities:

Building Envelope: The building envelope includes walls, roofs, windows,

and doors. Energy auditors inspect the insulation levels and assess whether
there are any areas of heat gain or loss. Improving insulation can
significantly reduce heating and cooling energy demands.

HVAC Systems: Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems

are critical components of buildings. Energy auditors evaluate the efficiency
of HVAC systems, check for air leaks, assess the condition of air filters, and
verify the proper functioning of thermostat controls.

Lighting: Lighting is another crucial aspect of energy audits in buildings.

Auditors examine the lighting fixtures, bulbs, and controls to identify
opportunities for energy-efficient lighting solutions. Replacing older lighting
technologies with energy-efficient LED lighting can lead to substantial
energy savings.

Occupancy and Use Patterns: Understanding the building's occupancy

schedules and usage patterns is essential to develop tailored energy-saving
strategies. For example, adjusting temperature settings based on occupancy
can optimize energy usage.
2. Lightings:

Lighting audits focus specifically on the lighting systems in buildings,

industrial facilities, and outdoor spaces. Key points of assessment include:

Lighting Fixture Types: Energy auditors identify the types of lighting fixtures
used and evaluate their energy efficiency. They may recommend replacing
older fixtures with more efficient alternatives.

Lighting Controls: Auditors assess the presence of occupancy sensors,

timers, and dimmers to optimize lighting usage. Installing lighting controls
can reduce energy waste by ensuring that lights are only on when needed.

Lighting Retrofit Opportunities: Energy auditors look for opportunities to

retrofit older lighting technologies with energy-efficient options, such as LED
lighting. LED lighting is known for its longer lifespan and lower energy
consumption.

3. HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning):

HVAC systems are crucial for maintaining comfortable indoor environments

in buildings and industrial settings. During an HVAC energy audit, the
following aspects are evaluated:

HVAC System Type: Energy auditors determine the type and capacity of the
HVAC system and evaluate its efficiency. This may include checking the
efficiency ratings of heating and cooling equipment.
Air Filters and Maintenance: Assessing the condition of air filters and
verifying regular maintenance is essential to ensure optimal HVAC
performance and energy efficiency.

Thermostat Settings: Auditors review thermostat settings and temperature

control strategies to optimize energy usage while maintaining occupant
comfort.

4. Furnaces & Ovens:

Energy audits for furnaces and ovens are common in industrial settings,
where these equipment are extensively used. The following aspects are
considered:

Combustion Efficiency: Energy auditors assess the combustion efficiency of

furnaces and ovens to minimize energy waste. Proper tuning and
maintenance of combustion systems are essential for optimal performance.

Insulation: The insulation of furnaces and ovens is checked to reduce heat

losses during operation, which can result in energy savings and improved
efficiency.

Maintenance: Ensuring that regular maintenance and tuning of furnaces

and ovens are performed helps optimize efficiency and extends equipment
lifespan.

5. Boilers and Steam Lines:

Boilers and steam lines are commonly used in industrial processes for
heating and power generation. During an energy audit for boilers and steam
lines, the following aspects are evaluated:

Boiler Efficiency: Energy auditors assess the efficiency of boilers to reduce

fuel consumption and energy waste. Proper maintenance and tuning are
essential for maximizing efficiency.

Steam Trap Inspection: Inspecting steam traps is crucial to ensure proper

functioning and prevent energy losses associated with steam leaks.

Steam Line Insulation: Auditors check the insulation of steam distribution

lines to minimize heat losses during the transport of steam.

6. Compressed Air Distribution Lines:

Compressed air systems are widely used in industrial facilities for various
applications. Energy audits for compressed air distribution lines focus on
the following:

Compressed Air System Efficiency: Energy auditors assess the efficiency of

compressed air generation and distribution. Air leaks are identified and
fixed to reduce wastage and energy consumption.

7. Chillers and Chilled Water Distribution Lines:

Chillers and chilled water distribution systems are common in cooling

processes for industrial and commercial facilities. During energy audits, the
following aspects are evaluated:
Chiller Efficiency: Energy auditors evaluate the efficiency of chillers and
cooling systems to optimize cooling energy consumption.

Chilled Water System Insulation: Inspecting the insulation of chilled water

distribution lines is important to minimize energy losses during the
distribution process.

8. Process Water Generation and Distribution Lines:

In industrial settings, water is often used for various processes. Energy

audits for process water generation and distribution focus on the following:

Water Heating Efficiency: Energy auditors assess the efficiency of water

heating systems to optimize energy consumption.

Water Distribution System: Auditors look for ways to optimize water

distribution to reduce water waste and the associated energy consumption.

In conclusion, energy audits covering buildings, lightings, HVAC, furnaces &

ovens, boilers and steam lines, compressed air distribution lines, chillers
and chilled water distribution lines, and process water generation and
distribution lines are essential for optimizing energy efficiency in various
sectors. By identifying energy-saving opportunities and implementing
recommended measures, organizations can achieve significant cost savings
and contribute to environmental sustainability.
“Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy Sources”

LECTURE 4 :MOTOR AND ITS EFFICIENCY

MOTOR
A motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy,
producing motion or rotational movement. It is a fundamental component in
various machines and devices used in everyday life and industrial
applications. Motors are crucial for driving mechanical systems, automation,
and transportation.

The basic principle behind the operation of a motor involves the interaction
of magnetic fields generated by electrical currents. When an electric current
passes through a conductor placed within a magnetic field, a force is exerted
on the conductor, causing it to move. By arranging conductors and
magnetic fields in specific configurations, motors can generate continuous
motion.

TYPES OF MOTOR

There are several types of motors, each designed for specific applications
based on their operational principles and characteristics. Here are some of
the various types of motors:

1. DC Motors (Direct Current Motors):

DC Brushed Motors: These motors have a rotating armature and use
brushes and a commutator to switch the current direction, causing the
armature to rotate. They are simple and widely used in applications like toys,
small appliances, and automotive systems.

DC Brushless Motors (BLDC): Also known as electronically commutated

motors, they do not have brushes or a commutator. Instead, they use
electronic controllers to switch the current in the windings, making them
more efficient, reliable, and suitable for applications like electric vehicles,
computer cooling fans, and industrial equipment.

2. AC Motors (Alternating Current Motors):

Induction Motors: These are the most common type of AC motor and work
based on electromagnetic induction. They have a fixed stator and a rotating
rotor. Induction motors are widely used in industrial and commercial
applications, such as pumps, fans, and conveyor systems.

Synchronous Motors: Synchronous motors rotate at a constant speed that

synchronizes with the frequency of the AC power supply. They are used in
applications where precise speed control is required, such as in clocks,
record players, and industrial machines.

Single-Phase Motors: These motors are designed to run on single-phase AC

power and are used in smaller appliances like washing machines,
compressors, and small fans.

Three-Phase Motors: Three-phase AC motors are more efficient and powerful

than single-phase motors, making them suitable for heavy-duty industrial
applications, such as compressors, pumps, and industrial machinery.

Other different types of motor

1. Stepper Motors: Stepper motors move in discrete steps when electrical
pulses are applied to their windings. They offer precise control over motion
and position, making them ideal for applications like 3D printers, CNC
machines, and robotics.

2. Servo Motors: Servo motors are a type of closed-loop system with

feedback control.

3. Linear Motors: Unlike traditional rotary motors, linear motors produce

motion in a straight line. They find applications in high-speed transportation
systems, magnetic levitation trains, and some CNC machines.
4. Universal Motors: Universal motors can operate on both AC and DC
power sources. They are commonly used in household appliances like
vacuum cleaners, blenders, and power tools.

5. Hermetic Motors: Hermetic motors are designed for sealing against the
outside environment. They are commonly used in refrigeration compressors
and air conditioning systems.

6. Hysteresis Motors: Hysteresis motors use the principle of hysteresis to

create rotation. They are used in clocks, record players, and other precise
applications.

Each type of motor has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of
motor depends on the specific requirements of the application, such as
speed, torque, efficiency, and cost.

Application of Motor

Motors have a wide range of applications in various industries and everyday

life. They are used wherever mechanical motion or rotational movement is
required. Here are some common applications of motors:

 Industrial Machinery: .
 HVAC Systems:
 Home Appliances:
 Automotive Industry: .
 Aerospace and Aviation:
 Robotics:
 Power Tools:
 Pumps and Fans:
 Electric Generators: .
 Marine Applications:
 Medical Devices:
 Entertainment:
  Space Exploration:

These examples demonstrate the versatility and importance of motors in

modern society. They are integral components of countless devices and
systems that improve efficiency, automate processes, and enhance our daily
lives. As technology advances, motors continue to play a significant role in
shaping various industries and driving innovation in numerous applications.

The key points in magnetic fields theory

Magnetic field theory is a fundamental concept in physics and plays a
crucial role in understanding the behaviour of magnets, electromagnetic
phenomena, and various devices like motors, generators, and transformers.
Here are some key points to understand about magnetic field theory:

1. Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Flux: A magnetic field is a region in

space where magnetic forces are exerted on magnetic materials or
moving charged particles. Magnetic fields are typically represented by
lines of force called magnetic field lines. The quantity of magnetic field
passing through a surface is known as magnetic flux.
2. Magnetic Poles: All magnets have two poles, a north pole (N) and a
south pole (S). Unlike electric charges, magnetic poles cannot exist
independently; they always come in pairs.
3. Magnetic Dipole: A magnetic dipole is a magnetic object or system that
has two magnetic poles of equal strength but opposite polarity,
separated by a small distance.
4. Magnetic Field Strength (H): The magnetic field strength (H) at a point
is the magnetic field produced by electric currents or magnetic
materials at that location. It is measured in amperes per meter (A/m).
5. Magnetic Flux Density (B): The magnetic flux density (B) at a point is a
measure of the strength of the magnetic field in a given region. It
depends on both the magnetic field strength (H) and the magnetic
properties of the material in the region. It is measured in tesla (T) or
gauss (G).
 6. Permeability (μ): Permeability is a material property that relates
magnetic flux density (B) to magnetic field strength (H) in a magnetic
medium. It is a measure of how easily a material can be magnetized
and is expressed in Henries per meter (H/m).

7. Magnetic Induction (B) vs. Magnetic Field (H): Magnetic induction (B)
includes the effects of both free currents and magnetization currents
in a magnetic material, while magnetic field (H) only accounts for the
free currents.
8. Magnetic Materials: Materials can be classified into paramagnetic,
diamagnetic, and ferromagnetic based on their responses to magnetic
fields.
9. Ampère's Circuital Law: Ampère's law relates the magnetic field
around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop.
10. Faraday's Law: Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
states that a changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force
(emf) or voltage in a closed loop.
11. Lorentz Force Law: The Lorentz force law describes the force
experienced by a charged particle moving in a magnetic field.
12. Magnetic Flux and Gauss's Law: Gauss's law for magnetism
states that the net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.

Magnetic field theory is essential for understanding the behaviour of

magnets, the principles of electromagnetism, and the operation of various
electromagnetic devices in physics and engineering. It provides the
foundation for many applications in modern technology and industry.

Induction Motor
An induction motor is an AC (alternating current)electric motor in which the
electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by
electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An
induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the
rotor.

Applications of Induction motor: Induction motors are widely used in a

variety of applications, such as:

 Industrial pumps and compressors

 Fans and blowers
 Conveyor systems
 Machine tools
 Household appliances (e.g., washing machines, refrigerators)
 HVAC systems (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning)
 Water treatment plants
 Power generation (induction generators)

Working of Induction motor

The working principle of an induction motor is based on the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction. It is a type of AC (alternating current) motor,
which means it operates on an AC power supply. Induction motors are
widely used in various industrial and commercial applications due to their
robustness, simplicity, and efficiency.

An induction motor consists of two main components: the stator and the
rotor.

1. Stator: The stator is the stationary part of the motor and consists of a
laminated steel core with evenly spaced slots. Copper or aluminium
windings are placed in these slots, which are connected to form three-
phase windings. When a three-phase AC voltage is applied to the
stator windings, a rotating magnetic field is created in the air gap
between the stator and rotor.
 2. Rotor: The rotor is the rotating part of the motor and is usually made
of a cylindricall aminated steel core with evenly spaced slots. The rotor
can be of two types:
 Wound Rotor: This type has a rotor winding connected to slip rings,
allowing external control of the rotor resistance and speed. Wound
rotor motors offer additional control capabilities but are less common.

When the three-phase AC supply is connected to the stator windings, it

creates a rotating magnetic field that continuously changes direction with
the alternating current. This rotating magnetic field induces currents in the
rotor, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The induced
currents in the rotor create their own magnetic field, which interacts with
the rotating magnetic field of the stator.

The interaction between the rotating magnetic field of the stator and the
induced magnetic field of the rotor causes a torque to be generated,
propelling the rotor to rotate. The rotor rotates at a speed slightly lower than
the speed of the rotating magnetic field, a phenomenon known as slip.

The difference between the synchronous speed (speed of the rotating

magnetic field) and the rotor speed is called slip. The speed at which the
rotor rotates depends on the slip and the frequency of the AC supply.

Induction motors operate at almost constant speed (synchronous speed

minus slip) under varying loads, making them suitable for a wide range of
applications, including pumps, fans, compressors, conveyors, and more. The
simplicity, reliability, and efficiency of induction motors have made them the
workhorse of many industrial processes and systems.

Types of Induction Motor

Induction motors are a type of AC (alternating current) motor that operates

based on electromagnetic induction. There are two main types of induction
motors based on their rotor design:
 1. Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor:
 Squirrel-cage induction motors are the most common type of
induction motor. They have a simple and robust rotor design, making
them reliable and cost-effective.
 The rotor consists of a cylindrical core made of stacked laminations.
Copper or aluminium bars are placed in slots on the rotor core, and
the ends of the bars are short-circuited by end rings, resembling a
squirrel cage, hence the name.

2. Wound Rotor Induction Motor:

 Wound rotor induction motors, also known as slip-ring induction
motors, have a more complex rotor design compared to squirrel-cage
motors.
 The rotor windings are not short-circuited like in squirrel-cage motors.
Instead, the rotor windings are connected to external resistors or slip
rings. The slip rings allow external electrical connections to the rotor
windings.

Both types of induction motors are widely used across industries due to
their efficiency, reliability, and versatility. The choice between squirrel-cage
and wound rotor induction motors depends on specific application
requirements, such as speed control, starting torque, and cost
considerations.

Losses in Induction motor

Induction motors offer several advantages, including simple construction,
low maintenance, high reliability, and the ability to run on AC power grids,
which are prevalent in most countries. However, they have limitations
regarding speed control compared to some other motor types like DC motors
and servo motors. Despite this limitation, induction motors remain an
essential workhorse in many industrial and domestic applications.
Induction motors, like any other electrical machines, experience various
losses during their operation. These losses impact the motor's efficiency and
overall performance. The main losses in an induction motor include:

1. Copper Loss (I²R Loss): This loss occurs in the stator and rotor
windings due to the resistance of the conductors. When current flows
through the windings, some of the electrical energy is converted into
heat due to the resistance of the copper wires. Copper losses are
proportional to the square of the current (I²) and are predominant at
full load.
2. Iron Loss (Core Loss): Induction motors have a laminated steel core in
the stator and rotor to reduce eddy current losses. However, there are
still some losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents within the core
material. These losses are present regardless of the load and
contribute to the motor's no-load losses.
3. Mechanical Losses: Mechanical losses occur due to friction and
windage within the motor. Friction losses include bearing friction and
losses in mechanical couplings, while windage losses are caused by
air resistance to rotating parts. These losses are dependent on the
motor's speed and load.
4. Stator Iron Loss (Stator Core Loss): This loss specifically refers to the
iron losses in the stator core due to hysteresis and eddy currents. It is
a part of the overall iron loss mentioned earlier.
5. Rotor Windage Loss: This loss is due to the air resistance experienced
by the rotor as it rotates within the stator's magnetic field. It
contributes to the overall mechanical losses.
6. Stray Load Loss: This is the additional loss caused by magnetic fields
interacting with conductive parts outside the motor, such as the
motor frame or nearby conductive materials.
7. Stator and Rotor Leakage Inductance Loss: Induction motors have
leakage inductances associated with the stator and rotor windings.
The current flowing through these inductances produces a loss in the
motor.
 8. Load-Dependent Losses: Other losses might be load-dependent and
arise due to factors like skin effect, proximity effect, and additional
losses caused by harmonic currents at partial load conditions.

It is essential to minimize these losses to improve the motor's overall

efficiency. Design improvements, material choices, and optimized operating
conditions can help reduce losses and enhance the performance of induction
motors. Higher efficiency results in lower energy consumption, reduced
operating costs, and improved environmental sustainability.

Reduction of losses in an induction motor

Reducing losses in an induction motor can significantly improve its overall

efficiency, leading to energy savings and cost reductions. Here are some
strategies to reduce losses in an induction motor:

1. Select High-Efficiency Motors: Choose motors with higher efficiency

ratings, such as NEMA Premium or IE3/IE4 class motors. These
motors are designed with advanced materials and improved
manufacturing techniques, resulting in lower losses.
2. Proper Sizing and Matching:
3. Voltage Regulation:
4. Use Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs): .
5. Efficient Motor Control: Optimize motor control methods and
algorithms to minimize losses during starting, stopping, and running.
6. Efficient Bearing and Lubrication: Use high-quality bearings with low
friction to reduce mechanical losses in the motor.
7. Premium Insulation Materials: Select motors with premium insulation
materials to reduce core losses caused by hysteresis and eddy
currents.
8. Efficient Cooling: Properly designed and efficient cooling systems can
help dissipate heat more effectively, reducing copper and iron losses.
9. Optimized Stator and Rotor Designs: Advanced design techniques,
such as using skewed rotor slots or optimized stator winding
 configurations, can help reduce losses and improve motor
performance.
10. Efficient Lamination: Choose motors with high-quality, low-loss
laminated cores to minimize core losses caused by hysteresis and
eddy currents.
11. Regular Maintenance:

By implementing these strategies, it is possible to improve the overall

efficiency of induction motors, making them more energy-efficient and cost-
effective in various applications. Reducing losses not only leads to
significant energy savings but also contributes to a greener and more
sustainable environment.

Motor Efficiency
Motor efficiency refers to the ratio of mechanical output power to the
electrical input power in an electric motor. It is a critical performance
parameter that measures how effectively a motor converts electrical energy
into useful mechanical work. Higher motor efficiency indicates that less
energy is wasted as heat or other losses, making the motor more economical
and environmentally friendly.

Motor efficiency varies depending on the type, size, and load conditions of
the motor. Different types of motors have different inherent efficiencies, with
some motors being more efficient than others.

Efficient motors are essential for minimizing energy consumption and

reducing greenhouse gas emissions. They are used in various applications,
from household appliances and industrial machinery to electric vehicles and
renewable energy systems. When selecting a motor for a specific application,
considering motor efficiency is crucial to ensure optimal energy usage and
cost-effectiveness over the motor's operational life.
Types of motor efficiency
Motor efficiency can be categorized into different types based on how it is
measured or defined. Here are some common types of motor efficiency:

1. Nominal Efficiency: This is the efficiency specified by the

manufacturer at a specific operating point or load condition. Nominal
efficiency is commonly provided by motor manufacturers on
datasheets and is often used as a reference point for motor selection.
2. Peak Efficiency: Peak efficiency refers to the highest efficiency point on
the motor's efficiency curve. It is the efficiency at a specific load
condition where the motor operates most efficiently. However, peak
efficiency might not align with the motor's typical operating range.
3. Full Load Efficiency: Full load efficiency is the efficiency of the motor
when operating at its rated load. It indicates how efficiently the motor
converts electrical energy to mechanical work under its maximum
rated load.
4. Part Load Efficiency: Part load efficiency represents the efficiency of
the motor when operating at loads below the rated load. Since motors
often operate at partial loads during real-world applications, part load
efficiency is crucial for understanding how efficiently the motor
performs during typical operating conditions.
5. Service Efficiency: Service efficiency is the motor's efficiency when
accounting for losses in the motor control and drive systems, such as
variable frequency drives (VFDs) or soft starters. It considers the
overall efficiency of the motor system, including the motor and its
control devices.
6. Energy Efficiency Index (EEI): The Energy Efficiency Index is a
standardized efficiency rating used for electric motors in some regions.
It provides a simple way to compare the efficiency of different motors.
The lower the EEI value, the higher the motor's efficiency.
7. Annual Energy Efficiency: This refers to the overall energy efficiency
of the motor over a year of operation. It takes into account the motor's
 efficiency at different operating loads and duty cycles throughout the
year.
8. Annual Energy Efficiency: The International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) defines different efficiency classes for motors, such
as IE1, IE2, IE3, and IE4, with IE4 being the highest efficiency class.
These classes help identify the relative energy efficiency of the motor.

Efficiency is a critical factor in motor selection and usage, as it directly

impacts energy consumption, operational costs, and environmental impact.
Higher motor efficiency not only saves energy but also reduces greenhouse
gas emissions and helps organizations meet sustainability goals.

Steps to improve the efficiency of a motor

Improving the efficiency of a motor can lead to significant energy savings
and reduced operating costs. Here are some effective ways to enhance the
efficiency of a motor:

1. Choose High-Efficiency Motors:

2. Proper Motor Sizing:
3. Use Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs):
4. Optimize Motor Control Methods:
5. Efficient Cooling System:
6. Premium Insulation Materials:
7. Efficient Bearings and Lubrication:
8. Optimized Stator and Rotor Designs:
9. Regular Maintenance:
10. Energy Management Systems:
11. Energy-Efficient Belt Drives:
12. Efficient Power Supply:

By applying these strategies, you can enhance the overall efficiency of a

motor, leading to energy conservation and cost savings over the motor's
operational life. Improving motor efficiency not only benefits the user
financially but also contributes to environmental sustainability by reducing
energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.
“Emerging Technologies in Renewable Energy
Sources”
Lecture on Motor Performance factors

Basics of Motor Performance

The basics of electric motor performance involve understanding the key
parameters and characteristics that determine how an electric motor
operates and performs. Electric motors are devices that convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy, and they are widely used in various
applications, ranging from household appliances to industrial machinery.
Here are some fundamental aspects of electric motor performance.

Understanding these basics of electric motor performance can help in

selecting the right motor for a specific application, optimizing energy usage,
and ensuring reliable and efficient motor operation.

Major performance factors of electric motor

Motor performance depends on three elements such as voltage across
terminals, resistance across terminals, and magnetic force. Various factors
that affect these elements and change motor performance will be discussed
here by way of giving some specific examples.

Electric motor other performance factors

Electric motor performance can be evaluated based on several key factors
that determine its efficiency, effectiveness, and overall functionality. The
performance factors of an electric motor include:

1. Power Output:
2. Torque:
3. Speed:
4. Efficiency:
5. Power Factor:
6. Starting Torque:
 7. Overload Capacity:
8. Temperature Rise:
9. Inertia:
10. Noise and Vibration:
11. Reliability and Durability:
12. Size and Weight:
13. Control and Feedback:

It's important to note that different motor types (e.g., DC motors, AC

induction motors, brushless motors, etc.) may exhibit variations in their
performance factors. When selecting an electric motor for a specific
application, it's crucial to consider these performance factors to ensure the
motor meets the requirements and provides optimal performance.

Factors affecting performance of motor

Several factors can significantly impact the performance of an electric motor.
Understanding these factors is crucial for selecting the right motor for a
specific application and optimizing its efficiency and reliability. Some of the
key factors affecting motor performance include:

1. Motor Type and Design: Different types of motors (e.g., DC, AC,
induction, synchronous, etc.) have distinct design characteristics that
influence their efficiency, speed, torque, and overall performance.
2. Motor Size and Power Rating: The physical size and power rating of
the motor determine its capacity to handle loads and the amount of
mechanical work it can produce.
3. Load Characteristics: The type of load connected to the motor
(constant torque, variable torque, constant speed, etc.) affects its
performance and efficiency.
4. Operating Voltage and Frequency: The motor's performance is
influenced by the voltage and frequency of the power supply it receives.
5. Operating Speed: The speed at which the motor operates affects its
efficiency and power consumption. Different motors have specific
speed-torque characteristics.
 6. Operating Temperature: The motor's performance can be affected by
ambient temperature and the ability of its cooling system to dissipate
heat.
7. Efficiency and Power Factor: These parameters indicate how effectively
the motor converts electrical energy into useful mechanical work and
how efficiently it uses the supplied power.
8. Starting and Stopping: The method used for motor starting and
stopping (e.g., direct-on-line starting, soft starters, variable frequency
drives) can impact its efficiency and mechanical stress.
9. Motor Control: The type of motor control used (e.g., open-loop, closed-
loop, vector control) affects the motor's ability to maintain speed and
torque accuracy.
10. Load Torque Variations: A motor's performance can be
influenced by variations in load torque during operation.
11. Mechanical and Electrical Losses: These include copper losses,
iron losses, and frictional losses, which can affect motor efficiency.
12. Insulation and Windings: The quality of insulation and winding
design plays a role in the motor's reliability and ability to handle
varying loads and conditions.
13. Operating Environment: Factors such as humidity, dust, and
corrosive substances in the operating environment can impact motor
performance and lifespan.
14. Maintenance and Service: Regular maintenance and timely
repairs or replacements can help maintain the motor's performance
and extend its operational life.

By considering these factors and selecting the appropriate motor for the
specific application, users can achieve optimal motor performance, efficiency,
and reliability while minimizing energy consumption and operating costs.

Rewinding of motor
Rewinding of a motor refers to the process of replacing or repairing the
electrical windings in the stator or rotor of the motor. Over time, due to
various factors like wear and tear, overheating, electrical faults, or damage,
the motor windings may deteriorate or fail, leading to decreased performance
or motor failure. Rewinding is a common method to restore the motor's
functionality and efficiency without the need to replace the entire motor.

Remember, these motors are not simple pieces of equipment. This rewinding
process needs to be done to a very precise standard of quality to ensure
maximum results, especially if the motors need to be operating at a very
specific standard.
By stripping these wires away, they can be replaced with a fresh set of
windings, restoring the motor to full (or higher) efficiency. The wires need to
be rewound through the stator and reinstalled alongside any other replaced
components, getting the motor back to its original state.
While this might just seem like a simple repair job, motor rewinding is a
very specific process that can take some experience to do correctly.
Rewinding a motor incorrectly could potentially lead to problems further
down the line, including issues with the motor not functioning as intended.

Steps involve in process of Rewinding a motor

The process of rewinding a motor typically involves the following steps:

1. Motor Inspection: The motor is first thoroughly inspected to identify

the extent of the damage and the specific areas that require rewinding.
This includes examining the condition of the windings, insulation,
core, and bearings.
2. Disassembly: The motor is disassembled to access the stator or rotor
windings. This may involve removing the end bells, rotor, and any
other components necessary to access the windings.
3. Removal of Old Windings: The damaged or faulty windings are
carefully removed from the motor. This process may involve cutting,
stripping, and unwinding the old copper or aluminium wires.
 4. Cleaning and Preparation: The stator or rotor core and the slots are
cleaned and prepared for the installation of new windings. Any
remnants of old insulation are removed, and the core is inspected for
any signs of damage.
5. Winding Installation: New copper or aluminium wires are carefully
wound into the stator or rotor slots, following the specific winding
pattern required for the motor's design and application.
6. Insulation and Varnishing: Proper insulation materials are applied
between the windings to prevent short circuits and improve the
motor's dielectric strength. The windings may be dipped or coated
with insulating varnish for added protection.
7. Reassembly: After the winding process is complete, the motor is
reassembled, and all components are put back into place.
8. Testing: The rewound motor is subjected to comprehensive testing to
ensure that it meets the required specifications and performance
parameters. This includes tests for insulation resistance, resistance
measurement, and full-load testing.
9. Balancing: In some cases, if the motor's rotor has been rewound, it
may require balancing to reduce vibrations during operation.

Rewinding a motor requires skilled technicians with knowledge of motor

design, winding patterns, and insulation materials. Improper rewinding can
lead to reduced motor efficiency, increased energy consumption, or even
motor failure. Therefore, it is crucial to have the motor rewound by a
qualified and experienced motor repair service provider. In some cases,
especially for smaller or less complex motors, it might be more cost-effective
to replace the motor rather than rewinding it.

Purpose of rewinding of motor

Rewinding of a motor is typically necessary due to various reasons, mainly
related to the degradation or damage of the motor's electrical windings. The
primary reasons for rewinding a motor include:
1. Winding Failure: The windings in the motor can experience electrical
faults, such as short circuits, open circuits, or insulation breakdown.
These faults can be caused by excessive heat, voltage spikes,
overloading, or aging of the insulation. Rewinding replaces the faulty
windings, restoring the motor's electrical integrity.
2. Winding Deterioration: Over time, the insulation on the motor
windings can degrade due to factors like heat, moisture, and
mechanical stress. As the insulation weakens, the motor's electrical
performance may suffer, leading to reduced efficiency and reliability.
Rewinding involves replacing the deteriorated windings with new,
properly insulated ones.
3. Burned Windings: If a motor experiences severe overheating, the
windings can get burned or damaged. This can occur due to prolonged
overloading, voltage imbalances, or restricted ventilation. Rewinding is
necessary to replace the damaged windings and restore the motor's
operation.
4. Physical Damage: Physical impacts or mechanical stresses can
damage the motor windings, resulting in electrical faults or reduced
performance. Rewinding can address the damage by installing new
windings.
5. Upgrading Efficiency: In some cases, older motors may have lower
efficiency ratings compared to modern high-efficiency motors.
Rewinding can be done with improved winding configurations and
materials to enhance the motor's efficiency.
6. Modifications for New Applications: Motors may need to be rewound
when they are repurposed for different applications or operating
conditions. Rewinding allows customization of the motor to suit the
specific requirements of the new application.
7. Economic Considerations: Rewinding can be a cost-effective
alternative to motor replacement, especially for larger or specialized
motors. It eliminates the need for purchasing a new motor and
reduces downtime during the replacement process.
It's important to note that not all motors are suitable candidates for
rewinding. The decision to rewind a motor depends on factors like the
motor's size, design, condition, and the extent of the damage. In some cases,
motor replacement may be a more viable option, especially for smaller
motors or when rewinding is not cost-effective or technically feasible. Proper
maintenance and operating conditions can help prolong the life of a motor
and reduce the likelihood of extensive rewinding needs.

Motor replacement issues

Motor replacement can be a complex process, and several issues may arise
during or after the replacement. It's essential to address these issues to
ensure the successful installation and operation of the new motor. Some
common motor replacement issues include:

1. Compatibility: Ensuring that the new motor is compatible with the

application and system requirements is crucial. The replacement
motor should have the same or similar specifications, including power
rating, voltage, speed, torque, mounting, and shaft size.
2. Mounting and Alignment: Properly mounting the new motor and
aligning it with the driven equipment is critical for smooth operation
and to prevent premature wear or damage.
3. Wiring and Connections: Correctly connecting the new motor to the
electrical system is essential to avoid issues like incorrect phasing,
voltage imbalances, or overheating.
4. Enclosure Rating: The new motor should have the appropriate
enclosure rating to withstand the environmental conditions in the
application area. Using a motor with an inadequate enclosure could
lead to premature failure.
5. Efficiency and Performance: While replacing an older motor with a
newer, higher efficiency motor can be beneficial in terms of energy
savings, it may require adjustments to the motor control system or
drive to optimize performance.
 6. Motor Protection: Ensuring that the new motor has proper overload
protection and thermal sensors is essential for preventing damage due
to overcurrent or overheating.
7. Motor Starting and Stopping: If the replacement motor requires a
different starting or stopping method, adjustments may be necessary
to ensure smooth operation and prevent excessive wear.
8. Dynamic Loads: In applications with dynamic loads or varying torque
requirements, the new motor should be capable of handling these
conditions to prevent issues like motor stalling or overheating.
9. Interference with Other Systems: The replacement motor should not
interfere with other equipment or systems in the vicinity. Clearance,
spacing, and proper isolation should be considered during the
installation.
10. Motor Testing and Commissioning: After motor replacement,
thorough testing and commissioning are necessary to verify that the
motor operates as expected and meets the application requirements.
11. Warranty and Service: Ensuring that the replacement motor
comes with a warranty and is backed by reliable service and support
is essential for long-term reliability and peace of mind.

To avoid potential motor replacement issues, it's advisable to consult with

motor manufacturers, suppliers, or experienced motor technicians during
the selection and installation process. Regular maintenance and adherence
to manufacturer guidelines are also crucial for ensuring the new motor's
optimal performance and lifespan.

Main points consider during motor replacement

Motor replacement is a critical task that requires attention to detail and
proper planning to ensure a successful outcome. Here are some essential
points to keep in mind during motor replacement:

1. Motor Specifications: Verify that the replacement motor's

specifications match the requirements of the application, including
 voltage, frequency, horsepower, speed, frame size, and mounting
dimensions.
2. Application Compatibility: Ensure that the replacement motor is
suitable for the specific application and can handle the intended load
and duty cycle.
3. Efficiency and Energy Savings: Consider using a high-efficiency motor
to potentially reduce energy consumption and operating costs over the
motor's lifespan.
4. Motor Type: Choose the appropriate motor type (induction,
synchronous, DC, etc.) based on the application's needs and
operational characteristics.
5. Shaft Compatibility: Ensure that the replacement motor's shaft
diameter and length are compatible with the driven equipment and
any couplings used.
6. Motor Enclosure: Select the right motor enclosure type (e.g., open
drip-proof, totally enclosed fan-cooled, etc.) suitable for the operating
environment.
7. Mounting and Frame Size: Verify that the replacement motor's
mounting and frame size match the original motor to ensure proper fit
and alignment.
8. Motor Cooling: Consider the cooling method of the replacement motor,
whether it is air-cooled or liquid-cooled, depending on the application
requirements.

9. Motor Wiring and Connections: Ensure that the replacement motor's

wiring and connections are compatible with the existing electrical
system.
10. Safety Compliance: Verify that the replacement motor meets all
safety and regulatory standards for the specific application and
location.
11. Testing and Commissioning: After installation, perform
thorough testing and commissioning to check the motor's performance
and verify that it operates correctly.
 12. Professional Installation: If necessary, hire a qualified electrician
or motor technician to install the replacement motor properly.
13. Disposal of Old Motor: Ensure that the old motor is disposed of
following local regulations and environmental guidelines.
14. Training and Documentation: Provide training to relevant
personnel about the operation, maintenance, and safety
considerations for the new motor. Keep comprehensive documentation
of the replacement process for future reference.
15. Downtime Planning: Plan the motor replacement to minimize
downtime and avoid disruptions to the application or system.
16. Motor Protection: Consider adding motor protection devices
such as overload relays, thermal sensors, and surge protectors to
safeguard the motor from damage and extend its lifespan.
17. Alignment and Balancing: If the motor is connected to rotating
equipment, ensure proper alignment and balancing to prevent
excessive wear and vibration.
18. Warranty and Support: Check the warranty terms and support
offered by the motor manufacturer or supplier to address any
potential issues during the replacement process.

By keeping these points in mind, you can ensure a smooth and successful
motor replacement, which will lead to optimal performance, improved
efficiency, and reduced risk of premature failure.