| REC, REWA

Geotechnical Analysis of An Under

Construction College Building

A Major Project Report

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Technology in
“Civil Engineering”

Submitted to:

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL

(M.P.)

Under the Guidance of:

Asst. Prof. Manishi Verma

Submitted By:

Arpit Tiwari (0301CE191011) Punya Pratap Singh(0301CE191038)

Animesh Dwivedi (0301CE191007) Rishabh Chaurasia (0301CE191043)
Harsh Patel (0301CE191024) Saniya Begum (0301CE191046)
Harsh Vardhan Singh (0301CE191025) Suruchi Shukla (0301CE191061)
Shashank Dhar Dwivedi(0301CE191050)

Department of Civil Engineering

REWA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, REWA-486002 (MP)
Batch 2023
 REWA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, REWA
Department of Civil Engineering

Candidate Declaration
We hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the major project entitled "Geotechnical
Analysis of An Under Construction College Building" in fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of the Degree in Bachelor of Technology in the Department of Civil Engineering, Rewa Engineering
College (REC), Rewa, (India) is an authentic record of my own work carried out under the supervision of
Mr. Manishi Verma, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, REC, Rewa.

The matter presented in this project has not been submitted by us to any other University or Institute
for the award of any Degree or Diploma of any Professional Certificate.

Arpit Tiwari (0301CE191011) Punya Pratap Singh(0301CE191038)

Animesh Dwivedi (0301CE191007) Rishabh Chaurasia (0301CE191043)

Harsh Patel (0301CE191024) Saniya Begum (0301CE191046)

Harsh Vardhan Singh(0301CE191025) Suruchi Shukla(0301CE191061)

Shashank Dhar Dwivedi(0301CE191050)

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REWA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, REWA

Department of Civil Engineering

Certificate

This is to certify that the work embodies in this major project entitled " Geotechnical Analysis of An
Under Construction College Building " has been satisfactorily completed by Animesh Dwivedi,
Arpit Tiwari, Harsh Patel, Harsh Vardhan Singh, Punya Pratap Singh, Rishabh Chaurasia,
Saniya Begum, Shashank Dhar Dwivedi, Suruchi Shukla.

The work has been carried out under my supervision and guidance in the Department of Civil
Engineering, Rewa Engineering College (REC), Rewa, for partial fulfilment of the Bachelor of
Technology Degree in the academic year 2022 – 23.

(Supervisor)
Mr. Manishi Verma
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering, REC Rewa

Approved by Forwarded by
Dr. R. P. Tiwari Dr. B. K Agrawal
HOD of Civil Engineering Principal, REC Rewa
REC,Rewa

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 REWA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, REWA
Department of Civil Engineering

Acknowledgement

I am deeply indebted to Mr. Manishi Verma my project supervisor, for his instructions, criticism,
suggestions, encouragement and generous support throughout the course of this study, I owe a great
debt to him the way he encouraged and trained me to think about the problem by spending his
precious time. I shall remain indebted to him throughout my life. I am thankful to Dr. B. K. Agrawal,
Principal, REC, Rewa for providing all the help and facilities to carry out the major project work. I
will forever be thankful to Dr. R. P. Tiwari Professor & Head Department of Civil Engineering, REC,
Rewa for their suggestions and guidance during the project work. I am also thankful to Prof. Nitin
Kumar Shukla, Prof. Rajneesh Chaturvedi, Prof. Rajat Choudhary and all other faculty members of
Department of Civil Engineering, REC, Rewa for their support and encouragement.

I am also thankful to Mr. Kushlendra Kumar Mishra, Technical Assistant, Department of Civil
Engineering for his moral support. I am grateful to my friends for their support. I would also like to
express my gratitude and appreciation to all those friends who supported me in all possible ways to
complete this report. The blessings of our parents helped us throughout our major project work. Our
hard-working parents have sacrificed their comfort and provided all short of facilities for my entire
study period. The good wishes of our seniors also inspired us during the study. I shall remain indebted
to them throughout my life.

Last but not the least; I owe a deep sense of gratitude to Lord Ram giving me a loving family and
supportive supervisors and bring this bright day in my life.

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 ABSTRACT

The study was conducted with a sole purpose of identifying whether the site is suitable or not
suitable for the proposed construction of CS Department and six classrooms. The study
involves site investigation which is regarded as a preliminary process from which geological,
geotechnical, and other relevant engineering information can be obtained for a safe and
economic design of structures, if done thoroughly, instability issues can be forestalled. The
proposed construction project is located inside Rewa Engineering College campus. Cone
penetrometer and soil profiling are the only two field tests undertaken with the ultimate
objective of adequately describing and classifying the soil in terms of consistency. Across the
study area, soil was found to have predominantly ‘medium dense’ consistency at depths of
about 2m. With regards to Atterberg limits, liquid limits range from 16% – 30%.

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 LIST OF CONTENTS

Content Page No.

Candidate Declaration……………………………………………………………………………………………… i
Certificate……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ii
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………………………………………iii.
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv
List of Contents…………………………………………………………………………………………………….......v
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………………………………....vii
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………………………….....viii

Chapter 1: Introduction
1 Geology……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 01
1.1 Regional Geology……………………………………………………………………………………………… 01
1.2 Local Geology……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 01
2 General Background……………………………………………………………………………………………………03
3 Proposed Methodology………………………………………………………………………………………………03
Chapter 2: Literature Review
1 Site Investigations……………………………………………………………………………………………………….04
2 Consolidation………………………………………………………………………………………………………………05
3 Expansive Soil……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 06
4 Bearing Capacity……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 06
5 Foundation………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….07
Chapter 3: Project Objective
1 Problem Statement………………………………………………………………………………………………… ..08
2 Aim of the Project…………………………………………………………………………………………………… .08
3 Location of the area of analysis……………………………………………………………………………… . 09
Chapter 4: Methodology
1 Field Tests……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
1.1 Core Cutter Test For Field Density……………………………………………………………….. 10
1.2 Standard Penetration Test………………………………………………………………………………14
2 Laboratory Tests………………………………………………………………………………………………………15
2.1 Water Content Determination Test………………………………………………………………….15
2.2 Atterberg Limit Tests………………………………………………………………………………………..17
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 2.1.1 Liquid Limit………………………………………………………………………………………………… 18
2.1.2 Plastic Limit…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 19
2.1.3 Shrinkage Limit…………………………………………………………………………………………… 20
2.3 Tests for determination of Specific Gravity………………………………………………………… 21
2.4 Test for Particle Size Distribution………………………………………………………………………. 23
2.5 CBR Test for Soil………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 26
2.6 Compaction Test………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 27
Chapter 5: Results & Observations
Chapter 6: Conclusions & Recommendations
6.1 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………35
6.2 Recommendations………………………………………………………………………………………………...35
References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………36

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Moisture Content and Unit Weight Data……………………………………………………….28

Table 2. Load Penetration Test Data………………………………………………………………………..29
Table 3. Sieve Analysis Data…………………………………………………………………………………….30
Table 4. Atterberg Limit Data…………………………………………………………………………………..32
Table 5. Free Swelling Index Data…………………………………………………………………………….34

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.1 Geological Map of M.P……………………………………………………………………………………. 02

Fig.2 Location of site……………………………………………………………………………………………… 09
Fig.3 Underconstruction site…………………………………………………………………………………...09
Fig.4 Procedure of Core Cutter method…………………………………………………………………….12
Fig.5 Performing Core Cutter Test……………………………………………………………………………13
Fig.6 SPT Test Setup……………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
Fig.7 Oven………………………………………………………………………………………………………………16
Fig.8 Soil Consistency Curve……………………………………………………………………………………17
Fig.9 Casagrande Cup Method for Liquid Limit Test………………………………………………….19
Fig.10 Pycnometer………………………………………………………………………………………………….22
Fig.11 Procedure for specific gravity using pycnometer……………………………………………22
Fig.12 Steps of Particle Size Analysis Test…………………………………………………………………24
Fig.13 Grain Size Distribution Curve……………………………………………………………………25
Fig.14 CBR penetration Graph………………………………………………………………………………….31
Fig.15 Graph of OMC…………………………………………………………………………………………………31
Fig. 16 Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit Graph………………………………………………………………….33

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1. GEOLOGY
1.1 Regional Geology

The Central Region of Geological Survey of India was established on 1 st August, 1967 with the Circle
Offices at Madhya Pradesh (including the Circle Office of the present State of Chhattisgarh)
and Maharashtra having headquarters at Bhopal and Pune respectively.
Madhya Pradesh as a part of Central Indian Shield (CIS) contains the rocks ranging from Archaean to
Phanerozoic age.
1.2 Local Geology

The Rewa district lies in the central part of the state of Madhya Pradesh, covering an area of 6287.45
Sq Km. - (As per Statistical Book) It lies between North latitude 24°16'30" and 25°11'15" and east
longitude 81°03'15"; 82°18'45", falling in Survey of India Topo sheet No. 63 G, H, & 63 L. It is located
in the northeastern comer of the State, and bounded by Satna district in the West, Sidhi district in
the South & the State of Uttar Pradesh in the North & East.
The geological formation in the district is mainly Vindhyan Formation. The area forms a part of the
northern marginal belt of the peninsular bordering the Indo - Gangetic plains. The quartzites,
sandstones, shales and limestone, belonging to upper Vindhya’s formation, generally underlie
district. The recent sediments found thin alluvium covers ranging in thickness from 15 to 45 m, in the
valley of the major rivers and along their, tributaries overlying the Vindhyan basement. The geological
succession in the district is as follows and geological map shown in Plate.

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Fig.1 (Geological Map of M.P)

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2. General Background
Geotechnical engineers play a crucial role in the construction industry. Site investigation carried by
geotechnical engineers is a very important precursor to construction because it is where the
groundwater and geological conditions and engineering parameters are determined. Site
investigation is usually carried prior to construction, but in some cases, it is done to assess the safety
of an existing structure or were failure has occurred.
The study area of Rewa Engineering College is the site for the proposed construction of 1 st year
building.
When construction begins, everything has to be done according to the laboratory tests results. Index
as well as mechanical properties of the soil in the study area are be determined in order to foresee
unfavorable ground conditions that may potentially pose a threat to the proposed construction.
Therefore, it is of paramount importance that geotechnical analysis is performed on any site prior to
construction.
3. Proposed Methodology

Site investigation will be largely based on sample testing in a soil’s laboratory in the Rewa
Engineering College Campus. Representative samples, both disturbed and undisturbed will
be taken from inspection pits and sent to the laboratory immediately for testing.
Undisturbed samples can be obtained either by a cylindrical sample tube, or by taking a
block sample from an excavation such as an inspection pit and covering it with wax to
conserve its natural moisture content. Disturbed samples are collected in bulk bags by a
shovel, and they are relatively easy to obtain. The first step will be to identify and
adequately describe the soil samples, this is often done on site. As it is the case with most
site investigations, the kind of tests done are governed by the nature of the proposed
construction. In situ testing will be carried out in the form of penetration tests, from which
consistency values may be derived. Once the samples are nicely prepared, described and
classified, testing may commence after the unit weight and moisture content of the samples
are determined.

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1. Site Investigation

Site investigation as defined by Craig (2004) is a precursor to the execution of civil

engineering projects. It involves a thorough ground investigation from which soil
parameters are determined for a safe and economic design of an engineering project.
Geological, geotechnical, and other relevant information which might affect construction
is acquired through site investigation (Clayton et al., 1992). It is crucial to note that site
investigation is an essential prerequisite element to a sound and safe engineering
structure.

Recent studies based on old case studies have proven numerous times that a job poorly
done during site investigation often results in time and financial setbacks that could be
avoided if site investigation is carried thoroughly. The first step in site investigation is the
desk study and preliminary reconnaissance. Most of the work done in stage one of site
investigation involves office work, where old literature, maps, and surveys related to the
area of interest are reviewed in search of valuable information. Clayton et al. (1992)
mentions that from desk study and preliminary reconnaissance, probable ground
conditions may be defined. This is particularly important because it is regarded as time and
cost efficient. The following is a comprehensive summary of the steps followed in site
investigation as per Clayton et al (1992):

 Desk study and preliminary reconnaissance

 Direct methods of site exploration

 Laboratory testing

 In situ testing including geophysical surveys

 Field instrumentation and monitoring

Direct site exploration methods such as trial pitting, light-cable and tool-boring can only
explore the subsurface to a limited depth. Kearey (1984) highlighted the fact that
geophysical methods are employed to subdue the depth limitation inherent in direct
methods of site exploration. In the early 1930s, electrical resistivity was the only
geophysical method used to explore for sand and gravel deposits (Paterson, 1937). Since
then, geophysical methods have advanced significantly. Currently, ground-based
geophysical methods are regarded as the best in detecting, mapping, and characterizing
sand and gravel deposits (Milsom, 2004). However, geophysical surveys are regarded as
indirect site exploration methods which fall under in situ testing according to Kearey
(1984) and Clayton (1992).

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Laboratory testing is often done once the soil has been adequately described. Index as well as
mechanical soil properties are determined through the laboratory tests. According to Clayton
(1992), in situ tests are carried out if obtaining good samples becomes a difficult or an
impossible task. The standard penetration test (SPT) is regarded as one of the in-situ tests
undertaken to assess the soil’s consistency or density (Terzaghi & Peck, 1948). However, the
SPT had its strengths and weaknesses, the weaknesses became impelling forces for its
modification and introduction of the cone penetration test (CPT).

2.Consolidation
According to Clayton et al (1995), consolidation is a process which involves the decrease in
water content of saturated soil, and subsequent volume decrease (settlement). It is,
therefore, important to understand how and why consolidation occurs since it has the
capability to damage engineering structures

The Theory of Consolidation (Terzaghi., 1996)

When saturated clay is subjected to an increase in total vertical stress in which the lateral
strains zero, corresponding excess pore water pressure is set up within the pore spaces of the
clay soil. If pore water is incompressible, the magnitude of total vertical stress is numerically
equal to excess pore-water pressure. At the instance of loading, if the drain is closed (no path
for free-drainage), any applied load is carried entirely by the pore water, since the soil
particles cannot carry the load if they are not allowed to deform.

When drainage is allowed, water seeps out, the excess pore water pressure dissipates, the soil
deforms by undergoing particle rearrangement which consequently leads to volume
reduction. As time proceeds this process continues until the point where all the applied load is
carried by the soil particles and the pore water has fallen back to it static level which is
governed by the position of the water table. The rate of flow of water out of the soil depends
on the permeability of the soil and the length of the free-drainage path (Smith & Smith,1998).
The soil ultimately undergoes settlement because of the increase in effective stress and the
decrease in excess pore-water pressure (expulsion of water).

Therefore, two conclusions can be drawn from this test:

(1) Settlement is a function of time

(2) There is continual decrease in pore-water pressure during settlement, and so three
parameters are of great importance to the foundation engineer:

 The magnitude of settlement

 Rate of settlement
 Variation in shear strength during settlement

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3. Expansive soils
Expansive clays have been highlighted by Williams et al (1985) as one of the widest spread
problem soils in South Africa. The problem of expansive soils is well known to engineers. It
affects construction sites and buildings in most parts of South Africa and other areas of the
world. Expansive soil undergoes volumetric changes upon wetting and drying, thereby
resulting in heaving and settlement problems. Expansive soil will increase in volume (swell)
when its moisture content increases, and decrease in volume (shrink) when its moisture
content is lost to the surrounding environments.

Rocks that can be associated with expansive soil are:-

(1) basic igneous rocks, such as the basalts, dolerite sills and dikes of the central part of South
Africa, gabbro’s and norites west of Pretoria North.
(2) sedimentary rocks that contain the mineral montmorillonite, such as the Ecca Group shales
(Chen, 1975). The type of clay minerals present in the soil is the principal element responsible
for the expansion. Al- Rawas and Goosen (2006) states that the type of clay mineral(s) present
in the soil will determine the rate at which the soil will shrink or swell. It usually takes time for
the clay minerals to absorb water, therefore, it is worth noting that swelling will most likely
occur sometime after a precipitation event. William et al (1985) recognized that the
difficulties regarding the expansive nature of the soil arise not because of a lack of adequate
solutions but largely owing to a failure to recognize during the early stages of the
engineering project

4. Bearing Capacity

The permissible load that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure and
destructive settlement is defined as the soil’s bearing capacity (Bell, 1980). To predict the
performance of an engineering structure, Parsons and Frost (2002) states that two values
need to be determined, the actual value inherent in the soil (capacity) and the value required for
acceptable performance(demand). Failure can only occur if the demand exceeds the capacity
One of the most common tests done to assess the bearing capacity of soils is the loading test.
The loading test provides the bearing capacity and settlement characteristics of the soil
(Black, 1961). The loading test is carried in an open excavation where loads are hydraulically
applied in increments to a plate/loading disc. When a load is applied, the soil under the
plate/loading disc undergoes settlement which is plotted against the applied load for the
determination of the ultimate bearing capacity. Bell (1980) noted that the magnitude of the
ultimate bearing capacity is influenced by the size of the loaded surface. Clayton et al (1992)
further noted that the extrapolation of settlement from small plates to large loaded areas on
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granular soil is unreliable, and that the loading test should be regarded as means of providing a
modulus of compressibility value of the soil just under the test location.

The bearing capacity of soils can also be determined from the “California Bearing Ratio”
(CBR). The CBR is one of the widely used tests in geotechnical designs because it is relatively
cheap and fast to carry, and it is simple. Black (1961) defines CBR as the ratio of the
resistance to penetration of a material to the penetration resistance of a standard crushed
stone base material. Amount of expansion that might be expected. It is, therefore, very
important that proper site investigation is thoroughly carried out and that the expansive
nature of the soil (if any) is recognized by foundation engineers.

5. Foundations
A foundation is defined as that part of a structure which transmits loads directly to the
subsoil (Craig, 2004). The bearing capacity of the soil governs the type of foundation to be
employed in construction of a building or any other man-made structure (Curtin et al., 2006). If
the subsoil near the earth surface is more than capable of supporting the structural loads, then
it is feasible to employ shallow foundations. The most common shallow foundations are
footings and rafts. Of course, there exist a variety of types of footings, the task of selecting
the appropriate type is influenced by the financial budget allocated to the foundation. Piles
are used if the soil near the ground surface is incapable of adequately supporting the
structural loads.

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1. Problem Statement
The heterogeneous nature of soils causes them to behave differently under different environmental
conditions. If only the soil was a completely homogeneous and isotropic material, structures built on
them would not suffer the consequences of differential settlements and environmental conditions
However , a homogeneous and isotropic soil is merely imaginative. In real life both soil and rock exist
as heterogeneous and anisotropic materials unless if they are brought down to an elementary unit in
which homogeneity and isotropy may be assumed. Engineering structures built particularly on sand or
clay may suffer the consequences of differential properties of soil. Therefore a complete geotechnical
analysis needs to be looked out for. So, a complete geotechnical analysis to be done before
construction and necessary measures need to be taken into account based on the pre determined
values.
2. Aim of the Project
The primary scope of doing geotechnical analysis is to gather and analyze data about the soil and
rock conditions at a particular site to inform the design and construction of geotechnical
structures such as buildings, bridges, tunnels, dams, and retaining walls. Geotechnical analysis is
critical in ensuring the safety, stability, and longevity of these structures.
Specifically, the purpose of geotechnical analysis includes:
1. Site Characterization: Geotechnical analysis helps to characterize the subsurface soil and rock
conditions at a particular site, including soil and rock types, groundwater conditions, and any
existing soil or rock hazards or anomalies.
2. Foundation Design: Geotechnical analysis is essential for determining the appropriate foundation
type and design for a particular structure based on the soil and rock properties at the site.
3. Slope Stability Analysis: Geotechnical analysis is used to assess the stability of slopes and
evaluate the potential for slope failure due to soil or rock instability, erosion, or other factors.
4. Liquefaction Analysis: Geotechnical analysis is crucial for evaluating the potential for liquefaction
during seismic events, which can significantly impact the stability of geotechnical structures.
5. Construction Considerations: Geotechnical analysis informs construction considerations such as
excavation, dewatering, and soil stabilization, which are critical for ensuring the safety and
success of construction projects.
Overall, the purpose of geotechnical analysis is to provide critical information for making
informed decisions about site development and designing safe and efficient geotechnical
structures. It serves as a valuable resource for engineers, architects, contractors, and other
stakeholders involved in the project.

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3. Location of the area of analysis

The site to be investigated is located in Rewa engineering college in opposite face of Civil Department
i.e., new first year under construction building of college.

Fig 2. Location of site

Fig 3. Underconstruction site

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1. Field Tests

Field tests in soil exploration refer to the various methods and techniques used to obtain information about
the physical and mechanical properties of soil in its natural state, without removing the soil from the ground.
These tests are performed in the field at the site of interest, and they provide valuable information about the
soil's engineering properties that are used for geotechnical design and construction.

Some common field tests in soil exploration include Standard Penetration Test (SPT), Cone Penetration Test
(CPT), Dynamic Cone Penetration Test (DCPT), Plate Load Test (PLT), Pressure meter Test (PMT), Vane Shear
Test (VST), In-situ Vibration Test (IVT), Cross-hole Seismic Test (CHST), Seismic Refraction Test (SRT),
Downhole Seismic Test (DST), and many others. Each of these tests provides specific information about the
soil, such as its strength, stiffness, density, shear resistance, and permeability. Field tests are essential for the
proper assessment of the site's suitability for construction, and for designing foundations, retaining structures,
embankments, and other geotechnical structures.

1.1 Core Cutter test for Field Density

Field density is measured as mass per unit volume (mass divided by volume). Soil particle
densitydepends on the chemical composition and structure of the minerals in the soil.
For finding field density we opted Core Cutter method as it is relatively fast and simple method.
More than that, Core Cutter test can be carried out in the natural conditions without sampling
disturbance.

 Key reasons for determining field density

 If we have information on both the particle density and the bulk density of the soil, we
can calculate the pore space which helps us to understand other soil properties such as
how much water can be stored in the soil, how fast water and heat will move through the
soil and the potential for flooding or drought in an area.

 Knowing the field density of the soil enables the estimation of the soil-bearing capacity,
evaluation of the pressure on underlying strata, and computation of the settlement and
stabilityof a natural slope.

 Whenever soil is placed as an engineering fill it is usually compacted to a dense state to
obtain satisfactory engineering properties. Compaction on site is usually affected by
mechanical means such as rolling, ramming or vibrating. Control of compaction is necessary
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to achieve a satisfactoryresult at a reasonable cost. So, it is used as a control test to check

if the soil has acquired the designated dry density or not.

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STEP 1
STEP 2 STEP 3

STEP 4 STEP 5 STEP 6

STEP 7 STEP 8 STEP 9

Fig.4 Procedure of Core Cutter method

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Fig 5. Performing Core Cutter Test

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1.2 Standard Penetration Test

The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is a widely used field test in geotechnical engineering for
characterizing soil properties. It involves driving a cylindrical steel rod with a standard weight and falling
distance into the soil at the bottom of a borehole. The number of blows required for the rod to penetrate the
soil by a distance of 12 inches (30 cm) is recorded as the N-value, which is used as an index of the soil's
resistance to penetration.

The test is typically performed at regular intervals along the length of a borehole, and the N-values are used to
determine the soil's shear strength, bearing capacity, and compressibility. The SPT is relatively quick and
inexpensive compared to other field tests, and it provides useful information about the soil's characteristics in
situ.

However, the SPT has some limitations, including the fact that it can cause soil disturbance around the
borehole and that the test may be affected by the type of hammer used, the method of driving the rod, and
the size and shape of the rod. Despite these limitations, the SPT remains a widely used and accepted method
for geotechnical investigation and design.

Fig 6. SPT Test Setup

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2. Laboratory Tests

2.1 Water Content Determination Test

Soil moisture is the weight or volume of water molecules around the soil's particles and is
expressed as a percentage of the overall combined weight.
We have used Oven Drying method because of its accuracy as well as easier to perform than other
methods.
 Key reasons for determining water content
Water content is one of the most significant factors for evaluating the strength of soil. Planning of
any structure and its foundation requires taking into consideration the strength of the underlying
soil, which is determined from test results and is highly dependent on water content. Water
content is used in expressing the phase relationships, since they help to define physical make-up
of soil and to evaluate other engineering properties of soil.
Here are three key reasons to test your soil before commencing construction plans.
 To determine strength
The ability to hold up a building is dependent on the soil's intrinsic parameters, such as density
and moisture between its particles. Under normal conditions, construction soil is weakest when it
is scorched. However, when there is a substantial amount of moisture within the soil, the tightly
fitted water molecules provide added support and grip due to the formation of air-water
interfaces.
 To determine compaction
Soils that are heavily compacted usually have less moisture content, less pore volume, and high
density, a potent combination for construction. As we need to have well-compacted soil before
heading for a substructure or foundation because rolling dry soil is pointless.
 To establish Optimum Moisture Content capacity
OMC is primarily used to gauge the amount of soil moisture required to achieve full soil
compaction. Without establishing this factor, you could build a skyscraper only to find it leaning on
one side becauseof further soil compaction later in time. The worst part about this is that it may not
occur immediately during construction but manifest later when construction is complete, resulting
in severe losses to the owner and threatening the occupants' lives. To avoid this mishap, you need to
measure moisture content before making your first move.

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Fig.7 Oven

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2.2 Atterberg Limit Tests

The gradual increase of water content in soil, makes the soil change its form from solid to
semi solid to plastic to liquid. The water contents at which the phase change of soil occurs,
are calledthe consistency limits.
Soil consistency is measured for wet, moist and dry soil samples.

Consistency is the relative ease with which soil can be deformed. It is used mostly for clays. These
are soil aggregate properties.
Depending upon the water content the soil mass has 4 stages.
1. Solid
2. Semi solid
3. Plastic stage

4. Liquid stage

Fig 8. Soil Consistency Curve

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The definitions of the consistency limits proposed by Atterberg are not, by themselves,
adequate for the determination of their numerical values in the laboratory, especially in view
of the arbitrary nature of these definitions. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish
between silt and clay, and it can distinguish between different types of silts and clays.

Casagrande and others suggested more practical definitions with special reference to the
laboratory devices and methods developed for the purpose of the determination of the
consistency limits.

2.1.1 Liquid limit (WL)

Liquid limit is the water content where the soil starts to behave as a liquid.
Minimum water content at which the soil has the tendency to flow upon disturbance is the
liquid limit. It can also be defined as, water content at which a groove of 2 mm closes by 25
blows in the Casagrande apparatus. All the soils have similar shear strength at liquid limit.

The liquid limit of soils can be determined by any one of the following two methods:

i. Casagrande’s mechanical method.

ii. Uppal’s cone penetration method.

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Fig.9 Casagrande Cup Method for Liquid Limit Test

The dry powder of the soil is mixed with distilled water turning it into a paste. The soil paste
is then placed into the cup to a thickness of about 12.5 mm and a groove is then cut at the
center of the paste using the standard grooving tool. The crank operating the cam is turned
at the rate of 2 revolutions per second lifting the cup and dropped it from a height of 10 mm.
The liquid limit is the moisture content required to close a distance of 12.5 mm along the
bottom of the grooveafter 25 blows.

2.1.2 Plastic limit (Wp)

The plastic limit is the water content where soil starts to exhibit plastic behavior. A thread of
soil is at its plastic limit when it is rolled to a diameter of 3 mm or begins to crumble. To
improve consistency, a 3 mm diameter rod is often used to gauge the thickness of the thread
when conducting the test (AKA Soil Snake Test).In this test, soil will break at smaller diameter
when wet and breaks in larger diameter when dry. It indicates the toughness index of soil

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2.1.3 Shrinkage limit (Ws)

The shrinkage limit (SL) is defined as the water content at which the soil changes from a semi-
solid to a solid state
It is the minimum water content at which the soil is fully saturated. Maximum water content
below which there is no volume change. The water content at which further loss of moisture
willnot cause a decrease in volume.

A shrinkage limit test is done to obtain a quantitative indication of how much change in
moisturecan occur before any appreciable volume changes occurs.

A mass of wet soil, m1, is placed in a porcelain dish 44.5 mm in diameter and 12.5 mm high
and then oven dried. With oven-dried soil still in the dish, the volume of shrinkage can be
determined by filling the dish with mercury. The volume of mercury that fills the dish is equal
to the shrinkagevolume. The shrinkage limit is calculated from

Where m1 = mass of wet soil, m2 = mass of oven-dried soil, V1 = volume of wet soil, V2 =
volumeof oven-dried soil, and ρw = density of water.

Significance of determining consistency limits

The compression index value will help us in settlement analysis. Consistency index is a
measure of the shear strength of the soils, higher the consistency index, the higher will be the
unconfinedcompressive strength of the soil.

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2.3 Test for determining specific gravity

The specific gravity of soil solids is defined as the weight of soil solids to the weight of an
equal volume of water. Specific gravity, more formally known as relative density, is a
measure of the density of the substance in comparison to the density of water.

For solids and liquids, specific gravity is generally measured in relation to water at its densest
state (at temperatures of 4 Celsius or 39.2 Fahrenheit), and for gases to room temperature
air. Because it is a ratio, it is given without units. Specific gravity can be shortened to Sg or Sp,
Gr .

The specific gravity of solid particles can be determined in the laboratory using the following
methods:

1. Density bottle method

2. Pycnometer method

3. Measuring flask method

4. Gas jar method

5. Shrinkage limit method

The determination of specific gravity of soil will help in the calculation of void ratio, degree of
saturation and other different soil properties. The Pycnometer is used for determination of
specific gravity of soil particles of both fine grained and coarse grained soils. So we determine
specific gravity by pycnometer.

Determination of Specific by Pycnometer

This method is similar to the density bottle method which is discussed as above. As the
capacity of the pycnometer is larger, about 200-300g of oven dry soil is required for the test.
The method can be used for all types of soils, but is more suitable for medium grained soils;
with more than 90% passing a 20 mm IS sieve and for coarse grained soils with more than
90% passing a 40 mmIS sieve.

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Fig.10 Pycnometer

Pycnometer should be used for coarse grained soil. Pycnometer is more accurate as it from a
volumetric flask in that its ground stopper has a capillary tube built in so that when filled,
excessliquid runs over

Fig.11 Procedure for specific gravity using pycnometer

The specific gravity of soil is determined using the relation:

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Where M1=mass of empty Pycnometer, M2= mass of the Pycnometer with dry soil M3= mass of
the Pycnometer and soil and water, M4 = mass of Pycnometer filled with water only. G= Specific
gravity of soils.

2.4 Test for Particle Size Distribution

Grain size analysis is a fundamental tool for classifying unconsolidated materials and
sediments, sedimentary rocks, and sedimentary environments. Quantitative analysis of the
percentages of different particulate sizes yields one of the most fundamental physical
properties of classic sediments and sedimentary rocks.

Soils having particles larger than 0.075 mm (75 microns) size are termed as coarse-grained
soils.In these soils more than 50% of the total material by mass is larger than 75 microns. Coarse
grained soil may have boulder, cobble, gravel and sand. Coarse grained soils may have rounded
to angularbulky, hard, rock particles with the following sizes:

1. Boulder- more than 300 mm dia.

2. Cobble- smaller than 300 mm and larger than 80 mm dia.
3. Gravel (G) - smaller than 80mm and larger than 4.75mm.
4. Coarse gravel- 20 mm to 4.75 mm

 Key reasons for grain size analysis: -

 The data obtained from grain size distribution curves is used in the design of filters for
earth dams and to determine suitability of soil for road construction, air field etc.
 Information obtained from grain size analysis can be used to predict soil water movement.
 The grain size analysis is an attempt to determine the relative proportions of
differentgrain sizes which make up a given soil mass.
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Step 1: Arrangement of Sieves. Step 2: Soil sample on sieve.

Step 3: Arrangement of Sieves in sieve shaker. Step 4: Weighing of sieves containing soil.

Fig.12 (Steps of Particle Size Analysis Test)

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Particle size Distribution Curve:

The particle size distribution curve, also known as a gradation curve, represents the
distributionof particles of different sizes in the soil mass.
A coarse soil is described as:

1. Well graded if there is no absence of particles in any size range and if no intermediate
sizes are lacking. The smooth concave upward grading curve is typical of well-graded soil,
whichis shown by curve (1) in Fig (a).
2. Poorly graded if:
a. A high proportion of the particles have sizes with narrow limits
(Uniform soil or narrowly graded soil) as shown by curve (2).
b. Particles of both large and small sizes are present but with relatively low proportion
of the particles of intermediate sizes (a gap-graded or step- graded soil) as shown by
curve(3).

Curve 2

Curve 3

Curve 1

Fig.13 Grain Size Distribution Curve

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2.5 CBR Test for Soil

The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a standardized test to evaluate the strength of soil subgrade
and base course materials for use in the design of roads, pavements, and other transportation
infrastructure.

The test involves measuring the pressure required to penetrate a soil sample with a plunger of
standard dimensions, at a standard rate of penetration. The test is typically performed on compacted
soil samples at varying levels of moisture content and density to determine the CBR value, which is the
ratio of the pressure required to penetrate the soil to the pressure required to penetrate a standard
material, such as crushed limestone.

The CBR test provides a measure of the relative strength of the soil, and is commonly used in the
design of flexible and rigid pavements, and as part of the foundation design for buildings and other
structures. The results of the test are used to determine the thickness and type of pavement or
foundation required for a particular site, and to ensure that the soil is strong enough to support the
weight of the structure or vehicle traffic.

Overall, the CBR test is an important tool in the evaluation of soil strength and the design of
transportation and construction infrastructure.

general procedure for conducting the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test on soil:

Preparation of the soil sample: A representative sample of the soil is obtained from the site and
brought to the laboratory. The soil is dried and sieved to remove any large particles or organic matter.
The sample is then compacted using a compaction apparatus to the desired density and moisture
content.

Preparation of the CBR test apparatus: The CBR test apparatus consists of a cylindrical metal mould
with a diameter of 150mm and a height of 175mm, a penetration plunger with a diameter of 50mm, a
load frame, and a dial gauge. The mould is placed on the base plate of the load frame, and the plunger
is attached to the loading head.

Placement of the soil sample in the mould: The compacted soil sample is placed in the mould in three
equal layers, and each layer is compacted using a specified number of blows from a standard weight.

Soaking of the soil sample: The soil sample is soaked in water for a specified period of time to simulate
the effects of moisture on the soil strength.

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Penetration of the soil sample: The plunger is lowered onto the surface of the soil sample at a rate of
1.25mm/min until the soil fails or a penetration of 7.5mm is achieved, whichever occurs first. The load
required to achieve this penetration is recorded.

Calculation of the CBR value: The CBR value is calculated as the ratio of the load required to penetrate
the soil sample to the load required to penetrate a standard material, such as crushed limestone, at
the same depth of penetration. The CBR value is expressed as a percentage

2.6 Compaction test

As a civil engineer, compaction tests are an important aspect of geotechnical analysis. Here are some
key points to keep in mind:
1. Purpose: The purpose of compaction tests is to determine the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content of a soil, which is important for determining the soil's suitability for use as a
foundation material or backfill.
2. Test Methods: There are several test methods used to determine the maximum dry density and
optimum moisture content of a soil, including the Standard Proctor Compaction Test and the Modified
Proctor Compaction Test. The Standard Proctor Compaction Test involves compacting a soil sample in
three layers using a standard compaction energy and measuring the resulting dry density. The
Modified Proctor Compaction Test involves using a higher compaction energy and a larger mold to
compact the soil sample.
3. Interpretation: The results of compaction tests can provide valuable information about the
properties and behavior of soil. For example, a soil with a high maximum dry density and low optimum
moisture content may be more suitable for use as a foundation material or backfill, as it will be more
stable and less prone to settling or deformation.
4. Importance: Compaction tests are an important aspect of geotechnical engineering, as they can
help ensure the stability and longevity of foundations, embankments, and other geotechnical
structures. Proper compaction of soil can help prevent settlement, deformation, and other types of
failure, and can improve the overall performance and safety of geotechnical structures.
Overall, compaction tests are a critical tool for civil engineers working in geotechnical engineering.
Understanding the principles and procedures of compaction tests can help ensure the accuracy and
reliability of geotechnical analysis results, and can help prevent failure and improve the performance of
geotechnical structures.

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CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST

(As per IS 2720 {Part-16})

MOISTURE CONTENT AND UNIT WEIGHT OF TEST SAMPLES

S.No. Description Mould No. 4 Mould No. 5 Mould No. 6
A. No. of layers 5 5 5
B. No. of blows per layer 56 56 56
C. Wt. of mould (gm) 6270 6272 6360

D. Condition of sample Before After Before After Before After

While SOAKING
E. Wt. of wet sample + 10995 11097 11046 11149 11118 11220
mould (gm)
F. Wt. of wet sample (gm) 4725 4827 4774 4877 4758 4860
G. Volume of 2209 2209 2206 2206 2206 2206
mould/sample (gm/cc)
H. Wet Density (gm/cc) 2.139 2.185 2.164 2.211 2.157 2.203
I. Moisture Determination
J. Container No. 8 8 9 9 10 10
K. Wt. of container (gm) 50.34 50.34 50.76 50.76 50.42 50.42
L. Wt. of wet sample + 167.55 167.36 169.57 174.69 182.89 166.3
container (gm)
M. Wt. of dry sample + 156.56 154.56 158.27 160.98 170.5 153.63
container (gm)
N. Wt. of water (gm) 10.99 12.80 11.30 13.71 12.39 12.67
O. Wt. of dry sample (gm) 106.22 104.22 107.51 110.22 120.08 103.21
P. Water Content (%) 10.35 12.28 10.51 12.44 10.32 12.28
Q. Dry Density (gm/cc) 1.938 1.946 1.958 1.966 1.955 1.962

Table 1. Moisture Content and Unit Weight Data

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LOAD PENETRATION TEST DATA

General Information Penetration Proving Load Proving Load Proving Load
(mm) ring (kgf) ring (kgf) ring (kgf)
reading reading reading
Type of compaction 0
used: Dynamic 0.5 10 31.20 10 31.20 11 34.32
Period of soaking: 96 1.0 20 62.40 14 43.68 20 62.40
hrs 1.5 27 84.24 28 81.12 26 81.12
Wt. of surcharge 2.0 33 103.00 31 96.72 34 106.1
used (kg): 5kg 2.5 39 121.70 36 112.3 38 118.6
Proving ring Number 4.0 49 152.9 47 146.6 50 156.0
and capacity: 25 KN 5.0 57 177.84 53 165.36 56 174.72
Proving Ring Load 7.5 71 221.52 65 202.8 70 218.4
Factor: 3.12 10.5 80 249.6 76 237.12 80 249.6
12.5 83 258.96 82 255.84 86 268.32

CBR at 2.5 mm (%) 8.91 8.18 8.69

CBR at 5.0 mm (%) 8.67 8.03 8.52
CBR reported (%) 8.59

Table 2. Load Penetration Test Data

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Sample No. 4 Date of Sampling 08/02/2023

Sample Location Date of Testing 10/02/2023
Description of Sample Tested By Jointly
Weight of Sample Taken 1000 Sample Source
(gm)

Test Sieve Size Weight Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative

(mm) Retained (gm) Wt. Retained % Retained % Passing
100.00 0 0 0 100
75.00 0 0 0 100
19.00 0 0 0 100
4.75 78.1 78.1 7.81 92.19
2.00 117.6 195.7 19.57 80.43
0.425 110.0 305.7 30.57 69.43
0.075 115.0 420.7 42.07 57.93
Pan
SIEVE ANALYSIS OF SOIL
(As per IS:2720 {Part-4})

Gravel – 7.81 %
Sand – 34.26 %
Silt and Clay -57.93 %

Table 3. Sieve Analysis Data

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300
258.96
249.6
250 221.52

200 177.34
152.9
load

150 121.7
103 load
100 84.24
62.4

50 31.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
penetration

Fig.14 CBR penetration Graph

1.98 1.97

1.96 1.946

1.94
1.921
1.92
dry density

1.899
1.9

1.88 1.866

1.86

1.84 1.83

1.82
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
water content

OMC
Fig.15 Graphs of OMC
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ATTERBERG’S LIMITS (CASAGRANDE METHOD)

(As per IS: 2720 {Part-5})

(As per IS: 2720 {Part-5})

Description Liquid Limit Plastic Limit

Determination No. 1 2 3 4 1 2
Container No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Empty Wt. of container (W1) gm 34.28 35.32 35.26 36.03 35.22 34.65
Wt. of container and Wet 50.54 55.23 60.16 55.68 42.75 41.29
material (W2) gm
Wt. of container and Dry 46.26 50.11 53.94 50.96 41.53 40.21
material (W3) gm
Wt. of Moisture (W4=W2 – W3) 4.28 5.12 6.22 4.72 1.22 1.08
gm
Wt. of dry material (W5= W3 – 11.98 14.79 18.68 14.93 6.31 5.56
W1) gm
Moisture Content w = 35.73 34.62 33.30 31.61 19.33 19.42
100*W4/W5 %
Number of Drops 17 22 26 32 Average = 19.38

Liquid Limit (%) LL = 33.60 %

Plastic Limit (%) PL = 19.38 %
Plasticity Index PL = 14.22 %

Table 4. Atterberg Limit Data

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36
35.5
35
34.5
moisture content
34
33.5
33
32.5
32
31.5
31
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
no of drops

Fig. 16 LIQUID LIMIT PLASTIC LIMIT GRAPH

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DETERMINATION OF FREE SWELLING INDEX OF SOILS

(As Per IS: 2720 {Part-40})

Sample No. 6 Date of Sampling 27/03/2023

Source/Location Date of Testing 28/03/2023
Sample Description Sampled by Jointly

Determination No. 1 2 Mean

Volume of specimen in Vk
graduated cylinder containing 12 12
Kerosene after 24 hrs (ml)
Volume of specimen in Vd
graduated cylinder containing 14 14.5
distilled water after 24 hrs (ml)

Free Swelling Index (%) [(Vd -Vk)/Vk] * 100 16.64 20.83 18.75

Free swelling index

Table 5. Free Swelling Index Data

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6.1 Conclusion

Geotechnical site investigations is necessary when it comes to civil engineering projects. Of

course, the magnitude of the investigation is governed by the size of the proposed project.
For the double-storey building proposed to be built in the campus of Rewa Engineering
College, the aims and objectives of the investigation were straight forward. However, this is
not to rule out the fact that there were some complexities involved along the way. Suitable
or not suitable for the proposed construction? Yes, the site is suitable for the proposed
construction of double-storey building since there are no disastrous geological flaws that
exist. However, the recommendations provided in this section should be strictly adhered to.

6.2 Recommendations

Foundations are used to transmit structural loads to the subsurface . It is, therefore, very
important to know the amount of loads the soil can withhold without failing. The load-
bearing capacity of the soil is very important when it comes to foundation designs. The soil
on site has an average ultimate bearing capacity of 158.94 kPa and a preconsolidation
pressure of 290 kPa.
• During construction, the structural loads must not exceed the preconsolidation pressure of
290 kPa (to avoid settlement).
• Since soil is heterogenous across the whole study area, ultimate bearing capacities will
differ at different locations on site
• Any of the spread footing foundation varieties may be adopted. Shallow foundations
should do just fine, there is no need for deep foundations (piles)
. • Continuous reinforced footing may be adopted since they can withstand minimal
differential movements.

The recommendations given in this chapter are based on the analysis of laboratory and field
test results.

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References
1. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering by Dr. B.C. Punamia
2. Geotechnical Engineering by Dr. K.R. Arora
3. I.S. Codes as below mentioned
 IS: 1498 1970

Classification and identification of soils for general engineering purposes

 IS: 2720 (PART II)-1973

Methods of test for soils Part 2: Determination of water content

 IS: 2720 (PART V) – 1985

Methods of test for soils Part 5: Determination of liquid and plastic limit
 IS: 2720-3-1 1980

Methods of test for soil, Part 3: Determination of specific

gravity,Section 1: Fine Grained soils
 IS: 2720 (PART 4) – 1985

Methods of test for soils, Part 4: Grain size analysis

 IS: 2720 (PART 10) - 1991

Methods of test for soils, Part 10: Determination of unconfined compressive strength

 IS: 2720 (PART 17) – 1986

Methods of tests for soils, Part: 17 Laboratory Determination of permeability

 IS: 2720 {Part-40)

Determination of free swelling index

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