TechTrends (2018) 62:176–183

DOI 10.1007/s11528-017-0228-7

ORIGINAL PAPER

Performance and Motivation in a Middle School Flipped

Learning Course
Joshua W. Winter 1

Published online: 4 October 2017

# Association for Educational Communications & Technology 2017

Abstract Flipped learning is a teaching approach that pro- Introduction

motes collaboration by using technology to ‘flip’ traditional
instruction. Content is delivered outside of class in the indi- Since the inception of audiovisual recording, educators
vidual space (online) and the group space (classroom) is used have praised its potential as a teaching tool. In 1913,
to engage in collaborative activities. Flipped learning shifts Thomas Edison claimed, BBooks will soon be obsolete
the teacher’s role toward facilitation. Research on flipped [and it will be] possible to teach every branch of human
learning is limited, in that studies are mostly conducted in knowledge with the motion picture^ (Saettler 1967, p.
postsecondary classrooms. My study investigated a middle 98). Two decades later, in his book The Educational
school classroom – focusing on a 6th grade social studies Talking Picture, Frederick Devereux (1933) stated, BNo
course at a K-12 private school in Hawai’i. My purpose was development in education since the coming of the text-
to identify the relationship between student motivation and book has held such tremendous possibilities^ (p. 101).
performance in a flipped learning course. Following an Edison and Devereux realized the prospects of delivering
eight-week unit of study, performance data was collected content through audiovisual recording. However, in those
and a Likert-type survey was administered. Significant differ- days, the production and dissemination of content was
ences in survey responses between performance levels re- costly and labor intensive. The audiovisual instruction
vealed that the technology-based content in flipped learning movement continued through the 1940s and 1950s, evolv-
may lead to increased motivation and improved performance. ing into instructional television. New terminology and the
Also, my findings suggest flipped learning benefits average computer chip created the field of educational technology
achieving students through differentiated instruction. My in the 1970s and 1980s (Reiser 2001). The personal com-
study was designed to influence middle school practice but puter led educators to speculate on the possibility of com-
can apply to other educational levels. Practical implications bining software and video technology to produce interac-
include designing learning spaces to maximize student en- tive multimedia instruction (Mazur 1991). At the time
gagement and incorporating learner-appropriate strategies though, still budding technology could not meet practical-
with flipped learning. Future research should focus on learn- ity (Bonwell and Eison 1991). Today, however, using
ing space design in different K-12 environments. technology and producing content is simple. Teachers
use computers, learning management systems (LMS),
websites, YouTube, Google, social media, iPads and nu-
Keywords Flipped learning . Middle school . Motivation merous technologies to develop content and classrooms
only dreamt about by Edison and Devereux. Flipped
learning is a result of the twenty-first century tools avail-
able to teachers. These tools have been combined with
* Joshua W. Winter strategies traditionally used by humanities professors,
jwwinter@hawaii.edu who have always expected students to read texts and be
prepared to collaborate and discuss in class (Berrett
1
University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, Honolulu, HI, USA 2012). Simply put, flipped learning is a traditional
TechTrends (2018) 62:176–183 177

technique enhanced by technology to engage the modern layers represent significant features of each space. The indi-
learner. vidual space provides direct instruction facilitated through
technology. As a teacher-centered space, students can access
Flipped Learning and the Learning Spaces created and curated content in the form of screencasts, instruc-
tional videos, websites, and other online tools. Supported by
Flipped learning is a pedagogical approach designed to im- cognitive theories which emphasize psychological activity
prove group learning by using technology to flip traditional and Blearning by viewing versus learning by doing^ (Clark
instruction. Content is delivered outside of class and class time and Mayer 2008, p. 5), the individual space is intended to help
is used to engage in collaboration, shifting the teacher’s role learners develop foundational knowledge to be built upon or
toward facilitation, allowing for differentiation to meet indi- applied in the group space. Since meaningful learning de-
vidual student needs. Based on the student-centered ideas of pends on proper design to produce cognitive activity, it has
John Dewey, flipped learning is a blend of direct instruction been suggested that content in the individual space align with
and constructivism (Jensen et al. 2015). The current concept multimedia learning principles (Day and Foley 2006). As a
of flipped learning was pioneered as the Bclassroom flip^ student centered environment, active learning is critical in the
(Baker 2000, p. 9). Later studies referenced the approach as group space (Baepler et al. 2014). Constructivist theories sup-
Bthe inverted classroom^ (Lage et al. 2000, p. 30), reversing port the group space, emphasizing group knowledge construc-
the classroom (Foertsch et al. 2002), and the flipped classroom tion and Blearning-as-participation^ (Sfard 2009, p. 555). The
(Bergmann and Sams 2012). Through examples like Khan center arrow represents the flow of learning from the individ-
Academy, flipped learning has gained considerable attention ual into the group space.
in professional and media outlets.
Despite its popularity, flipped learning is criticized for its Instructional Technology
overreliance on lectures, its ineffectiveness for students with-
out technology access, and a lack of comprehensive research. Use in Middle Level Education The Association for Middle
The later criticism is most pertinent as higher education and Level Education (2010) emphasizes the developmental impor-
K-12 institutions continue to push flipped learning as a cost- tance of the young adolescent educational experience.
cutting approach. As a result, classroom practice is increasing Education and learning during the transitional years of 10 to
and essentially outpacing effective research (DeSantis et al. 15 years old should be rooted in research and best practices.
2015). Moreover, most significant research is at the postsec- During this time, the thinking pattern of middle school stu-
ondary level and does not directly benefit K-12 teachers dents is changing as evidenced in the questions and ideas they
(Zainuddin and Halili 2016. This leaves many educators un- express. A successful middle school requires educators profi-
supported as they implement, which could adversely affect cient in technology and who purposely integrate technology
student learning and faith in flipped learning as an effective along with effective age-appropriate strategies (Downes and
pedagogical approach. Despite some claims of use in primary Bishop 2015). Although problem solving and twenty-first
education, little support has been provided (Borrmann 2014; century skills are often identified as major objectives, research
Yoshida 2016). Even the so-called originators of flipped learn- on technology use in middle school is widely varied and
ing addressed the need by releasing a guide to implementation inconsistent.
for elementary schools (Bergmann and Sams 2016). While In general, technology-supported learning environments
emerging attempts continue to address gaps in the available benefit middle school students. For example, technology can
literature (e.g., Gough et al. 2017; Kostaris et al. 2017), more increase content knowledge, particularly for middle and low
research on flipped learning in K-12 education is needed. performing students (Kulo and Bodzin 2013). Also, purpose-
Analyses of the available literature on flipped learning sug- ful technology integration has shown to help students with
gest conceptual frameworks should be used to guide practice learning differences (Foss et al. 2013) and assistive technolo-
and research (Bishop and Verleger 2013; O’Flaherty et al. gy supports students in special education (Flanagan et al.
2015). Figure 1 is the framework created for this study based 2013). Even specific technologies such as instructional videos
on terminology from the Flipped Learning Network (2014), can improve performance in social studies (Boster et al. 2006)
an organization dedicated to supporting teachers who use and mathematic courses (Boster et al. 2007). Despite such
flipped learning in the classroom. Flipped learning is com- findings, however, few studies have explicitly investigated
posed of two integral but inherently different learning spaces: flipped learning in middle school. One study found multiple
an individual learning space that includes instructional content factors influence students in a flipped learning course, and
enhanced by technology and a group learning space or collab- claimed Bmotivation for learning can be predicted by students’
orative environment. Each space is didactically distinct and beliefs regarding the difficulty^ of the subject matter (Hao
rooted in separate learning theories. Figure 1 diagrams the 2016, p. 300). Similar relationships between difficult concepts
core support for each learning space while corresponding and student effort have been identified in postsecondary
178 TechTrends (2018) 62:176–183

Fig. 1 Conceptual framework for flipped learning and the learning spaces

classrooms using flipped learning (Bouwmeester et al. 2015). classroom. The learning spaces that constitute flipped learn-
Another middle school study compared flipped learning to ing provide an ideal space for differentiation (Bergmann
traditional techniques and found little difference in students’ and Sams 2012). Many educators contend student success
conceptual understanding, however, the teacher did note in- depends on differentiation of content, instructions, and as-
creased engagement during collaborative activities (Kirvan sessment (Tomlinson and Moon 2013), especially in middle
et al. 2015). school where learning differences are at their most profound
(Brodhagen and Gorud 2012). By empowering students
Relation to Social Studies Pedagogy The National Council through differentiation, a student’s self-motivation can im-
for the Social Studies (NCSS) defines social studies as Bthe prove (Wormeli 2006). Even in technology-supported
integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to pro- learning environments, motivation plays an influential role
mote civic competence^ and considers their standards the best in learning (Mayer 2011, 2014) and multimedia learning
framework within which students can learn the subject proponents claim motivational and emotional factors signif-
(National Council for the Social Studies 2010, p. 1). Despite icantly impact learning (Leutner 2014; Moreno 2006). Such
debate within the field of social studies (Ross 2014), both research, however, is often based on postsecondary learners
teacher-centered and student-centered approaches have found and the findings may not translate to K-12 learners
success in the classroom. This suggests an integrated pedago- (McTigue 2009).
gy works best, one that combines the rigor of traditionalism In K-12 research, technology integration has had varied
with the creativity and active engagement of constructivism. success. At the high school level, online learning studies
For example, direct instruction not only improves achieve- have shown correlation between performance and self-
ment in social studies courses (Fleetwood 2013), but middle efficacy in students (Kim et al. 2015). In middle school
school students have been shown to prefer online direct in- studies, motivation and engagement have shown to increase
struction in a Brelatively passive format^ (Kay 2013, p. 45). within technology-supported learning environments
Moreover, civic competency can be applied to online and (Godzicki et al. 2013). Technology integration and project
blended learning environments while experiences with tech- based learning in middle school courses can increased
nology can be molded through media literacy in the social learner motivation (Barak and Asad 2012). However, stud-
studies classroom (Youngbauer 2013). To be effective, how- ies have shown ‘digital native’ students do not always have
ever, technology integration must be supported with educa- experience with technology and research can be misleading
tional theory and sound pedagogy. (Wang et al. 2014). The ability of technology savvy students
is often overestimated as motivation in the classroom
Impact on Differentiation and Motivation Differentiated (Helsper and Eynon 2010; Housand and Housand 2012;
instruction requires teachers employ different approaches for Koutropoulos 2011). Moreover, as Jacobs (2013) asserts,
individual students to meet the various learning needs in a technology is not inherently motivating and motivation
TechTrends (2018) 62:176–183 179

can only occur when students experience competency, indi- network and Internet access at the home of each student makes
vidualize their learning, and connect to a larger community. integration of technology easier than most schools. This is
fortunate for teachers integrating technology-based strategies
such as flipped learning. Also, a technology-affluent popula-
Purpose tion avoids a common critique of flipped learning; that it is
ineffective for students and schools lacking internet access
Educational research is expected to provide practicing educa- and technology (Amaral 2013).
tors with knowledge and techniques to achieve learning ob-
jectives. However, research should not be viewed as instruc- Design of Learning Spaces
tions for educators; instead it should be viewed as knowledge
that Benables educators to approach problems they have in a The Individual Space Instructional content in the individual
more intelligent way^ (Biesta and Burbules 2003). This space included ten homework assignments hosted online
study’s purpose was to investigate flipped learning in middle through a LMS. Each assignment was numerical and uniquely
school, focusing on the relationship between student perfor- named. For example, Homework #01 was titled Western Arrival
mance and motivation. By incorporating strategies from mid- and focused on the arrival of European explorers to Hawai i.
dle level education, social studies pedagogy, and instructional Students progressed sequentially, completing approximately
technology, the study addresses a unique and emerging area in one assignment a week during an eight-week unit. Each assign-
education. It also highlights the limited research on flipped ment included a narrated screencast designed for the course
learning research in K-12 learning environments. By integrat- using content from a middle school textbook (Potter et al.
ing research methods with learner appropriate strategies, the 2003). Content was presented chronologically and included
findings are intended to help teachers effectively use flipped Hawaiian history from the late 1700s to early 1900s.
learning to benefit students. The following were my research Screencasts were approximately five minutes long and incorpo-
objectives: rated multimedia learning principles to reduce extraneous load
such as graphics with narration, cues, and images (Mayer 2009).
& To determine the relationship between students’ motiva- For each assignment, students had to take notes and complete an
tion and learning performance measures in a middle online questionnaire (Google Forms) on the content covered in
school social studies classroom using flipped learning. the screencast. An example assignment can be viewed at https://
www.csclgroupspace.weebly.com/homework. As the teacher, I
checked questionnaires before class and student notebooks
during class to ensure homework assignments were properly
Methods completed. Students with incomplete assignments had to
complete the assignment during class prior to working on
Participants and Setting collaborative activities in the group space.

Participants were 35 sixth grade students from Hawai i. The The Group Space The group space was divided into sections
students ranged from 11 to 12 years of age. Students were or stations. Each station was a separate activity and area de-
enrolled in a required social studies course divided into two signed for three students, a technology-based device, and ma-
sections of 18 and 17. Section placement was based on sched- terials. Group space sessions were 75 min in length and began
uling factors at the beginning of the school year. Informed with writing prompts that reviewed content from the individ-
consent was acquired from all participants through a signed ual space. There were both group and individual requirements
form. Informed consent from parents and guardians was also for each station. Instructions were provided through the LMS
acquired. Eleven-year-old students completed an orally and students progressed at their own pace, working in differ-
scripted consent form as required by the University of ent groups at each station. Stations did not have to be com-
Hawai i Institutional Review Board. All measures were taken pleted sequentially and students were encouraged to choose
during data collection and analysis to keep the identity of based on interest. Work at stations was documented individu-
participants anonymous. This includes the use of random code ally in notebooks and through a group product. All stations
numbers instead of student names. were numerical and uniquely named. For example, Station 01
The setting was a K-12 private school. The student popu- was titled Captain Cook and involved mapping the explorer’s
lation ranges from 25 to 40 students per grade. The school has journeys to Hawai i. Each activity was designed to build upon
existed for approximately 150 years and has had a one-to-one content presented in the individual space, and incorporated
laptop program since 1999. Owning a MacBook Pro or skills, standards, and benchmarks prescribed by the course
MacBook Air laptop is a requirement for attending 5th curriculum. By having a variety of activities, students engaged
through 12th grade. A school-wide high-speed wireless in multiple instructional approaches – an effective strategy in
180 TechTrends (2018) 62:176–183

middle school (Brodhagen and Gorud 2012). As the teacher, I Likert-type scale surveys are popular instruments in stud-
monitored and facilitated stations, providing guidance when ies on flipped learning (Pursel and Fang 2012) and a ma-
necessary. I also promoted collaboration by encouraging peer- jority of research uses performance measures and surveys
to-peer interaction. Student check-ins at my desk allowed me to assess the effectiveness of flipped learning (Bishop and
to assess homework assignments completed in the individual Verleger 2013). For my study, survey items targeted the
space and progression in the group space. This face-to-face experience of students in the course and included state-
communication was a result of flipped learning freeing time, ments on motivation, effort, and self-confidence.
allowing me to identify strengths and weaknesses in order to Statistically significant differences between performance
personalize learning for each student. groups were determined by one-way ANOVA and post
hoc Tukey HSD to verify the significance standard
Data Collection and Analysis (p < 0.05).

Two data collection tools were used after an eight-week

unit of study. (1) Course grades were collected to establish
performances groups. Day and Foley (2006) showed Findings
flipped learning impacts grade-based performance, includ-
ing assignments, tests, projects, and final course grades. In Performance Groups
my social studies course, grades represent a cumulative
average that students earn while working on a unit. Despite grade inflation as a documented phenomenon
Grades were calculated equally based on homework as- (Pattison et al. 2013), students were ranked according to
signments, stations, projects, and preparation scores. course grade. Course grades were based on a 100-point
While not exclusively reflective of performance, course scale and ranged from 78 to 100. Median course grade was
grades provided a measurement by which students can be 91 and the mean was 89.85. Students were divided into low
grouped for statistical purposes. For my study, students (three deviations to the left of mean), middle (three devia-
were divided into three groups (top, middle, low) accord- tions within mean), and high (three deviations to the right of
ing to their course grades. (2) Participants responded to 20 mean) performance groups. A similar grouping technique
items on a five-point Likert-type scale survey (Table 1). using standardized test scores was used in research on
flipped learning (Chipps 2013). High-performers had a
Table 1 Student survey items mean of 95.54 and median of 95. Middle-performers had a
mean of 90.38 and median of 91. Low-performers had a
Item Statement
mean of 82.45 and median of 80.
1 Homework assignments were easy to access.
2 Homework assignments helped me learn.
3 Homework assignments increased my interest in the unit. Survey Items
4 I felt challenged by the homework assignments.
5 Homework assignments helped me complete stations in class. Six significant differences were found between performances
6 Stations helped me to understand topics in the unit. groups.
7 Classmates helped me with stations
8 The teacher helped me with stations. & When asked if collaborative activities were understood in
9 I felt challenged by the stations. the group space, top performers responded significantly
10 When working on stations, I understood what I had to complete. higher than low performers, F (2,32) = 3.65, p = 0.037.
11 I had to work hard in the unit. & When asked how hard they worked, middle performers
12 I learned a lot in the unit. responded significantly higher than low performers, F
13 I put my best effort into the unit. (2,32) = 4.29, p = 0.022.
14 I felt motivated to explore content and topics in Unit 04. & When asked if their best effort was put forth, middle per-
15 I worked hard even when I was not interested in topics. formers responded significantly higher than low per-
16 I felt challenged to think more about topics.
formers, F (2,32) = 8.41, p = 0.001.
17 I felt confident after completing homework assignments.
& When asked if they worked hard even when not interested,
18 I felt confident after completing homework assignments and
top and middle performers responded higher than low per-
stations. formers, F (2,32) = 13.13, p < 0.001.
19 I put my best effort forth during time outside of class. & When asked to rate their effort in the individual space, top
20 I put my best effort forth during time in class. performers responded significantly higher than low per-
formers, F (2,32) = 8.49, p = 0.001.
TechTrends (2018) 62:176–183 181

& When ask to rate their effort in the group space, top per- flipped learning creates time and space to identify student
formers responded significantly higher than low per- strengths and weaknesses. During group space sessions, indi-
formers, F (2,32) = 4.05, p = 0.027. vidual student check-ins allow for assessments of work from
the individual space and progress on collaborative activities.
This face-to-face communication between student and teacher
is a result of the flipped learning paradigm. As a facilitator in
Discussion the groups space and not a lecturer, the teacher has time to
adjust and differentiate for each student, however, minor it
Learning Spaces to Motivate Students may be. Differentiation can occur through various means, in-
cluding content, process, product and environment. Face-to-
My findings indicate a correlation between students’ per- face meetings also encourage students, especially average
ceived effort and their performance in the course. Students achieving students, to engage in the learning process.
who performed well were more likely to report putting in Teacher suggestions guide the student and help individualize
their best effort while low performers were less likely to the learning process. Individualized learning then helps foster
report their best effort. Logically, a motivated and engaged motivation, increase effort, and ultimately improve
student is more likely to perform well and experience mean- performance.
ingful learning. Studies in online schools have identified a
relationship between self-efficacy and performance,
claiming effort regulation increases motivation Bwhen stu- Conclusion
dents engage in learning tasks perceived as easy to execute
and interesting and enjoyable^ (Kim et al. 2015, p. 263). My Overall, my findings provide a unique view of flipped learn-
findings show this may extend into flipped learning envi- ing that adds to limited research in K-12 education. My study
ronments. Interestingly, the lowest average response for all suggests flipped learning motivates students through
survey items came when participants were asked if they felt technology-based content and is beneficial for average achiev-
challenged in the individual space (M = 2.77, SD = 1.17). ing students when effectively implemented with age-
This suggests technology-based content perceived by stu- appropriate strategies, specifically differentiated instruction.
dents as requiring limited effort can motivate and improve My study also suggests flipped learning is a model approach
performance. It also aligns with findings on direct instruc- for middle school, where student success depends on differ-
tion in social studies (Fleetwood 2013) and middle school entiation and addresses the acute disparity in middle school
(Kay 2013). The implications are to design learning spaces students. Therefore, a pedagogical approach that improves
that motivate and maintain engagement. learning experiences for a majority of students is best practice.
While intended to influence middle school practice, my design
Supports Average Achieving Students and findings can be applied to other educational levels.
However, my research is limited by participant size and my
My findings show middle performers were more likely to teacher-researcher role. Future studies should investigate
report working hard and putting forth their best effort. This flipped learning and learning space design in K-12 environ-
suggests flipped learning provides significant benefits for av- ments, especially middle and high school courses.
erage achieving students. Similar research has shown average
achieving groups performing well in problem-based learning
(Belland 2010) and flipped learning environments (Chipps
2013). The increased performance is considered a result of References
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