SENSORS and Actuators

Sensors (also known as – a.k.a.) -

Interfacing to the Real World

Al-Mas Sendegeya, PhD

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Namibia University of Science and Technology
 Sensor
Transducers
 Capacitive Sensors
Electric Field
C= A
d
 = permittivity of dielectric [Farad/meter]
 of vacuum= 8.85 x 10-12 F/m
A=area [meter2]
d=separating distance [meter]
Sensors: (Conducting Materials)
Change ε to detect foreign materials
In field (position sensor, depth sensor)
Change d to detect distance (position
sensor, gauging).
Change A to detect rotational angle.
(flat, curved rotating plate)
Capacitance is sensed by a change in
capacitive reactance.
Xc = 1
2fC
Note that this is a non-linear relationship.
Capacitor/Inductor Transducer

C L
frequency= 1
LC
 Capacitive Sensor Applications
1. Proximity Sensors - Using the object to be detected as one
plate of the capacitor
2. Proximity Sensors (position sensors) - Using the fringing
effect and the object to be detected to change of the dielectric
between the plates.
3. Depth or gap sensors (differential position sensors)
4. Surface finish sensors (measures average permittivity of
surface/air combination)
5. Rotary position sensors for angle measurement.
6. Force or Pressure sensors (differential position)
7. Temperature (differential position)
8. Acceleration (differential position, accelerometer)
9. Liquid depth (dielectrical change)
 Capacitive Sensors

Advantages – Capacitive Sensors

1. Non-contacting
2. Used with any target material that has a resistivity of less than
100 ohms/sq cm
3. Sensor is extremely rugged and can be subjected to high
shock loads (5000g) and intense vibratory environments
4. Capable of use at high temperatures
5. Constant sensitivity over wide temperature range

Disadvantages – Capacitive Sensors

• Can only be used at a distance of ¼ the diameter of the sensor
head before non-linearities develop. This distance increases to
½ the diameter of the sensor when a guard ring is installed. A
guard ring is a grounded shield around the sensor head.
• Fringing (electric field lines try to go through the air and into
the sensor head on the sides)
• Detected surface must be flat and clean and no moisture can be
present in the air.
 Inductive Sensors
Magnetic Field
L = N2A
l
 = permeability of core [Weber/(Amp.turn.meter) or n/Amp2]
 of vacuum= 112.566 x 10-7 N/A2
N=number of turns
A= cross-sectional area [meter2]
l=length of coil [meter]
Sensors: (Magnetic materials)
Moving core to change µ and measure position.
-linear motion or rotary motion
Difficult to change N,A, and l in practice.
Inductance is sensed by a change in inductive reactance
XL = 2fL
This relationship is linear
 Inductive Sensor Applications
Inductors
1. Proximity sensors (magnetic materials)
2. Proximity detectors (relays, burglar alarms etc.)
3. Eddy Current sensors are a form of inductive sensor. The
“treasure seekers” used on beaches to find metal objects are
eddy-current sensors.
4. Position, force, temperature, acceleration, or pressure sensor-
(moving core)

Transformers
1. Current Probes
2. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) and Rotary
(RVDT)
 Inductive Sensors
Advantages – Inductive Sensors
• Little effect of temperature on eddy current sensor (the dual
coils on the sensing head are temperature compensated)
• Eddy current sensors can measure distance from both magnetic
and non-magnetic materials. Material must be electrically
conductive (A thin sheet of aluminum foil must be placed on
the non magnetic material for eddy currents to exist.)
Variable range
Excellent linearity
Excellent resolution
Non-contacting
Inexpensive

Disadvantages – Inductive Sensors

Limited range (for a greater range, a larger sensing head must be
used)
 Strain Gage Sensor Applications

Wheatstone Bridge
Measure Force or Weight in Load Cells
120 or 350 ohms
 Strain Gage Sensors
Advantages – Strain Gages
Well-established
Simple technology
Low-energy
Widely used

Disadvantages – Strain Gages

Small variation in resistance when a force is applied
Sensitive to temperature
Long wires lead to unbalanced bridge and electrical noise
Circuit drift
Non-linearity of Wheatstone Bridge
 Reluctive Sensor Applications

Variable Reluctance (Magnetic) Pickups (Tachometer)

Hall Effect Sensors/Detectors
Linear Displacement Sensors
Angular Displacement Sensors
Blood Flow sensor
Wattmeter
Magnetic Audio recording
ATM card readers
Magnetic Bar Codes
 Reluctive Sensors
Advantages – Reluctive Sensors
Reliable
Very Cheap
Non-Contact
Very Common
Velocity independent
Insensitive to ambient conditions
Easily reproducible
Zero Order system

Disadvantages – Reluctive Sensors

Only sense magnetic materials
Distance
Temperature effect
Offset voltage
 Piezoelectric Sensor Applications

Ultrasonic transmitters and receivers.

Frequency references.
Temperature sensors (resonant frequency changes with
temperature)
Accelerometers (used with a seismic mass)
Microphones and loudspeakers (small loudspeakers with poor
audio characteristics = beepers)
Pressure sensor
Force sensor
 Piezoelectric Sensors
Advantages – Piezoelectric Sensors
Low cost
High sensitivity
High mechanical stiffness
Broad frequency range
Exceptional linearity
Excellent repeatability
Unidirectional sensitivity
Small size
Disadvantages – Piezoelectric Sensors
High Impedance
Low Power
Poor DC characteristics
Drift with temperature and pressure
 Magnetostrictive Sensor
Applications
Pressure Sensors
Strain gages
Medical Sensors
Micromachined accelerometers

Advantages – Magnetostrictive Sensors

Large Change in Resistivity
Controllable manufacturing process
Extremely Small
Good low frequency response
Disadvantages – Magnetostrictive Sensors
 Thermoelectric Sensor
Applications
Power supplies
Portable temperature monitoring
Advantages
Cheap
Linear Response
High and Low temperature

Disadvantages
Small Output
 Light Sensor Applications
Photoresistor
Photodiode
Phototransistor
Photovoltaics
Solar Cells
Light Activated Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
Optoisolators
Doplar-light
Optoswitches
Sound measurement
Fiber Optics
 Light Sensors
Advantages
Cheap
Non-contact

Disadvantages
Non-linear response
Distance
Ambient light affects them
 Transducers
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic,
optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
– acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus

sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system
Transducers: sensors and actuators
 Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
– convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
• General Electronic Sensor
– primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into
electrical signal
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or
digital values
real primary analo secondary usable
world transducer g transducer values
signal
sensor
• Typical Electronic Sensor System
input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication
 Example Electronic Sensor Systems
• Components vary with application
– digital sensor within an instrument
• microcontroller sensor µC keypad
– signal timing signal timing
sensor memory display
– data storage handheld instrument

– analog sensor analyzed by a PC

sensor interface e.g., RS232
PC
sensor A/D, communication
signal processing comm. card

– multiple sensors displayed over internet

internet

sensor sensor
sensor bus sensor bus
processor PC processor
comm. comm.
comm. card
 Transducers …

Basically a transducer is defined as a device, which

converts energy or information from one form to
another. These are widely used in measurement work
because not all quantities that need to be measured
can be displayed as easily as others. A better
measurement of a quantity can usually be made if it
may be converted to another form, which is more
conveniently or accurately displayed.
 Transducers …

• For example, the common mercury thermometer

converts variations in temperature into variations in
the length of a column of mercury. Since the variation
in the length of the mercury column is rather simple
to measure, the mercury thermometer becomes a
convenient device for measuring temperature.

• On the other hand, the actual temperature variation

is not as easy to display directly. Another example is
manometer, which detects pressure and indicates it
directly on a scale calibrated in actual units of
pressure.
 Mechanical transducers

• Mechanical transducers are simple and rugged in

construction, cheaper in cost, accurate and operate
without external power supplies but are not
advantageous for many of the modern scientific
experiments and process control instrumentation
owing to their poor frequency response, requirement
of large forces to overcome mechanical friction, in
compatibility when remote control or indication is
required, and a lot of other limitations. All these
drawbacks have been overcome with the
introduction of electrical transducers.
 ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
• Mostly quantities to be measured are non-electrical
such as temperature, pressure, displacement,
humidity, fluid flow, speed etc., but these quantities
cannot be measured directly. Hence such quantities
are required to be sensed and changed into some
other form for easy measurement.

• Electrical quantities such as current, voltage,

resistance. inductance and capacitance etc. can be
conveniently measured, transferred and stored, and
therefore, for measurement of non-electrical
quantities these are to be converted into electrical
quantities first and then measured.
 ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS(cont’d)

• The function of converting non-electrical quantity into

electrical one is accomplished by a device called the
electrical transducer. Basically an electrical
transducer is a sensing device by which a physical,
mechanical or optical quantity to be measured is
transformed directly, with a suitable mechanism, into
an electrical signal (current, voltage or frequency).
The production of these signals is based upon
electrical effects which may be resistive, inductive,
capacitive etc. in nature.
 ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS(cont’d)

• The input versus output energy relationship takes a

definite reproducible function. The output to input
and the output to time behavior is predictable to a
known degree of accuracy, sensitivity and response,
within the specified environmental conditions.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF A TRANSDUCER

• The main function of a transducer is to respond

only for the measurement under specified limits
for which it is designed. It is, therefore,
necessary to know the relationship between the
input and output quantities and it should be
fixed. Transducers should meet the following
basic requirements.
 Basic Requirements Of a Transducer (cont’d)
 Ruggedness. It should be capable of withstanding
overload and some safety arrangement should be
provided for overload protection.

 Linearity. Its input-output characteristics should

be linear and it should produce these
characteristics in symmetrical way.

 Repeatability. It should reproduce same output

signal when the same input signal is applied again
and again under fixed environmental conditions e.g.
temperature, pressure, humidity etc.
 Basic Requirements Of a Transducer (cont’d)
• High Output Signal Quality. The quality of output
signal should be good i.e. the ratio of the signal to
the noise should be high and the amplitude of the
output signal should be enough.

• High Reliability and Stability. It should give

minimum error in measurement for temperature
variations, vibrations and other various changes in
surroundings.

• Good Dynamic Response. Its output should be

faithful to input when taken as a function of time.
The effect is analyzed as the frequency response.
 Basic Requirements Of a Transducer (cont’d)

• No Hysteretic. It should not give any hysteretic

during measurement while input signal is varied from
its low value to high value and vice-versa.

• Residual Deformation. There should be no

deformation on removal of local after long period of
application.
 Classification Of Transducers

The transducers may be classified in various ways

such as on the basis of electrical principles involved,
methods of application, methods of energy conversion
used, nature of output signal etc.
 Classification Of Transducers (cont’d)

Primary and Secondary Transducers: Transducers,

on the basis of methods of applications, may be
classified into primary and secondary transducers.
When the input signal is directly sensed by the
transducer and physical phenomenon is converted into
the electrical form directly then such a transducer is
called the primary transducer.
 Primary and Secondary Transducers(cont’d)
• For example a thermistor used for the measurement of
temperature fall in this category.

• The thermistor senses the temperature directly and

causes the change in resistance with the change in
temperature.

• When the input signal is sensed first by some detector

or sensor and then its output being of some form other
than input signals is given as input to a transducer for
conversion into electrical form, then such a transducer
falls in the category of secondary transducers.
 Primary Transducers
• Conventional Transducers
large, but generally reliable, based on older technology
– thermocouple: temperature difference
– compass (magnetic): direction
• Microelectronic Sensors
millimeter sized, highly sensitive, less robust
– photodiode/phototransistor: photon energy (light)
• infrared detectors, proximity/intrusion alarms
– piezoresisitve pressure sensor: air/fluid pressure
– microaccelerometers: vibration, ∆-velocity (car crash)
– chemical senors: O2, CO2, Cl, Nitrates (explosives)
– DNA arrays: match DNA sequences
 Example Primary Transducers
• Light Sensor
– photoconductor
• light  R

– photodiode
• light  I

– membrane pressure sensor

• resistive (pressure   R)
• capacitive (pressure  C)
 2-Active and Passive Transducers.
• Transducers, on the basis of methods of energy
conversion used, may be classified into active and
passive transducers.

• Self-generating type transducers i.e. the

transducers, which develop their output the form of
electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary
source, are called the active transducers.

• Such transducers draw energy from the system

under measurement. Normal such transducers give
very small output and, therefore, use of amplifier
becomes essential.
 Active and Passive Transducers(cont’d)
• Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e.
resistance, inductance or capacitance changes with the
change in input signal, are called the passive
transducers.

• These transducers require external power source for

energy conversion. In such transducer electrical
parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or capacitance
causes a change in voltages current or frequency of the
external power source.

• These transducers may draw sour energy from the

system under measurement. Resistive, inductive and
capacitive transducer falls in this category.
 3-Analog and Digital Transducers
• Transducers, on the basis of nature of output
signal, may be classified into analog and digital
transducers.

• Analog transducer converts input signal into output

signal, which is a continuous function of time such as
thermistor, strain gauge, thermo-couple etc.

• Digital transducer converts input signal into the

output signal of the form of pulse e.g. it gives
discrete output.
 Analog and Digital Transducers(cont’d)
• These transducers are becoming more and more
popular now-a-days because of advantages
associated with digital measuring instruments and
also due to the effect that digital signals can be
transmitted over a long distance without causing
much distortion due to amplitude variation and
phase shift.

• Sometimes an analog transducer combined with an

ADC (analog-digital convector) is called a digital
transducer.
 Transducers and Inverse Transducers.
• Transducer, as already defined, is a device that
converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical
quantity.

• Normally a transducer and associated circuit has a

non-electrical input and an electrical output, for
example a thermo-couple, photoconductive cell,
pressure gauge, strain gauge etc.

• An inverse transducer is a device that converts an

electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity. It is
a precision actuator having an electrical input and a
low-power non-electrical output.
 Transducers and Inverse Transducers(cont’d)
• For examples a piezoelectric crystal and
transnational and angular moving-coil elements can be
employed as inverse transducers.

• Many data-indicating and recording devices are

basically inverse transducers.

• An ammeter or voltmeter converts electric current

into mechanical movement and the characteristics of
such an instrument placed at the output of a
measuring system are important. A most useful
application of inverse transducers is in feedback
measuring systems.
 Selection Of Transducers
• In a measurement system the transducer (or a
combination of transducers) is the input element
with the critical function of transforming some
physical quantity to a proportional electrical
signal.

• So selection of an appropriate transducer is

most important for having accurate results.
 Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
• The first step in the selection procedure is to
clearly define the nature of quantity under
measurement (measurand) and know the range
of magnitudes and frequencies that the
measurand is expected to exhibit.

• Next step will be to examine the available

transducer principles for measurement of
desired quantity. The type of transducer
selected must be compatible with the type and
range of the quantity to be measured and the
output device.
 Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
• In case one or more transducer principles are
capable of generating a satisfactory signal,
decision is to be taken whether to employ a
commercially available transducer or build a
suitable transducer.

• If the transducers are available in the market at

a suitable price, the choice will probably be to
purchase one of them, otherwise own transducer
will have to be designed, built and calibrated.
 Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
 The points to be considered in determining a
transducer suitable for a specific measurement are
as follows:
 Range. The range of the transducer should be large
enough to encompass all the expected magnitudes of
the measurand.
 Sensitivity. The transducer should give a sufficient
output signal per unit of measured input in order to
yield meaningful data.
 Electrical Output Characteristics. The electrical
characteristics-the output impedance, the
frequency response, and the response time of the
transducer output signal should be compatible with
the recording device and the rest of the measuring
system equipment.
 Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
• Physical Environment. The transducer selected
should be able to withstand the environmental
conditions to which it is likely to be subjected
while carrying out measurements and tests.

• Such parameters are temperature, acceleration,

shock and vibration, moisture, and corrosive
chemicals might damage some transducers but
not others.
 Selection Of Transducers(cont’d)
• Errors. The errors inherent in the operation of
the transducer itself, or those errors caused by
environmental conditions of the measurement,
should be small enough or controllable enough
that they allow meaningful data to be taken.

• However the total measurement error in a

transducer-activated system may be reduced to
fall within the required accuracy range by
adopting the following techniques.
 Errors(cont’d)
 Calibrating the transducer output against some
known standards while in use under actual test
conditions. This calibration should be performed
regularly as the measurement proceeds.

 Continuous monitoring of variations in the

environmental conditions of the transducer and
correcting the data accordingly.

 Controlling the measurement environment artificially

in order to reduce possible transducer errors.
Artificial environmental control includes the
enclosing of the transducer in a temperature-
controlled housing and isolating the device from
external shocks and vibrations.
 Displacement Measurements
• Measurements of size, shape, and position utilize
displacement sensors
• Examples
– diameter of part under stress (direct)
– movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid
movement through the heart (indirect)

• Primary Transducer Types

– Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
– Inductive Sensors
– Capacitive Sensors
– Piezoelectric Sensors

• Secondary Transducers
– Wheatstone Bridge
– Amplifiers
 Strain Gage: Gage Factor
• Remember: for a strained thin wire
– R/R = L/L – A/A + r/r
• A =  (D/2)2, for circular wire
D L

• Poisson’s ratio, : relates change in diameter D to

change in length L
– D/D = -  L/L
• Thus
– R/R = (1+2) L/L + r/r
dimensional effect piezoresistive effect

• Gage Factor, G, used to compare strain-gate materials

– G = R/R = (1+2) + r/r

L/L L/L
 What is Temperature?
A SIMPLIFIED DESCRIPTION OF TEMPERATURE

SOURCE: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/temper2.html#c1

"Temperature is a measure of the tendency of an object to

spontaneously give up energy to its surroundings. When two objects are
in thermal contact, the one that tends to spontaneously lose energy is at
the higher temperature
 Temperature Sensor Options
• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
– Platinum, Nickel, Copper metals are typically used
– positive temperature coefficients
• Thermistors (“thermally sensitive resistor”)
– formed from semiconductor materials, not metals
• often composite of a ceramic and a metallic oxide (Mn, Co, Cu or Fe)
– typically have negative temperature coefficients
• Thermocouples
– based on the Seebeck effect: dissimilar metals at diff. temps.  signal
 Fiber-optic Temperature Sensor
• Sensor operation
– small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped GaAs
attached to ends of two optical fibers
– light energy absorbed by the GaAs crystal depends on
temperature
– percentage of received vs. transmitted energy is a function of
temperature
• Can be made small enough for biological implantation

GaAs semiconductor temperature probe

 Thermistor
Thermistor – a resistor whose resistance changes with
temperature

• Resistive element is generally a metal-oxide ceramic

containing Mn, Co, Cu, or Ni
• Packaged in a thermally conductive glass bead or disk
with two metal leads
• Suppose we have a “1 kΩ thermistor”
• What does this mean?
• At room temperature, the resistance of the thermistor
is 1 kΩ
• What happens to resistance as we increase
temperature?
 Negative Temperature Coefficient
• Most materials exhibit a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC)
– Resistance drops with temperature!
 Example MEMS Transducers
• MEMS = micro-electro-mechanical system
– miniature transducers created using IC fabrication processes
• Microaccelerometer
– cantilever beam
– suspended mass

• Rotation
– gyroscope

• Pressure
Diaphragm (Upper electrode)

Lower electrode 5-10mm

 Passive Sensor Readout Circuit
• Photodiode Circuits

• Thermistor Half-Bridge
– voltage divider
– one element varies

• Wheatstone Bridge
– R3 = resistive sensor
– R4 is matched to nominal value of R3
– If R1 = R2, Vout-nominal = 0 VCC
– Vout varies as R3 changes
R1+R4
 Operational Amplifiers
• Properties
– open-loop gain: ideally infinite: practical values 20k-200k
• high open-loop gain  virtual short between + and - inputs
– input impedance: ideally infinite: CMOS opamps are close to ideal
– output impedance: ideally zero: practical values 20-100
– zero output offset: ideally zero: practical value <1mV
– gain-bandwidth product (GB): practical values ~MHz
• frequency where open-loop gain drops to 1 V/V
• Commercial opamps provide many different properties
– low noise
– low input current
– low power
– high bandwidth
– low/high supply voltage
– special purpose: comparator, instrumentation amplifier
 Basic Opamp Configuration
• Voltage Comparator
– digitize input

• Voltage Follower
– buffer

• Non-Inverting Amp • Inverting Amp

 More Opamp Configurations
• Summing Amp

• Differential Amp

• Integrating Amp

• Differentiating Amp
 Converting Configuration
• Current-to-Voltage

• Voltage-to-Current
 Instrumentation Amplifier
• Robust differential
gain amplifier gain stage

• Input stage
– high input impedance input stage
• buffers gain stage
– no common mode gain
– can have differential gain

• Gain stage
– differential gain, low input impedance total differential gain
2 R2  R1  R4 
• Overall amplifier Gd   
– amplifies only the differential component
R1  R3 
• high common mode rejection ratio
– high input impedance suitable for biopotential electrodes with high
output impedance
Instrumentation Amplifier w/ BP Filter

instrumentation amplifier HPF non-inverting amp

With 776 op amps, the circuit was found to have a CMRR of 86 dB at 100 Hz and a noise level of 40 mV peak to
peak at the output. The frequency response was 0.04 to 150 Hz for ±3 dB and was flat over 4 to 40 Hz. The total
gain is 25 (instrument amp) x 32 (non-inverting amp) = 800.
 Connecting Sensors to Microcontrollers
sensor µC keypad
signal timing
• Analog sensor memory display
instrument
– many microcontrollers have a built-in A/D
• 8-bit to 12-bit common
• many have multi-channel A/D inputs
• Digital
– serial I/O
• use serial I/O port, store in memory to analyze
• synchronous (with clock)
– must match byte format, stop/start bits, parity check, etc.
• asynchronous (no clock): more common for comm. than data
– must match baud rate and bit width, transmission protocol, etc.
– frequency encoded
• use timing port, measure pulse width or pulse frequency
Connecting Smart Sensors to PC/Network
• “Smart sensor” = sensor with built-in signal processing & communication
– e.g., combining a “dumb sensor” and a microcontroller
• Data Acquisition Cards (DAQ)
– PC card with analog and digital I/O
– interface through LabVIEW or user-generated code
• Communication Links Common for Sensors
– asynchronous serial comm.
• universal asynchronous receive and transmit (UART)
– 1 receive line + 1 transmit line. nodes must match baud rate & protocol
• RS232 Serial Port on PCs uses UART format (but at +/- 12V)
– can buy a chip to convert from UART to RS232

– synchronous serial comm.

• serial peripheral interface (SPI)
– 1 clock + 1 bidirectional data + 1 chip select/enable

– I2C = Inter Integrated Circuit bus

• designed by Philips for comm. inside TVs, used in several commercial sensor systems
– IEEE P1451: Sensor Comm. Standard
• several different sensor comm. protocols for different applications
 Sensor Calibration
• Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
– offset: nominal output ≠ nominal parameter value
– nonlinearity: output not linear with parameter changes
– cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g.,
temperature

• Calibration = adjusting output to match parameter

– analog signal conditioning 7.000

– look-up table 6.000

T1
– digital calibration 5.000
1001

Frequency (MHz)
• T = a + bV +cV2, 4.000
1010

T2 1001
– T= temperature; V=sensor voltage; 1101

offset
3.000

– a,b,c = calibration coefficients

1110
1111

• Compensation
2.000
T3
1.000

– remove secondary sensitivities 0.000

– must have sensitivities characterized -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30

Temperature (C)
40 50 60 70

– can remove with polynomial evaluation

• P = a + bV + cT + dVT + e V2, where P=pressure, T=temperature
 Hall Effect Sensor
• Hall Effect Sensor is a magnetic sensor. Magnetic sensors
convert magnetic or magnetically encoded information into
electrical signals for processing by electronic circuits.

• Magnetic sensors are solid state devices that are becoming more
and more popular because they can be used in many different
types of application such as sensing position, velocity or
directional movement.

• They are also a popular choice of sensor for the electronics

designer due to their non-contact wear free operation, their low
maintenance, robust design and as sealed hall effect devices are
immune to vibration, dust and water.
 Hall Effect Sensor…
• One of the main uses of magnetic sensors is in automotive
systems for the sensing of position, distance and speed.

• For example, the angular position of the crank shaft for

the firing angle of the spark plugs, the position of the car
seats and seat belts for air-bag control or wheel speed
detection for the anti-lock braking system, (ABS).

• Magnetic sensors are designed to respond to a wide range

of positive and negative magnetic fields in a variety of
different applications and one type of magnet sensor
whose output signal is a function of magnetic field
density around it is called the Hall Effect Sensor.
 Hall Effect Sensor…
• Hall Effect Sensors are devices which are activated by an
external magnetic field.

• We know that a magnetic field has two important

characteristics flux density, (B)

• The output signal from a Hall effect sensor is the function

of magnetic field density around the device. When the
magnetic flux density around the sensor exceeds a certain
pre-set threshold, the sensor detects it and generates an
output voltage called the Hall Voltage, VH.
Hall Effect Sensor
 Hall Effect Sensor…
• Hall Effect Sensors consist basically of a thin piece of
rectangular p-type semiconductor material such as
gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium antimonide (InSb) or
indium arsenide (InAs) passing a continuous current
through itself.

• When the device is placed within a magnetic field, the

magnetic flux lines exert a force on the semiconductor
material which deflects the charge carriers, electrons and
holes, to either side of the semiconductor slab.
 Hall Effect Sensor…
• This movement of charge carriers is a result of the
magnetic force they experience passing through the
semiconductor material.

• As these electrons and holes move side wards a potential

difference is produced between the two sides of the
semiconductor material by the build-up of these charge
carriers. Then the movement of electrons through the
semiconductor material is affected by the presence of an
external magnetic field which is at right angles to it and
this effect is greater in a flat rectangular shaped material.
 Hall Effect Sensor…
The effect of generating a measurable voltage by using a magnetic field is
called the Hall Effect after Edwin Hall who discovered it back in the 1870's
with the basic physical principle underlying the Hall effect being Lorentz
force. To generate a potential difference across the device the magnetic flux
lines must be perpendicular, (900) to the flow of current and be of the
correct polarity, generally a south pole. The Hall effect provides information
regarding the type of magnetic pole and magnitude of the magnetic field.
For example, a south pole would cause the device to produce a voltage
output while a north pole would have no effect. Generally, Hall Effect
sensors and switches are designed to be in the "OFF", (open circuit
condition) when there is no magnetic field present. They only turn "ON",
(closed circuit condition) when subjected to a magnetic field of sufficient
strength and polarity.