SENSOR CLASSIFICATION,

CHARACTERISTICS AND SIGNAL TYPES

Unit 1
 MEASUREMENT

• Measurement is a process by which the physical parameters are converted to

meaningful numbers.
• Comparing unknown quantities with predefined standards.
• The measuring process is one in which the property of an object or system under
consideration is compared to an accepted standard unit, a standard defined for that
particular property.

Basic requirements for meaningful measurement

• Standard used for comparison must be accurately defined, commonly
accepted
• Apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable
 SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENT

• Purpose of Measurement:-

1. To understand an event
2. To monitor and control an event
3. Collect data for future analysis.

• Basic Methods Of Measurement:-

1. Direct method
2. Indirect method
DIRECT COMPARISON METHOD
• Unknown quantity is compared directly with a primary or
secondary standard
• Primary Standards—Maintained by national standard laboratories in
different parts of the world for various quantities like length, mass, time
etc. Accuracy -108
• Secondary standard –Basic reference standard used in industrial
measurement laboratories. Accuracy-106

INDIRECT COMPARISON METHOD

• Unknown quantity is compared with a standard or meter which is compared or

checked with a primary or secondary standard which is kept in national
laboratories periodically.
• Eg:- Measurement of voltage using a voltmeter which is periodically calibrated
with a primary or secondary standard
 INSTRUMENTS
Measurement involve the use of instruments as a physical means of determining
quantities or variables.
Measurement System- Measuring instrument consists of several elements.
Three essential elements of instruments
• A detector
• A intermediate transfer device
• An indicator/recorder/storage device
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
1. Mechanical instruments
2. Electrical instruments
3. Electronics instruments

FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUMENT AND MEASUREMENT

SYSTEMS
• Indicating function
• Recording function
• Controlling function

APPLICATIONS OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

• Monitoring of process and operation
• Control of process and operation
• Experimental Engineering Analysis
 Elements Of Generalized
Measurement System
• Instrument- The device which is designed to maintain a functional relationship
between prescribed properties of physical variables and must include ways and means
of communication to human observation. The three main functional elements are:
• Primary sensing element
• Variable conversion element
• Data presentation element
Block diagram of measuring system
• Primary Sensing Element: The quantity under
measurement makes its first contact with this
element- Measurand is first detected by a primary
sensor. The act is followed by a transducer which
converts physical quantity into electrical quantity.

• Variable Conversion Element: It may be a voltage,

frequency or some other electrical parameter. For the
instrument to perform the desired function, it may be
necessary to convert this output to a suitable form
while preserving the information content of the
original signal.
• Variable Manipulation Element: The function is to
manipulate the signal presented to it preserving the original
nature of the signal.
Example: Electronic Amplifier

• Data Transmission Element: When the elements of the

instruments are actually separated physically, it becomes
necessary to transmit data from one to another.

Example: Controls are sent from earth control stations to

spacecraft by complicated telemetry systems.
• Data Presentation Element: The information about the
quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument for monitoring, control or
analysis purposes.
Example: Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
Schematic Diagram of a
Bourdon Tube
 UNITS
• Standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is
called a unit.

• The result of a measurement of physical quantity must be

defined both in unit and magnitude.
International standard of systems (SI units)
 Standards-
>It is a physical representation of a unit of measurement.

>It is applied to a piece of equipment having a known measure of

physical quantity.

>It is developed for other units of measurement including fundamental

units as well as for some of the derived mechanical and electrical units.
 Classification of Standards-

Standards are classified by their functions as-

• International standards
• Primary standards
• Secondary standards
• Working standards
International Standards –
>It is maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
>It is not available for ordinary users.
>It represents the units of measurement which are closest to the possible
accuracy attainable with present-day technological and scientific methods.
>It is checked and evaluated regularly against absolute
Measurements in terms of fundamental units.

Primary Standards-
>It is maintained by the National Standards Laboratory in different
parts of the world.
> The main function of primary standards is the verification and calibration
of secondary standards.
Secondary Standards-
>It is used in Industrial measurement laboratories.
>It is accessible to all measurement engineers.

Working Standards-
>It is used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for their
accuracy and performance.

Fundamental Standards-
>The four fundamental quantities of the International Measuring
system for which independent standards have been defined are mass,
length, time and temperature.
• CALIBRATION

A reference standard at least ten times more accurate

than the instrument under test is normally used.

Calibration is the process where the test instrument (the

instrument to be calibrated) is compared with the
standard instrument.
Generalized performance characteristics of Instruments

Static characteristics
• Some applications involve the measurement of
quantities that are constant or vary only slowly.

Dynamic characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics describe the quality of
measurement when the measured quantities are rapidly
varying quantities.
• Static calibration

-The static performance characteristics are obtained by one form or

another of the process of static calibration.

-Static calibration refers to a situation in which all inputs except one are
kept at some constant values.

-Then the one input under study is varied over some range of constant
values, which causes the outputs to vary over some range of constant
values.
Procedure for calibration

1. Examine the construction of the instrument, and identify and list all the
possible inputs

2. Decide which of the inputs will be significant in the application for which the
instrument is to be calibrated.

3. Select the apparatus that will allow you to vary all the significant inputs over
the ranges considered necessary. Select standards to measure each input.

4 By holding some inputs constant, varying others and recording the outputs
develop the desired static input-output relations.
 ERRORS

• Errors are defined as the measure of the estimated difference between observed or
calculated value and the true value

• They can only be minimized but not

eliminated completely.

• They interpret the result in an

intelligent manner.

Mathematically Error is defined as:

• Relative Error
• Percentage relative error
• Relative accuracy
• Percentage relative accuracy
• Full scale reading error.
 TYPES OF ERRORS
Basically, three types of errors are there:-
1.Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
a. Instrumental Errors
b. Environmental Errors
c. Observational Errors
3. Random Errors

Gross errors mainly occur due to human mistakes in reading

instruments, recording and calculating measurement results.
These errors are also called as personal errors.
For example, due to oversight, the temperature reading is 31.5,
while the actual reading maybe 21.5.
 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
• Systematic errors are due to the shortcomings of the instrument and the
characteristics of the material used in the instrument, such as defective or worn
parts, ageing effects, environmental effects etc.

• INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS- It is due to inherent shortcomings in the

instrument or it may occur due to overloading or misuse of the instruments.

• ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS- It occurs due to external conditions to

measuring devices like Temperature, Pressure, Humidity, Dust, Vibrations, etc.

• OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS- These errors are introduced by the observer. It

occurs due to parallax (apparent displacement when the line of vision is not
normal to scale), wrong scale reading or wrong recording data.
 RANDOM ERRORS

The happenings or disturbances out of which we are unaware of. These

unpredictable errors occur even when all the systematic errors are countered. They
cannot be corrected by any method.

REMEDIES
A large number of readings can be taken by different experiments at different
points of time.
Correction factors should be applied.
The instrument may be recalibrated carefully.
Keep the external conditions as constant as possible.
• Limiting errors (Guarantee errors)

-The accuracy is guaranteed to be within in certain percentage

of full-scale reading.
-The manufacturer has to specify the deviations from the
nominal value of a particular quantity.
-The limits of these deviations from the specified value are
defined as limiting errors or Guarantee errors.
 ERROR ANALYSIS
STATISTICAL METHODS
 INTRODUCTION
• The measured data should be analyzed to obtain the probable true value
of the measured quantity.
• Any measurement is associated with a certain amount of uncertainty.
• The systematic method of specifying this uncertainty is the statistical
method.
• Statistical methods: Methods of collecting, summarizing, analyzing, and
interpreting variable numerical data.

MEAN

The mean is the average of all numbers and is sometimes called the arithmetic
mean

For example, in a data center rack, five servers consume 100 watts, 98 watts, 105
watts, 90 watts and 102 watts of power, respectively. The mean power use of that
rack is calculated as (100 + 98 + 105 + 90 + 102 W)/5 servers = a calculated
mean of 99 W per server.
 MEDIAN
• The statistical median is the middle number in a sequence of numbers. To
find the median, organize each number in order by size; the number in the
middle is the median.

• FOR EXAMPLE:

For the five servers in the rack, arrange the power consumption figures from
lowest to highest: 90 W, 98 W, 100 W, 102 W and 105 W. The median power
consumption of the rack is 100 W. If there is an even set of numbers,
average the two middle numbers.

MODE
The mode is the number that occurs most often within a set of numbers.

FOR EXAMPLE:
There is a set of numbers 90 W, 104 W, 98 W, 98 W, 105 W, 92 W, 102 W, 100 W,
110 W, 98 W, 210 W and 115 W. The mode is 98 W since that power consumption
measurement occurs most often amongst the 12 servers.
 RANGE
The range is the difference between the highest and lowest values within a set of
numbers.

FOR EXAMPLE:

If a six-server rack includes 90 W, 98 W, 100 W, 102 W, 105 W and 110 W, the power
consumption range is 110 W - 90 W = 20 W.
• DEVIATION
 • STANDARD DEVIATION

Another term in the statistical analysis of random errors in

the standard deviation or the root mean square deviation.
• VARIANCE
Statistical methods of error analysis

Probability of errors
-By the nature of the random errors, the uncertainty associated
with any measurement cannot be predetermined.

-Only the probable error can be specified using statistical error

analysis.

(i) Normal distribution of errors (Histogram)

(ii) Normal or Gaussian curve of Errors
(iii)Probable error
(i) Normal distribution of errors (Histogram)
Normal or Gaussian curve of Errors
Probable error
-The most probable or best value of a Gaussian distribution is obtained by taking the
arithmetic mean of the various values of the variate.

-The confidence in the best value (most probable value) is connected with the sharpness of
the distribution curve.

ODDS AND UNCERTAINTY

-The probability of occurrence can be stated in terms of Odds.
-Odds is the number of chances that a particular reading will occur when the error limit is
specified.

Example: If the error limits are specified as± 0.6745 σ, the chances are that 50% of the
observations will lie between the above limits or in other words we can say that odds are 1 to
1.
Uncertainty

-Uncertainty is expressive of the range of indicated value from the true

value.
-It indicates the probable limits of which the indicated value may have due
to the influence of disturbing inputs.
-It is bipolar where as error maybe positive or negative depending on
whether the indicated value is higher or lower than the true value.
Uncertainty Analysis

Uncertainty is expressive of the range of indicated value from the true value.
-It indicates the probable limits which the indicated value may have due to the
influence of disturbing inputs.
-It is bipolar where an error maybe positive or negative depending on whether the
indicated value is higher or lower than the true value.
-Kline and McClintock have proposed a method based on probability and
statistics which analyses the data employing uncertainty distribution rather than
frequency distribution.
-Kline and McClintock suggest that a single sample result may be expressed
in terms of a mean value and an uncertainty interval based on stated odds.

Eg: 0 = 90°C± 1°C (20 to 1)

Propagation of Uncertainties
 SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Sensor
An element that senses a variation in input energy to
produce a variation in another or the same form of energy is
called a sensor.

Transducer
The transducer converts a specified measure into usable
output using the transduction principle.

Example: A properly cut piezoelectric crystal can be called a

sensor whereas it becomes a transducer with appropriate
electrodes and input/output mechanisms attached to it.
The sensor is the ·primary element of a transducer.
Classification of transducers
1. The physical effect employed
2. The physical quantity measured
3. The source of energy
Classification based on physical effect

The physical quantity applied as measurand (quantity to be measured) to the transducer

causes some physical changes in its element.
Primary Transducers and Secondary Transducers:
Bourdon tube acting as a primary detector senses the pressure and converts
the pressure into a displacement of its free end.
The displacement of the free end moves the core of a linear variable
differential transformer(LVDT) which produces an output voltage.

Analog Transducers:
These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a
continuous function of time.
Eg: ◦ Strain Gauge ◦ LVDT ◦ Thermocouple ◦ Thermistor

Digital Transducers:
These transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical output which is
in the form of pulses.

Eg: ◦ Glass Scale can be read optically by means of a light source, an optical system and
photocells
Transducers and Inverse Transducers
-A Transducer can be broadly defined as a device which converts a non-electrical quantity
into an electrical quantity.
Ex:- Resistive, inductive and capacitive transducers
-An inverse transducer is defined as a device which converts an electrical quantity into a
non-electrical quantity.
Ex:-Piezoelectric crystals
Electrical transducers

Advantages :
1. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be done easily and that to with a
static device.
2. The effect of friction is minimized.
3. The electric or electronic system can be controlled with a very small electric
power.
4. The electric power can be easily used, transmitted and process for the purpose
of measurement.

Drawbacks:
1. Low reliability in comparison to that of mechanical transducers due to the
ageing and drift of the active components.
2. Comparative high cost of electrical transducers and associated signal
conditioners.
3. The accuracy and resolution attainable are not as high as in mechanical
transducers.
Factor to be considered while selecting transducer:
• It should have high input impedance and low output impedance, to
avoid loading effect.
• It should have good resolution over is entire selected range.
• It must be highly sensitive to desired signal and insensitive to
unwanted signal.
• Preferably small in size.
• It should be able to work in corrosive environment.
• It should be able to withstand pressure, shocks, vibrations etc..
• It must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
• Selected transducer must be free from errors.
• The transducer circuit should have overload protection so that it will
withstand overloads.

Requirements of a good transducer

• Smaller in size and weight.
• High sensitivity.
• Ability to withstand environmental conditions.
• Low cost.
Applications of Transducers

Electromagnetic
Antennas, Hall-Effect Sensors, Disk Read and Write Heads, Magnetic Cartridges

Electromechanical
Accelerometers, Pressure Sensors, Galvanometers, LVDT, Load Cells, Potentiometers, MEMS, Linear and
Rotary Motors, Air Flow Sensors

Electrochemical
Hydrogen Sensors, Oxygen Sensors, pH Meters

Electroacoustic
Speakers (Loudspeakers, earphones), Microphones, Ultrasonic Transceivers, Piezoelectric Crystals, Sonar
Tactile Transducers

Photoelectric
LED, Photodiodes, Photovoltaic Cells, Laser Diodes, Photoresistors (LDR), Phototransistors
Incandescent and Fluorescent Lamps

Thermoelectric
Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD (Resistance Temperature Detectors)

Radio acoustic
Radio Transmitters and Receivers, G-M Tube (Geiger-Muller Tube)
Characteristics of Transducers
 Characteristics of Transducers
The performance characteristics of the transducer can be classified into two namely
(i) Static characteristics
(ii) Dynamic characteristics

Static characteristics are a set of performance criteria that give a meaningful

description of the quality of measurement when the measured quantities vary slowly
or still (constant) with time without becoming concerned with dynamic descriptions
involving differential equations.

Dynamic characteristics describe the quality of measurement when the measured

quantities vary rapidly with time. Here the dynamic relations between the instrument
input and output must be examined, generally by the use of differential equations.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
The main static characteristics are:

 Accuracy
 Sensitivity
 Reproducibility
 Drift
 Static error
 Dead zone
 Precision
 Repeatability
 Dead time
 Threshold
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCER

• Speed of Response.
• Measuring lag.
• Fidelity.
• Dynamic Error.
Speed of response:
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in the
measured quantity.

Measuring lag:
It is the retardation or delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the
measured quantity.

The measuring lags are of two types:

a) Retardation type: In this case, the response of the measurement system begins
immediately after the change in measured quantity has occurred.

b) Time delay lag: In this case, the response of the measurement system begins after a
dead time after the application of the input.
Fidelity:
It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measurement quantity without dynamic error.
Dynamic error:
It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time & the value
indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called as
measurement error.
MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF
TRANSDUCERS.
.
 Category of Transducer
• Dynamic characteristics refers to the performance of the transducer when it is
subjected to time-varying input
• The number of parameters required to define the dynamic behaviour of a
transducer is decided by the order of the transducer. The transducer can be
categorized into

• 1. Zero order transducer

• 2. First order transducer
• 3. Second order transducer
• 4. Higher order transducer

The order of a transducer is the highest derivative of the differential equation which
describes the dynamic behavior of a transducer for a specific input
e.g d3 y(t)/dt3 + d2y(t)/dt2 + dy(t)/dt + 4y(t) = r(t)
Y(t) output
R(t)input
 TEST INPUT
• Transducer are subjected to input which are random in nature
• The following test inputs are used to determine the dynamic behaviour of
the
transducer
• 1.Impulse input
• 2.Step input
• 3.Ramp input
• 4.Parabolic input
• 5.Sinusoidal input
 Zero order transducer.
The Input-Output relation of a
Zero order transducer is given
by:

y(t) = Kr(t)
Where r(t) is the I/P and y(t) is the O/P Signal.
K – Static sensitivity of the transducer
On applying Laplace transforms
Y(S) = KR(s)
{Y(s) / R(s) } = K
So we can say that:
1. Output varies exactly the same way as the input.
2. It represents the ideal dynamic performance.
Example : Potentiometer.
 First Order Transducer
Input- Output Relation of a first order transducer is given by

a1 {dy(t)/dt } + a0y(t) = b0u(t)

Where a1, a0 and b0 are parameters

of the transducers.
On applying Laplace transforms: K = b0 / a0 Static sensitivity
a1Sy(s) + a0Y(s) = b0U(s) Τ = a1 / a0 Time constant,
Y(s) [ a0 + a1s] = b0U(s)
Y(s)/U(s) = b0/ (a0 + a1s)
= (b0/a0) /{ 1 + (a1/a0)s }

Y(s) / U(s) = K/(Τs + 1)

The characteristics of first order transducer is defined by the two parameters namely static
sensitivity and time constant. Ex: Thermocouple
 Sensors
• A device which detects or measures a physical property.
• Sensors respond to process variables such as
temperature and pressure, sending an electrical signal to
the control system.
• Performance of Sensors:
– Sensor Attributes: Accuracy, Precision, Resolution, Sensitivity,
Range and Linearity.
– Other Terms: Range and Span, Error, Accuracy, Sensitivity,
Hysteresis error, Non-linearity error, Repeatability, Stability,
Dead band, Resolution, Output impedance.
 Sensors classification
• Different criteria used for classifying the
sensors are,
• Transduction Principle using physical and
chemical effects.
• Primary input quantity.
• Material & Technology
• Application
• Property.
 Sensor Calibration
• One-point calibration: It is the simplest type of calibration. If your sensor output is
already scaled to useful measurement units, a one-point calibration can be used to
correct for sensor offset errors.

• Two-point calibration: It can be used in cases where the sensor output is known to be
reasonably linear over the measurement range.

Corrected Value = (((Raw Value –

Raw Low) * Reference Range) /
Raw Range) + Reference Low
Sensor Output Signal Types
PWM
Serial Digital