Initially I thought we all have computer network background, therefore I felt there is no need

to go over the computer network. I was wrong. Therefore, we need to put ourselves through
this topic and at least refresh our memory on the subject.
COMPUTER NETWORKS
A computer network is the interconnection of computing devices, that is, to attach a device to
a network to connect it to the other devices that are already attached to the network. At the
same time, the user of the device is connected to the users of other devices.
The advantages that stem from this connectivity are that a device can:
a. communicate with other devices on the network, and
b. share resources with other devices as well.
The computer network made these services available for the devices on the network.
Computer networks can offer a range of communication services such as electronic mail
(email) that provides the users of computers with a fast exchange of mail service. Another
example is social chat for providing users with the ability to exchange short texts, pictures,
audio and video in real time. Other examples include Internet applications such Facebook,
Twitter, Skype and WhatsApp; and E-commerce to conduct business online. Companies such
as Amazon and Alibaba provide the services to users to purchase and sell items online. The
listed examples are on communication services.
Before we continue, could you pause to consider the kind of resources shared by the users on
a computer network. The resources that can be shared include:
a) computing facilities
b) storage
c) printers
d) devices
e) software
f) information

These items can be broadly classified as software and hardware. The software category
includes information, expertise, software and, broadly, anything that can be stored in digital
form in a file. The hardware category includes the computer hardware, probably to be used
for computing, and computer peripherals, including storage devices to be used for storage.
A service is usually provided for sharing software and a different one for sharing hardware.
Since most software items are stored in a file form, the service for sharing them usually takes
the form of a file transfer service.
For example, figure 1 illustrates a network segment contains three computers and one printer.
All the computers in a network share one printer for all printing jobs.

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Figure 1: Computer1, 2, 3 and a printer in a network

Components that make up a computer network

A computer network is made up of software and hardware. Hardware is needed to create the
physical network to connect the computers, and to provide the communication
channels/medium of the network.

Figure 2: Hardware components of a computer network

Figure 2 illustrates some of the hardware used in making a computer network.
1. Hosts: A host is a device connected to the network. This can be computers,
laptops, smartphones, tablets, TVs, gaming consoles, etc.
2. Communication links: Hosts are connected using communication links and
network devices. Communication links are made up of different types of physical
media, copper wires, coaxial cable, radio spectrum and optical fibre.
3. Network devices: Network devices take incoming network messages from one
communication link and switch them to another communication link. There are
different types of devices in the network, with the common types being routers
and switches.

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Network software is needed to provide the necessary network services to make this hardware:
i. usable,
ii. reliable, and
iii. transparent

Application software is software needed for different types of communication and resource
sharing on the network. Without it, hardware on the network cannot perform anything. The
application software provides the services that will be available over this communication
network. The application software in this environment is said to be distributed, since the
application is installed on multiple devices that exchange data with each other.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
There are different types of computer networks.
Computer networks can be categorised by their size or their purpose. We will discuss
different types of computer networks characterised by size.
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) PAN is a network organised around an individual. An
example of PAN is a desktop computer. A desktop computer has a monitor, mouse and
keyboard connected to it. Another example of PAN is the network made between the
computer and smartphone when doing syncing.
2. Local Area Network (LAN) LAN is devised to meet the needs of a small group of people
in the same location, consisting of a communication link to which all the computers can be
attached. An example of LAN is a network between computers in the Department of
Computer Science Laboratory of the university.
When all the computers on the network are carrying out similar tasks or are used by the
members of the group to achieve some overall tasks, it is useful to have a computer on the
network to hold the shared resources or to store the results of co-operative efforts. Such a
computer is called a server, and, for the moment, we can think of a server simply as a
computer that holds resources needed by other computers. There is also the issue of how a
few computers can share one communication link, but that is a topic for a subsequent chapter.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) A Metropolitan Area Network covers an entire city,
campus or small region. Put differently, MANs link up a bunch of LANS. An example of
MAN is a network that links up the university main and mini campuses.
4. Wide Area Network (WAN) WAN covers a large area. A well-known example of WAN is
the Internet. The Internet, of course, provides global connectivity. It does this by linking
together other networks such as networks belonging to organisations, national data networks
and so on. The internet connects traditional desktop PCs, workstations, computer servers,
laptops, smartphones, tablets, TVs, gaming consoles, automobiles and sensing devices
throughout the world. Home computers connect to the internet through the Internet Service
Provider (ISP).
ISPs provides a wide range of types of network access to computers, including Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL): Computers connect to the ISP using an existing telephone line as
shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) using existing telephone line
Telephone Line
Most homes have telephone copper wires already installed. To make a computer use an
existing telephone line for Internet connection, a DSL modem must be connected to a
computer and the telephone line.
The DSL modem converts digital data from a computer to analogue data to be transmitted
over the copper telephone wires. On the ISP end, a Digital Subscriber Line Access
Multiplexer (DSLAM) converts the analogue signal back to digital. The data transmitted over
the telephone line is encoded at a different frequency from that of the traditional telephone
signal. This allows simultaneous transmission of data and telephone signals.
Cable Internet
Unlike DSL, cable Internet uses existing home television cables. However, Like DSL,
computers need cable modems to connect to television cables. The cable modem converts
digital data to analogue signals. On the ISP end, a cable modem termination system (CMTS)
converts the analogue signal back to digital. One feature that makes cable Internet different
from DSL is that all homes connected to the same television cable share the same broadcast
medium.
Fibre
This type of network access provides a high-speed fibre cable from the ISP directly to the
home. A fibre cable uses glass (or plastic) to transmit data as a light wave. A fibre cable can
reach transmission rates of up to 43 terabits per second.
Network Architecture
Network Architecture A network's architecture or topology is essentially the arrangement of
various network elements. In a good architecture, hardware and software will be well
matched to each other.
Figures 4 shows the ways of linking computers together.
Bus topology: All computers connect to a single backbone line as shown in figure 4a

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Figure 4a: Bus Topology
Star topology: All computers connect to a central device called a hub or switch.

Figure 4b: Star Topology

Ring topology: Computers are connected in a logical ring. Data moves in a circular way from
one computer to another on the network.

Figure 4c: Ring Topology

Mesh topology: Mesh network is fully connected in that every computer is connected directly
to all the others.

Figure 4d: Mesh Topology

Now consider what happen when computer 1 needs to send a message to computer 4.
1. In the star topology, computer 1 sends its message to the central node, which then forwards
it to computer 4. In fact, this is the procedure that any two computers must follow to
exchange a message.

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2. In the mesh topology, the sending computer selects that connection, linking it to the
destination computer, and sends its message directly to its destination.
3. In a ring topology, computer 1 is not connected directly to computer 4, but it can forward
its message to computer 2, which is connected to computer 4 and can, in turn, forward the
message to it.
The general procedure is that if the sending computer is connected directly to the destination
computer it sends its message directly to it; otherwise, it forwards it to a computer that is
nearer to the destination computer which, in turn, does the same thing.
4. In the bus topology, computer 1 puts the message in the backbone line. All the computers
connected to the backbone receive the message but only the computer addressed will respond
to the message.
The discussion illustrates how the software that determines how a network is to operate - in
this case, the rules for routing messages across a network - depends on the topology of the
network. The two components of the network architecture must be matched to each other.
The consequences of not matching software and network topology can be disastrous (imagine
if the routing protocol for the star network were to be used on the mesh network).
Uniformity and Standards

Usually, there is a requirement to connect computing devices of any kind to a network. This
raises a problem in that different types of devices work in different ways, so that it is not at
all clear whether, for example, messages produced by one device and sent to another can be
decoded/interpreted the same by the receiving device. To allow devices of different kinds to
exchange information meaningfully (that is, in such a way that the information means the
same thing to all the devices involved in the exchange), there is a need to enforce uniformity.
This may be achieved by agreeing on a standard way of working to which all devices
attached to the same network must conform.

The standards developed to govern hardware and software on a computer network are called
network protocols. Network protocols are organised into layers. Each layer can have many
protocols, implemented either by software, hardware, or both. In the layered architecture,
protocols of one layer provide services to the protocols on the layer above.

A protocol suite is the definition of the protocols, and the protocol stack is the software
implementation of protocols. Many protocol suites have been proposed, but the most popular
suites include the ISO OSI reference model and the TCP/IP protocol suite.

The ISO OSI reference model is proposed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). It consists of seven layers which are:

application layer,

presentation layer,

session layer,

transport layer,

network layer,

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data link layer, and

physical layer.

The TCP/IP protocol stack consists of five layers. These are:

the application,

transport,

network,

link and

physical layers.

Figure 5 shows the ISO OSI and TCP/IP protocol suites.

Figure 5: ISO OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP Protocol

The application layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite must do the presentation and session-layer
services if needed. Otherwise, the functionality of the transport, network, data link and
physical layers are virtually similar in both protocol suites.

We shall discuss each layer of the OSI model.

Application layer: Protocols that govern the design of network applications are found at the
application layer. For example, a web browser like Mozilla Firefox uses the HTTP protocol
to transfer documents on the Web from Web servers to the host computer. Other protocols
include SMTP (for the transfer of email) and FTP (for the transfer of files between two
computers).

Presentation layer: The presentation layer provides services that allow communicating
applications to interpret the meaning of data exchanged. The presentation layer is responsible
for the following:

Data encryption/decryption

Character/string conversion

Data compression and

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Graphic handling

Data between applications can be communicated in different formats via different sources.
Thus, the presentation layer is responsible for integrating all formats into a standard format
for efficient and effective communication.

Session layer: The session layer is responsible for opening, closing and managing a session
(semi permanent dialogue) between two end points. Protocols at this layer include RPC,
ADSP and SCP.

Transport layer: The transport layer protocols transport messages between application end
points. The popular protocols at the transport layer are TCP and UDP. TCP is connection-
oriented, meaning it establishes a connection between two end points before transporting a
message. Conversely, UDP is connectionless-oriented. UDP does not guarantee delivery of
messages. Transport layer protocols break the long messages from the application layer into
shorter messages called segments.

Network layer: A computer network can have many devices connected to it. For example,
the Internet connects hundreds of millions of devices. To send an email from one country to
another, the email will pass through various network devices before reaching its destination.
The network-layer protocols are responsible for routing packets through a series of network
devices – routers – between the source and destination.

When the transport layer passes a data segment down to the network layer, it becomes a
network-layer packet known as a datagram. IP protocol is the most popular network-layer
protocol.

Link layer: When the network-layer protocol wants to route a packet from one node to the
next node, it passes the packet down to the link-layer protocols, which deliver the packet.
Examples of link-layer protocols include Ethernet and WiFi protocols. When the network-
layer packet is passed down to the link layer, it becomes a link-layer packet known as a
frame.

Physical layer: The responsibility of the physical-layer protocols is to move individual bits
in the link-layer frame from one node to another. The protocols in this layer are link-layer
dependent.

Data, Codes and Styles

Computers process data and communication networks transmit data, so we need to be clear
about what data is. We can regard it as sequences of 0's and 1's but with the provision that the
sequences represent something. For example, they can represent numbers:

It is important for you to know the decimal-to-binary and binary-to-decimal conversions.

They can represent alphanumeric characters. The American Standard Code for Information
Exchange (ASCII) is one such representation.

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Network Devices

Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that are required for
communication and interaction between hardware on a computer network.

These devices include

1. Hub
2. Switch
3. Router
4. Bridge
5. Gateway
6. Modem
7. Repeater
8. Access Point

1. Hub

Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a
repeater in that it amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over
connecting cables. A hub is the simplest in the family of network connecting devices
because it connects LAN components with identical protocols.

A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been
configured to prepare for the formatting of the incoming data. For example, if the
incoming data is in digital format, the hub must pass it on as packets; however, if the
incoming data is analog, then the hub passes it on in signal form.

Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions; they just send data
packets to all connected devices. Hubs operate at the Physical layer of the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. There are two types of hubs: simple and
multiple port.

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 A Hub

2. Switch

Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport
device that improves network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing
information about nodes in the internal network, and it allows connections to systems
like hubs or routers. Strands of LANs are usually connected using switches.
Generally, switches can read the hardware addresses of incoming packets to transmit
them to the appropriate destination.

Using switches improves network efficiency over hubs or routers because of the
virtual circuit capability. Switches improve network security because the virtual
circuits are more difficult to examine with network monitors. You can think of a
switch as a device that has some of the best capabilities of routers and hubs combined.
A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the Network layer of the OSI
model. A multilayer switch is one that can operate at both layers, which means that it
can operate as both a switch and a router. A multilayer switch is a high-performance
device that supports the same routing protocols as routers.

Switch

3. Router

Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path through the sea
of interconnected networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are
intelligent devices, and they store information about the networks they’re connected
to. Most routers can be configured to operate as packet-filtering firewalls and use
access control lists (ACLs). Routers, in conjunction with a channel service unit/data
service unit (CSU/DSU), are also used to translate from LAN framing to WAN
framing. This is needed because LANs and WANs use different network protocols.
Such routers are known as border routers. They serve as the outside connection of a
LAN to a WAN, and they operate at the border of your network.

Router is also used to divide internal networks into two or more subnetworks. Routers
can also be connected internally to other routers, creating zones that operate
independently. Routers establish communication by maintaining tables about
destinations and local connections. A router contains information about the systems
connected to it and where to send requests if the destination isn’t known. Routers
usually communicate routing and other information using one of three standard

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 protocols: Routing Information Protocol (RIP), Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) or
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).

Routers are your first line of defense, and they must be configured to pass only traffic
that is authorized by network administrators. The routes themselves can be configured
as static or dynamic. If they are static, they can only be configured manually and stay
that way until changed. If they are dynamic, they learn of other routers around them
and use information about those routers to build their routing tables.

Routers are general-purpose devices that interconnect two or more heterogeneous

networks. They are usually dedicated to special-purpose computers, with separate
input and output network interfaces for each connected network. Because routers and
gateways are the backbone of large computer networks like the internet, they have
special features that give them the flexibility and the ability to cope with varying
network addressing schemes and frame sizes through segmentation of big packets into
smaller sizes that fit the new network components. Each router interface has its own
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) module, its own LAN address (network card
address) and its own Internet Protocol (IP) address. The router, with the help of a
routing table, has knowledge of routes a packet could take from its source to its
destination. The routing table, like in the bridge and switch, grows dynamically. Upon
receipt of a packet, the router removes the packet headers and trailers and analyses the
IP header by determining the source and destination addresses and data type and
noting the arrival time. It also updates the router table with new addresses not already
in the table. The IP header and arrival time information is entered in the routing table.
Routers normally work at the Network layer of the OSI model.

Router

4. Bridge

Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The
basic role of bridges in network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between
the different segments that the bridge connects. They use hardware Media Access
Control (MAC) addresses for transferring frames. By looking at the MAC address of
the devices connected to each segment, bridges can forward the data or block it from
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 crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two physical LANs into a larger logical
LAN.

Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are
used to divide larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical
network segments and managing the flow of data between the two.

Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect LAN
components with identical protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data packets,
known as frames, for addresses before they are forwarded. As it filters the data
packets, the bridge makes no modifications to the format or content of the incoming
data. The bridge filters and forwards frames on the network with the help of a
dynamic bridge table. The bridge table, which is initially empty, maintains the LAN
addresses for each computer in the LAN and the addresses of each bridge interface
that connects the LAN to other LANs. Bridges, like hubs, can be either simple or
multiple port.

Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been replaced by
switches, which offer more functionality. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to
as “multiport bridges” because of how they operate.

Bridge

5. Gateway
Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI model. At the
Transport layer and above, there are numerous protocols and standards from different
vendors; gateways are used to deal with them. Gateways provide translation between
networking technologies such as Open System Interconnection (OSI) and
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways
connect two or more autonomous networks, each with its own routing algorithms,
protocols, topology, domain name service, and network administration procedures and
policies.

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 Gateways perform all of the functions of routers and more. In fact, a router with
added translation functionality is a gateway. The function that does the translation
between different network technologies is called a protocol converter.

Gateway

6. Modem
Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog
telephone lines. Thus, digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals
of different frequencies and transmitted to a modem at the receiving location. The
receiving modem performs the reverse transformation and provides a digital output to
a device connected to a modem, usually a computer. The digital data is usually
transferred to or from the modem over a serial line through an industry standard
interface, RS-232. Many telephone companies offer DSL services, and many cable
operators use modems as end terminals for identification and recognition of home
and personal users. Modems work on both the Physical and Data Link layers.

Modem

7. Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can think
of repeater as a device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or
higher power so that the signal can cover longer distances, more than 100 meters for
standard LAN cables. Repeaters work on the Physical layer.

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 Repeater

8. Access Point
While an access point (AP) can technically involve either a wired or wireless
connection, it commonly means a wireless device. An AP works at the second OSI
layer, the Data Link layer, and it can operate either as a bridge connecting a standard
wired network to wireless devices or as a router passing data transmissions from one
access point to another.

Wireless access points (WAPs) consist of a transmitter and receiver (transceiver)

device used to create a wireless LAN (WLAN). Access points typically are separate
network devices with a built-in antenna, transmitter and adapter. APs use the wireless
infrastructure network mode to provide a connection point between WLANs and a
wired Ethernet LAN. They also have several ports, giving you a way to expand the
network to support additional clients. Depending on the size of the network, one or
more APs might be required to provide full coverage. Additional APs are used to
allow access to more wireless clients and to expand the range of the wireless network.
Each AP is limited by its transmission range — the distance a client can be from an
AP and still obtain a usable signal and data process speed. The actual distance
depends on the wireless standard, the obstructions and environmental conditions
between the client and the AP. Higher end APs have high-powered antennas, enabling
them to extend how far the wireless signal can travel.

APs might also provide many ports that can be used to increase the network’s size,
firewall capabilities and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service.
Therefore, we get APs that are a switch, DHCP server, router and firewall.

To connect to a wireless AP, you need a service set identifier (SSID) name. 802.11
wireless networks use the SSID to identify all systems belonging to the same network,
and client stations must be configured with the SSID to be authenticated to the AP.
The AP might broadcast the SSID, allowing all wireless clients in the area to see the
AP’s SSID. However, for security reasons, APs can be configured not to broadcast the
SSID, which means that an administrator needs to give client systems the SSID
instead of allowing it to be discovered automatically. Wireless devices ship with
default SSIDs, security settings, channels, passwords and usernames. For security
reasons, it is strongly recommended that you change these default settings as soon as
possible because many internet sites list the default settings used by manufacturers.

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 Access points can be fat or thin. Fat APs, sometimes still referred to as autonomous
APs, need to be manually configured with network and security settings; then they are
essentially left alone to serve clients until they can no longer function. Thin APs allow
remote configuration using a controller. Since thin clients do not need to be manually
configured, they can be easily reconfigured and monitored. Access points can also be
controller-based or stand-alone.

Access Point

Network Classes

An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a local network.
IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules governing the format of data sent
via the internet or local network. An IP address has two parts: the network ID, and a host ID.
Network class is the categorization of Internet Protocol (IP) addresses based on the number of
bits use to represent the network ID and host ID.

There are five classes of subnetworks. These are Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and
Class E. Each class relates to a specific range of IP addresses. Classes A, B, and C are the
most used networks. Each IP address has four octet number separated by dot. These make a
total of 32bits. The first octet i.e. first 8bits represent the class as listed below.

Class A: First Octet Value 0-126

Class B: First Octet Value 128-191

Class C: First Octet Value 192-233

Class D: First Octet Value 224-239

Class E: First Octet Value 240-255

Note that 127 is not accounted for because it denotes a loopback address.

A Class A IP address reserves 8 bits for identifying network while the remaining 24 bits
identifies hosts. Its IP address spans from 0 to 126. The Class A subnet mask is 255.0.0.0.
Accordingly, Class A IP addresses are best used to serve incredibly large networks.

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Class B IP uses 2 octets for network and 2 octets for host identification. Class B IP addresses
are better suited to serving smaller networks since they reserve 14 bits for a network, which
leaves only 18 bits for hosts. Network addresses for these range from 128 to 191.
Consequently, the default subnet mask for Class B is 255.255.0.0.

In addition, Class C IP addresses are normally assigned to a very small-sized network. Their
IP addresses range from 192 to 233 and their default subnet mask is 255.255.255.0.

It’s important to keep in mind that although it seems counterintuitive, the less bits an IP
address reserves for a network, the more apt it is to serve subnets on bigger networks. This is
because subnets are implemented on the host side of an IP address (so more network bits
mean less bits for the host to offer a subnet mask).

Subnet classes are made unique by the number of bits their IP addresses have dedicated to a
network and the number of bits dedicated to hosts. They each have a default subnet mask.
Classes can be identified by the number in the first octet of their address.

The Classes D and Class E IP addresses are used for special purposes. Class D IP address is
exclusively reserved for multicasting applications. Multicasting is a method of routing data
on a computer network that allows a single or group of senders to communicate with a group
of receivers. Unlike Classes A, B, and C, Class D is not available for use in normal
networking operations. They don’t have subnet potential because there are no host bits within
the Class D address space.

Class E is created for future use, research, and development. Although these IP addresses are
reserved, their actual use has never developed. As a result, most network implementations
disregard this class altogether.

IP Address and Subnet Mask

Every class of IP has subnet mask use to identify the network and host parts of any IP
address. The default mask for class A is 255.0.0.0, class B is 255.255.0.0 and class C has
255.255.255.0.

IP address is a logical numeric address assigned to every single computer, printer, Gigabit
Ethernet switch, router, or any other device in a TCP/IP-based network, with each of them
possessing a unique IP address. An IP address consists of 4-bytes of data. A byte consists of 8
bits (a bit is a single digit, and it could only be either a 1 or 0), therefore we have a total of 32
bits for each IP address.

This is an example of IP address in binary: 10101100. 00010000. 11111110.00000011. To

simplify things, the decimal representation is usually used to make IP address like this: 172.
16. 254. 3

Subnetting is the process to divide the larger network into smaller sub-networks (subnets).
Within the subnet, IP address is reserved to identify the subnet and another one to identify the
broadcast address. Subnetting breaks up larger networks into small parts, which is more
efficient and would conserve a great number of addresses.

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Subnet mask divides the IP address into a network address and host address, hence, to
identify which part of IP address is reserved for the network and which part is available for
host use. Once the IP address and its subnet mask are given, the network address (subnet) of a
host can be determined.

CIDR Notation

CIDR stands for Classless Inter-Domain Routing, and is used in IPv4, and more recently,
IPv6 routing. CIDR was introduced in 1993 to slow the usage of IPv4 addresses, which were
quickly being exhausted under the older Classful IP addressing system that the internet was
first built on.

CIDR encompasses a couple of major concepts. The first is Variable Length Submasking
(VLSM), which basically allowed network engineers to create subnets within subnets. And
those subnets could be different sizes, so there would be fewer unused IP addresses. The
second major concept CIDR introduced is CIDR notation.

CIDR notation is just shorthand for the subnet mask and represents the number of bits
available to the IP address. For instance, the /24 in 192.168.0.101/24 is equivalent to the IP
address 192.168.0.101 and the subnet mask 255.255.255.0.

1. If a host on a network has the address 172.16.45.14/29, what is the subnetwork this
host belongs to?
2. What is the subnetwork address for a host with the IP address 200.10.5.66/28?
3. What is the subnet mask address for a host with the IP address 200.10.5.66/18?
4. The two parts of an IP address are ……………. and …………………….
5. What is the maximum number of IP addresses that can be assigned to hosts on a local
subnet that uses the 255.255.255.224 subnet mask?
6. You have an interface on a router with the IP address of 192.168.192.10/29. Including
the router interface, how many hosts can have IP addresses on the LAN attached to
the router interface?

Consider the network requirement of a university as computer lab given below

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Given the Class C network of 192.168.5.0/24, determine the subnets of the network that meet
the labs host requirements shown.

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