Rutherford model of atom-conclusion

The large angle scattering of α- particle could happen ,only if it must

experience a large repulsive force. This force could be provided if the
greater part of the mass of the atom and its + charge were
concentrated tightly in a very small region of space. Then the incoming
α- particle could get very close to the + charge without penetrating it
and such a close encounter would result in a large deflection.

so, according to Rutherford ,

“An atom has a tiny +vely charged core called nucleus which
contains most of the mass of the atom. The electrons move in orbits
around the nucleus because if they were at rest,they would fall in to the
nucleus due to the electrostatic attraction between the +ve nucleus and
–ve charge of electrons”.

Alpha-particle trajectory
The trajectory of an α- particle can be computed by coulomb’s law for
electrostatic force of repulsion between the α- particle and the +vely
charged nucleus.

ie; F= ,where, r → the distance between α- particle and the

nucleus.

This force is directed along the line joining the α- particle and the
nucleus.
  The α- particles 3 &3’ which pass through the atom at a large
distance from the nucleus. so it experience small repulsive force
due to nucleus and hence undergo very small deflection.

 The α- particles 2 &2’ which pass closer to the nucleus experience

large repulsive force and hence scatter through large angles.

 Very rarely ,the α- particles such as 1 travels head-on towards

the nucleus and slows down due to the repulsive force of the
nucleus and finally stops and is then repelled back. So it suffers
deflection of 1800.

Impact Parameter
The shape of the trajectory of the scattered alpha-particle depends on
the impact parameter (b).
It is defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity of the α -
particle from the centre of the nucleus, when it is far away from
the atom.
  When b is large,the repulsive force experienced by α- particles is
small ,so that α- particles is scattered through a small angle(θ
 When b is small,the repulsive force experienced by α- particles is
large ,so that α- particles is scattered through a large angle(θ

 For head-on collision,b=0 and so that θ=π . In this case ,the α-

particle retraces its path.
Electron orbits
The electrostatic force of attraction Fe between the electrons and the
nucleus provides the required centripetal force Fc to keep them in their
orbits.
Thus for a dynamically stable orbit in a hydrogen atom,
Fe=Fc

=
An electron revolving around the nucleus possesses both KE and PE.
Ek=-T.E
Ep=2T.E
Atomic spectra
Emission spectrum
Each element has a characteristic spectrum of radiation, which it emits.
When an atomic gas or vapour is excited at low pressure, usually by
passing an electric current through it, the emitted radiation has a
spectrum which contains certain specific wavelengths only. A spectrum
of this kind is termed as emission line spectrum.
Absorption spectrum
If light is passed though hydrogen gas taken in a glass tube, the atoms
will absorb certain wavelengths for the excitation to higher states. Thus
if we analyse the light coming out we can see dark lines in a bright
background. The dark lines correspond to the wavelengths absorbed by
the hydrogen atoms. Here the spectrum is known as absorption
spectrum.
Emission lines in the spectrum of hydrogen.

Spectral series
 The line emission spectrum of hydrogen includes a series of lines
in the visible region of the spectrum. Four of the most prominent
lines in this region occurs at the wavelength
656.3nm,486.1nm,434.1nm and 410.3nm. This series in the visible
region of the hydrogen spectrum is called Balmer series.
  The line with the longest w.l 656.3nm in the red is called Hα.
 The next line with w.l 486.1nm in the blue-green is called Hβ.
 The third line 434.1 nm in the violet is called Hγ and so on.
 As the w.l decreases, the lines appear closer together and are
weaker in intensity.
Balmer found a simple empirical formula for the observed w.ls.
1/λ=R*1/22-1/n2]
Where,
λ=w.l
R=Rydberg constant(R=1.09×107m-1)
N=may have integral values 3,4,5….)

Emission Lines in Balmer Series

Limitations of Rutherford’s model of atom

i) According to the classical electromagnetic theory, a charged particle

in circular motion (accelerated motion) should radiate energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiations. As a result of continuous emission
of radiations, the energy of electrons should continuously decrease.
The electron should follow a spiral path and finally fall into the nucleus.
So the atom must not be stable. But the atom is a very stable structure.
Thus Rutherford’s model fails to account for the stability of the atom.
ii)Rutherford’s model does not give any particular value for the radius
of electronic orbit. This should mean that an electron can emit
radiations of all possible frequencies. Thus atom should give a
continuous spectrum. But the experiments give a line spectrum. Thus
Rutherford’s model does not explain the line spectra of atoms.

Bohr’s Model of Hydrogen atom

The drawbacks of Rutherford’s model were removed by Niels Bohr in

1913. He suggested that laws of classical mechanics and
electromagnetism which are applicable to big bodies and cannot be
applied blindly to the sub atomic particles like electrons.

Following are the 3 postulates added by Niels Bohr.

1)Bohr’s first postulate was that an electron in an atom could revolve in

certain stable orbits ,they do not radiate energy in spite of their
acceleration towards the centre of the orbits. For this reason, these
permitted orbits are called stable or stationary orbits.
2) Bohr’s second postulate states that the electron revolves around the
nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular momentum is some
integral multiple of h/2π where h is the Planck’s constant .Thus the
angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is quantised.
ie; L = nh/2π

3) Bohr’s third postulate states that an electron might make a transition

from outer stationary orbits of higher energy to the inner stationary
orbit of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having
energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final
states.
hγ = Ei – Ef , where Ei and Ef are the energies of the initial and final
states and Ei > Ef .

Q) Using Bohr’s Theory derive expressions for

(i) radii of orbits

(ii)velocity of electrons in orbits

(iii)energy of electrons in orbits of Hydrogen atom

Ans:

Consider an electron revolving around the nucleus in the nth

stationary orbit.

The total energy E of the electron in a hydrogen atom is given by,

E= …………………(1)

According to bohr’s 2nd postulate,

L=nh/2π

mvnrn= nh/2π

rn=n × ……………………(2)

Also,

rn= ……………………….(3)

comparing (2) and (3)

n × =

= ………………….(4)

Sub (4) in (2)

rn= h/2π)²× …………………(5)

In general,

rn= ]n²
For n = 1 we get the smallest radius. This represents the normal state of
the hydrogen atom.

This is the radius of the lowest orbit and is known as Bohr radius.

ie; r1=

So the total energy from (1) is,

En=

En =— …………………….(6)

Sub the values,

En= J

En= eV………………….(7)

As n increases, En becomes less negative ie, energy increases.

The different Energy levels of hydrogen

We have,

En= eV

This equation gives the binding energy of the electron in the nth orbit of
hydrogen atom. The negative sign shows that the electron is bound to
the nucleus.

For n = 1

E1=-13.6 eV

This is the ground state energy of hydrogen atom.This gives the

ionisation energy of electron. [ ionisation energy is the energy required
to free an electron completely out of the atom. (ie from

the ground state to n = ∞)]

at room temp,most of the hydrogen atoms are in the ground state. If

hydrogen atom absorbs energy,it may be promoted to one of the
higher orbits(ie; n=2,3,4…..). The atom then said to be in the excited
state.

The energy level diagram for hydrogen atom as shown below.

In this diagram,the highest energy state corresponds to n= and has an
energy of 0 eV. This is the energy of the atom when the electron is
completely removed from the nucleus.

Line spectra of the hydrogen atom

Derive Rydberg Formula

According to Bohr’s frequency condition,

Spectral lines of hydrogenatom

i. Lyman series

The spectral line of this series corresponds to the transition of an

electron from some higher energy state to the innermost orbit (n = 1).
For Lyman series, n1 = 1

and n2 = 2, 3, 4, .....

1/λ=R [ — ]

Lyman series lies in the ultra violet region.

ii) Balmer series

The spectral lines of this series correspond to the transition of an

electron from some higher state to an orbit having n = 2.

For Balmer series n1 = 2,

n2 = 3, 4, 5, .......

1/λ=R [ — ]

The first four lines of the Balmer series lie in the visible region of the

spectrum and the rest of the series goes to the u.v. region.

iii) Paschen series

For Paschen series

n1 = 3, n2 = 4, 5, 6, .....

1/λ=R [ — ]

Paschen series lies in the infrared region.

iv) Bracket series

For Bracket series, n1 = 4, n2 = 5,6, 7, ...............

1/λ=R [ — ]

Bracket series lies in the infrared region.

v) Pfund series

For Pfund series

n1 = 5 and n2 = 6, 7, 8, .........

1/λ=R [ — ]

This series is in the far infrared region of the spectrum.

De Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s second postulate of quantization.

According to Bohr’s 2nd postulate the angular momentum of

electron orbiting around the nucleus is quantized. Why should angular

momentum can have only those values that are integral multiples of
h/2π. This was a puzzle for many years. The French physicist Louis de
Broglie explained this puzzle in 1923, ten years after Bohr proposed his
model.
De Broglie stated that electron has wave nature with wavelength

λ = h/ mv

Drawbacks of Bohr’s theory

1. Bohr’s theory could explain the spectra of only single electron
atoms like hydrogen. For atoms having more number of electrons,
Bohr’s theory was found inadequate.
2. This theory gives no idea about difference in the intensities of
spectral lines.
3. It could only partially explain hydrogen atom.The fine structure of
certain spectral lines of hydrogen, as observed by high resolving
power instruments, could not be explained by Bohr’s theory.
4. Bohr’s model doesn’t explain why the orbits are circular while
elliptical orbits are also possible.
5. It is silent about the wave properties of electrons.