CHAPTER THREE
3.Politics, Economy and Society in Ethiopia and the
Horn to the End of the Thirteenth Century
3.1. Emergence of States
Defining state:
 State refers to an autonomous political unit having population,
defined territory, sovereignty and government with the power to
decree and enforce laws.
 State was the outcome of regular cultural process.
 Historically, states arose independently in different places and at
different times, for example, it emerged in Ethiopia and the Horn
independently from other parts of the world.
 In the case of Ethiopia and the Horn, societies in this region
underwent political, economic, social and cultural changes from
ancient times to the end of the thirteenth century.
 One important factor for the emergence of states was the
beginning of sedentary agriculture which made people to engage
in farming by forming settlement.
1
CONT…
 Peoples had to descend from mountainsides to build houses near
cultivated plots fencing both farming fields and residences.
 Harvested crops had to be stored and protected from humidity and
rodents.
 Families preferred to live together forming larger communities for
better security and to help each other in hard works.
 Using stick or hoe for planting was then replaced by ox-drawn
plough
 And farmers acquired surplus produce to exchange with better tools
and clothes with the artisans who were able to specialize in the
production of these items.
 Intermediaries (traders) also began to buy agricultural products of
sedentary people.
 In such way states were formed mainly through the expansion of
agriculture that gave rise to class differentiation.
2
 Moreover, the growth of trade facilitated the development of states.
CONT…
 The f ir st states were theocratic states, and priests (shaman)
maintained the social and religious affairs of their peopleduring
the intial formation of the states. Gradually, however, as
production became market oriented, religious elites were
gradually replaced by chiefs, who began collecting regular and
compulsory tributes known as protection payments which they
used to maintained themselves, their supporters chiefly the army,
the bureaucracy and other followers.
 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa, where early
state formation took place.
 From small beginnings, such states gradually developed into
powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-demarcated
social structure.
 Geographical proximity to and control of the international water
bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean and ports as
well as rich interior favored some of them to become stronger 3
than their neighbors and dominate them
CONT..
3.2. Ancient States
In North and Northeast
A. Punt
 Punt was the earliest recorded state in Ethiopia and the Horn.
Evidence for the existence of Punt: Egyptian hieroglyphic writings
and vivid paintings tell us a series of naval expeditions, which the
Egyptian Pharaohs/kings sent to Punt.
E.g. 1. Expedition was sent to Punt by Pharaoh Sahure (r.2743-2731
B.C.) to collect myrrh, ebony and electrum (gold and silver alloy).
During Pharaoh Asosi, treasurer of God Bawardede took dancing
dwarf “dink" to Egypt from Punt.
2. Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut (1490-1468 B.C.), sent f ive ships
under the leadership of Black Nubian Captain Nehasi via Wadi-
Tumilat and the expedition was welcomed by Punt’s King Perehu
and his wife Ati. This was the best described and illustrated
expedition and her expedition is documented at her tomb in Dier El
Bahri. .
The expedition was able to return with collecting frankincense,
cinnamon, sweet smelling woods (sandal), spices, ivory, rhinoceros
4
horn, leopard and leopard skins, ostrich feathers and egg, monkeys,
giraffes, people, etc.
CONT…
o Exports of Punt to Egypt: Iron, bronze, foxes, cattle, animals fur,
dying and medicinal plants
o Its imports from Egypt: axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles,
clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets(cheap
jewelry).
 But the exact location of Punt has remained vague. Some
scholars suggest that Punt might be located in Northern or
Northeastern Somalia because of the reference to incense and
myrrh. Some others suggest that Punt might be located in
Northern Ethiopia because of the reference to gold, ebony and
monkeys.
 Some others argue that Punt probably stretched from Swakim
or Massawa to Babel Mandeb (Gat e of Tears) and Cape
Guardafui.
B. Da’amat, Yeha, Hawulti Melazo and Addi-Seglemeni in the
vicinity of Aksum could also be mentioned.
 Among these, as inscription indicated Da’amat king’s is said to
have used politico-religious title known as Mukarib in the 5 th

century B.C. and various gods and goddesses like Almouqah

(principal god), Astarr (Venus god), Na’uran (light god), Shamsi 5
(sun god), and Sin (moon god) were worshipped in Da’amat state
and in other northern Ethiopian pre-Aksumite cultural centers.
 Da’amat had a center to the south of Aksum. There were similar
CONT…
Yeha
 It is located 30 kms to northeast of Aksum and was the oldest of
these centers.
 It probably em erged around 1,000 BC as a sm all
center/emporium where South Arabian merchants and their
agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and other goods.
 Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry as
well as still standing temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory.
Hawulti Melazo: a site where stone tablets that are inscribed in
rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings
representing herds of cattle were excavated.
Addi- Seglem eni: was sit e of oldest Et hiopian m onum ent al
inscription.
 There were also other cultural centers like Addi Gelemo, Addi
Grameten, Addi Kewih, Atsbi Dera, Feqiya, Hinzat, Sefra, Senafe,
Tekonda, etc.
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CONT…
C. The Aksumite State
 The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around 200-100 B.C.
Originally, it was small and it was expanded and enlarged gradually.
 In its heyday, Aksumite territories extended from the Red Sea coast in
the East to the Western edge of Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast
Nile Valley in the west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and
possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.
 Trade was f lourished in Aksumite state and Adulis on the western
coast of the Red Sea was the major port of Aksum. This was
according to the document known as the Periplus of Erithrean Sea.
 The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other posts on the
Red Sea coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse,
Coloe, Matara and even further west across Takaze River.
 In such trade activity the document also mentioned ports of Aden
(Eudaemon) Gulf like Avalites (Zayla) and Malao (Berbera), and
Indian Ocean, Benadir Coasts like Serapion (Moqadishu), Nicon
(Brava) and Merca.
7
CONT…

o Aksumite state’s major items of export (Natural products):

 Ivory, myrrh, emerald, frankincense and some spices (like ginger),
cinnamon, gold, rhinoceros horns, hippopotamus hides, tortoise
shells and animals like apes.
o Its imports:
 Manufactured products like garments and textiles from Egypt,
India, Roman Empire, and Persia;
 Glassware and jewelry from Egypt and other places; metallic
sheets, tools or utensils of various kinds, oil and wine from Roman
Empire and Syria.

8
CONT…
o Z osca l e s ( c.76- 89) , t h e t h e n k i n g of A k su m , u se d t o
communicate in Greek language, Lingua Franca/common
language/ of Greco-Roman world.
 Aksum also had relations with Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Laodicea
(Asia Minor).
o Evidence for Aksumite trade:
 Obtained from the Adulis inscription written in Greek, and the
Christian Topography, describes commercial activities of the
Red Sea areas.
 It also mentions the internal long distance trade between
Aksum and a distant region called Sasu, most probably in Beni
Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue Nile.

9
CONT…
 Merchant took to Sasu cattle, lumps of salt (probably salt blocks)
and iron in exchange for gold.
 Yet, as they did not speak each other’s language, and did not even
trust to be near to each other to bargain through signs and
gestures, the whole exchange was done without one side seeing
the other. This was a good example of silent trade.
 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the outside world
notably with the South Arabian region which led to exchange of
ideas, material and spiritual culture.
 Occasionally, the contact involved conflict.
 E.g. Around 200A.D, the army of Aksumite king Gadarat attacked
and posed threats on peoples in Southern Arabian Peninsula, in
t he present day Yem en and t he people had dif fic ult ies in
defending themselves against the army of Gadarat. .
 B/n the third to the seventh centuries, Aksumite kings like Aphilas,
Endybis, Wazeba, Ezana, Ousanas II and other minted coins in gold,
silver and bronze for both overseas and local trade.
 Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world (i. e. Roman
Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at the time. 10
 Kaleb (r. 500-535) expanded overseas territories of Aksum beyond
Himyar and Saba.
CONT…
 But the local prince Dhu-Nuwas was converted to Judaism,
marched to Zafar and Nagran, and killed many Christians.
 Byzantine Vasaliev Justinian (r. 527-65), however, provided Kaleb
with a number of ships to transport armies led by Julianos and
Nonossus against Dhu Nuwas.
 Dhu Nuwas was defeated and Kaleb appointed Abraha as
governor of Arabia which continued until 570 A. D.
 Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal (535-48) who built
a church at Zur Amba in Gayint.
 It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed Ethiopian
Orthodox Church liturgical songs and hymns.
 Decline of the Aksumite state
 The Aksumite state began to decline since the late seventh century
because of internal and external challenges.
 Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural productivity and 11
possibly plague infestation started to weaken it.
CONT…
 With the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs around 702,
the international lifeline of the state was cut.
 Aksumite international trade came under the control of the rising
and expanding Arab Muslims.
 Its political and military power also declined and local rebellions
challenged its hegemony.
 Finally, rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani al
Hamwiyah (Yodit) f in ally sealed the collapse of the Aksumite
state.
 Its achievements:
 As a civilization, Aksum had a profound impact upon the peoples
of the Horn of Africa and beyond, and on its successors i.e. the
Zagwe, ‘Solomonic Dynasty’, the Gondarine period etc.
 Include surviving indigenous script and calendar as well as EOC
hymns and chants, paintings; diversif ie d ceramic tools, ivory
curving, and urbanization and sophisticated building traditions
(palaces, stele, churches).
 It also developed complex administrative and governance system,
and agricultural system including irrigation.
12
CONT….
D. Zagwe Dynasty (1150 to 1270)
 After its decline, the center of Aksumite state shifted southwards
to Kubar rural highland in the territory of the Agaw, one of the
ancient inhabitants of the land between the Eritrean Plateau and
Jema River, and to the west up to the Blue Nile valleys.
 Thus, Agaw elites got the chance to take part in Aksumite state
structure serving as soldiers and functionaries for at least four
centuries.
 After integrating so well with Aksumite ruling class, they
successfully took over the state administration.
 The Agaw prince Merra Teklehaimanot married Masobe Worq,
the daughter of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od. Later, he
overthrew his father-in-law and took control of power.
 Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana Kirstos,
Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab, Yetbarek and other.
 Its political center: was in Bugna District within Wag and Lasta,
more exactly at Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
 Trade: The Agaw kings maintained the Aksumite traditions
almost intact. They renewed cultural and trade contact with
eastern Mediterranean region. 13
Exports: Slaves, ivory and rare spices
Imports: Cotton, linen, silver and copper vessels, drags and coins.
CONT….
 Achievements of the Zagwe Period:
 Construction of caves with some decoration inside, almost similar
with natural cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
 Semi-hewn: this and the monolithic churches that have become
UNESCO world heritage are unique in constructions.
 They are not totally separated from the surrounding rock. Their
roofs or walls are still attached to the rock, eg. Bete Denagil, Bete
Debresina/Mikael, Bete Golgota, Bete Merqoriwos, Bete Gabri’el-
Rufa’el and Bete Abba Libanos.
 Monolithic churches of Lalibela, which were separated or carved out
from surrounding rock, eg. Bete Amanuel, Bete Giyorgis, Bete
Mariyam and Bete Medhanialem.
 Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete Medhanelem is the
largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is said to be the most f inely built in
the shape of the cross.
 Lalibela wanted to establish the second Jerusalem and sought to
avoid dif ficulties, which Ethiopian Christians encountered in their
14
journey to the Holy Lands.
 This was done by constructing churches based on the model of Holy
CONT…

 Its Collapse:
 was due to internal problems of royal succession and oppositions
from groups claiming descent from the ancient rulers of Aksum
who referred the Zagwe as “illegitimate rulers.”
 Then, Yekuno-Amlak (r.1270-1285) members of the power
claimants or the Solomonic Dynasty fought and killed the last
king of Zagwe, Yetbarek
 Next, he took power and ‘restored’ the Solomonic Dynasty which
later stayed in power for many centuries.

15
CONT…

E. East, Central, Southern and Western State
Included:
Bizamo (establishment-in 8 century and it was located opposite to the
th

present area of Gojjam and around the current Wambara area and had early
connections with Damot;
Damot was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of the
lands the south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana as well as west of Awash
and east of Didessa., had renowned king in the 13 century known as
th

Motalami;
Enarya: was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia and its
royal clan was called Hinnare Bushasho (Hinnario Busaso). Enarya's kingship
was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-Tato) was secluded and considered as
sacred. He communicated with visitors through an intermediary, AfeBusho.
The kings had residences in Yadare and Gowi. The real power vested with
Mikretcho (council) including Awa-rasha (king's spokesperson) and Atche-
rasha (royal treasurer).
 In the nineth century, Aksumite king Digna-Jan is said to have led a
campaign into Enarya, accompanied by Orthodox Christian priests carrying
arks of covenant (tabots) ;
Gafat, unclear whether Gafat was a state or not but it is claimed that its
mountains were rich in gold. It was located south of Abay (Blue Nile) River
adjoining Damot on the south western periphery of the Christian Kingdom.
16
 It was inhabited by Semitic speaking population related to Harari and the
Gurage.
CONT…
 Despite efforts by Christian evangelists, the Gafat largely
remained practitioners of their own indigenous religion.
 Since early medieval period, Gafat was paying tribute to the
Christian Kingdom mainly in cattle, which came from six
districts, among which Gambo and Shat are Gafat clan
names.
 The state was governed by rulers bearing the title of
Awalamo.
F. Muslim Sultanates/Principalities
 They came into existence after the spread of Islam since 8
th

century and included:

Shewa where Makhzumite Sultanate in 896 A. D (283 A.H.) on
northeastern foothill of Shewa was established byMakhzumi
Khalid ibn al-Walid, who claimed decent from Meca.
Fatagar was founded around Minjar, Shenkora and Ada’a in the
eleventh century and known for cultivation of wheat and barley,
fruits, as wells as herding of cattle, sheep and goats on
extensive grazing grounds.
Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters of
Awash and Wabi-Shebelle extending to Charchar in Northeast 17
and Gindhir in Southeast and it had a currency called hakuna.
CONT…
 Bali
 was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau, separating basins of
Shebelle and Rift valley Lakes.
 Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.
 Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby Muslim lands.
Trade was mainly based on barter exchanging cattle, sheep, cloth, etc. It
had strong army composed of cavalry and infantry.
 Ifat
 was a state located in the adjacent to Shewan Sultanate. Its territory ran
from northeast-southwesterly in the Afar plain eastward to the Awash.
 It was established by Umar Walasma who came to Ifat b/n1271 and 1285
descending from Hashamite clan . He intervened between q uarrelsome
Makzumite princes Dil-Marrah and Dil-Gamis, weakened and annexed the sultanate of
Shewa.
 The sultanate was fertile and well watered.
 Its inhabitants earned their living from cultivation of wheat, sorghum,
millet and teff, and animal husbandry.
 Sugar cane, bananas, variety of fruits, beans, squashes, cucumbers, and
cabbage completed the diet.
 Chat was described for the first time as being consumed as a stimulant.
 Other principalities included Arababani (between Hadiya and Dawwaro),
Biqulzar, Dera (between Dawaro and Bali), Fadise, Gidaya, Hargaya, Harla,
Kwilgora, Qadise and Sharkah in Arsi.
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 EXTERNAL RELATIONS…
 External contact of Ethiopia and the Horn:
1)With Egypt at least since 3,000 B. C. It was a form of earliest
contacts with the Mediterranean world or the Greco-Roman World.
 The introduction of Christianity to Aksum established a new pattern
of relation between the region and Egypt.
 Until the introduction of Islam into Egypt and the general reduction
of the Christians into minority, relations between the two were fairly
smooth and friendly.
 Successive Egyptian Muslim rulers began to use the consecration
and sending of a bishop as an instrument to further their own
foreign policy objectives and to squeeze concessions from
Ethiopian Christian rulers, who reacted by threatening to divert the
Nile.
 The coming to power of the Mamluk was followed by the reciprocal
persecution of religious min orities. M oreover, the M amluk
presented a barrier to the contacts between Christian Ethiopia and
European states
2)With South Arabian Kingdoms starting sometimes before 1,000 B.C. 19
and had very close relations with all commercially active South Arabian
Kingdoms.
 EXTERNAL RELATIONS…
3) With the East Roman or Byzantine Empire,
 A contact which came following the introduction of Christianity to Aksum,
and Aksum and the Byzantine Empire had also commercial contacts
which declined in the 7 century due to the expansion of Islam in the
t h

region.
 Yet, in the seven century, this relation became complicated and began to
deteriorate.
 The rapid expansion of the Muslim Arabs through the Near and Middle
East, North Africa and the Nile valley led to the decline of Aksumite land
routes and shipping lines.
 However, the tradition to visit Jerusalem and other holy places in the
Middle East had begun at the end of the first millennium AD.
 In order to reach the places, Ethiopian Christian pilgrims used the land
route to Egypt. From Cairo they travelled to the Holy land.
 Thus, the re w e re conside rable numbe rs of Ethiopian Christian
communities found in different regions, in Egyptian monasteries, in the
holy places of Palestine and Armenia, and in Italian city-states in
subsequent centuries.
 The communities living in different parts of the world served as an
important link or bridge between Ethiopian Christian Kingdom and
Europe.
4)With India and Persia-commercial relation was also established
 Such contacts around the middle of the 12 century had made Europeans
to regard Ethiopian Highland Christian Kingdom as the land of Prester 20
th

John.
 EXTERNAL RELATIONS…
 From the information, the Europeans began to consider Ethiopian
Christian Kingdom as a very powerful and wealthy state existing in the
Horn of Africa.
 They wanted to use this imaginary strong Christian power in their
struggle against the Muslim powers in the Holy land.
 Around the middle of the 12th century, a myth about a very rich and
powerful Christian ruler known as Prester John began to circulate in
Europe.
 The legend was developed when the balance of the crusade war fought
over Jerusalem between the Christians of Europe and the Muslims of the
Middle East was in favor of the latter.
 In 1165, a letter addressed to European kings, thought to be sent by the
Prester John appeared in Europe mentioning about the enormous power
of the Prester John.
 The geographical location of the country of Prester John was not known
to Europe for over a century.
 However, the Europeans began to regard Ethiopian Christian Kingdom as
the land of Prester John since the only Christian kingdom between the
Red Sea and the Indian sub-continent was the Ethiopian Christian 21
Kingdom.
 3.3 ECONOMY AND SOCIO-CULTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS
 Economy:
 Included: 1. Agriculture was basic economic activity in highland
parts and it consisted of use of local irrigation technology and soil
fertility techniques.
 The people used diverse soil fertility enhancement strategies like
manuring, compost and spreading residues’ ashes as well as
fallowing, crop rotation, intercropping and contour plowing.
 In t im es of peak harvest seasons , farm ers also organized
teamwork.
 Basic resource: Land and had tenure system (for its holding, sharing
and using).
 The rules according to which members of the society hold, share
and use land constitute what is known as the land tenure system.
 The most ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.
 Communal right to land is a group right. Here group refers to the family, the
22
clan and other lineage groups to which the individual belonged.
 3.3 ECONOMY AND SOCIO-CULTURAL ACHIEVEMENTS
 Each of these groups had communal right to the land they lived in
and freely exploited the resources of the land.
 Common land tenure system of ancient time comprised communal
right to land which was a group right of the family, clan and lineage.
 Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas.
 Rist is a kind of communal birthright to land. The rist owners were
known as bale- rist. But they paid tributes to the state which was
collected by state functionaries or officials who were given gult right
over the areas and populations they administered on behalf of the
state.
 Gult is a right to levy/impose tribute on rist owners’ produce. The
tribute collected by bale-gults, partly allotted for their own up keep
and the rest were sent to the imperial center.
 Gult right that became hereditary was called Riste-Gult.

23
CONT…
2. Handicraft
 Indigenous handcraft technology such as artisans had existed
since the ancient period.
 Artisans were in engaged in metal work, pottery, tannery,
carpentry, masonry, weaving, jewelry, basketry and others.
 E.g. Metal workers produced swords, javelins, shields, knives,
axes, sickles, hoes an others. Tanners produced leather tools.
 However, the artisans were mostly despised and marginalized.
The ruling classes mostly spent their accumulated wealth on
imported luxurious items rather than the domestic technology.
3. Trade (already discussed)
 Socio-cultural Achievements:
Architecture:
1. Steles/obelisks building were practiced in Axum( the longest
was 33 meters in height. The other two had heights of 24 and
21 meters.
 There were totally f ifty eight steles in and around Aksum that
can be grouped into well made and decorated, half completed
and megaliths (not hewn). 24
CONT…
2. Zagwe period’s rock hewn churches were part of UNESCO’s world heritage,
registered in 1978.
3.Writing System:
Scripts developed in Sabean and Ge’ez languages.
 The earliest Sabean inscriptions in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the ninth
century BC. One peculiar feature of Sabean inscriptions is absence of vowels
as most of the words are written in consonants.
 For instance, Da’amat was inscribed as D’mt, while its successive kings are
written as RDM, RBH and LMN using title, mlkn.Ethiopia's ancient indigenous
writing system has immense contribution to the development of literature,
art and the writing of history.
4. Calendar:
Calendars were developed and adopted among various peoples of Ethiopia and
the Horn.
 There was invention of Ethiopic solar calendar. Ethiopic solar calendar has
12 months of 30 days plus 5 or 6 (is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days,
which comprise a thirteenth month.
 A gap of 7–8 years between Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results from
alternative calculation in determining date of Annunciation.
 Therefore, the f ir st day of the year, 1 Meskerem /Enkutatash is usually
September 11 (Gregorian). However, it falls on September 12 in years before
the Gregorian leap year.
 The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become the of f icial calendar of
25
the country.
CONT…
 There was also Muslim (Islamic) calendar which is a lunar calendar. consisting of 12
months in a year of 354 or 355 days.
 It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which Prophet Mohammed and his followers
made f li ght from Mecca to Medina and established the f ir st Muslim community
(ummah). Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in the year of the
Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are reckoned as BH ("Before the Hijra")
 The Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical observations of moon in
conjunction with seven or eight particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa
(guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning star).
 There are 29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a year. Pillars (dated
300 B.C .), whi ch were di s co vered i n no r thwes tern Kenya fro m 1978-86 by
Archaeologists Lynch, Robbins and Doyl have suggested to represent site used to
develop Oromo calendar.
 The Sidama (celebrating new year -Fiche Chambalala ) had a calendar based on
movements of stars with 13 months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28
days while the thirteenth month has 29 days. Nominated Mote (King) is presented to
Fiche Chambalala, New Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.
 The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and Qawalanka) and hence
each month has 7 weeks.
 Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta, Gedeo, the Nilotes and
have their own dating system
5. Numerals:
They appeared in Ethiopia and the Horn at the beginning of fourth century AD. E.g. In
Geʽez language there has been the use of numeral system.

26