UNITTHREE

• POLITICS, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE
END OF THE 13th CENTURY
 3.1 Emergence of State

State is an autonomous political unit. It is the highest

political organization of a society.
Fundamental factor
 The beginning of sedentary agriculture
Facilitated factor
 The growth of trade
 Ethiopia and the Horn is one of the regions in Africa
where early state formation took place.
 From small beginnings, such states gradually developed
into powerful kingdoms and even empires with a well-
demarcated social structure.
 Cont..

 Geographical proximity to and control of the

international water bodies like Red Sea, Gulf of
Aden and Indian Ocean along with their ports as
well as rich interior favoured some of them to
become stronger than their neighbours and
eventually dominated them.
Components of State
1) Population
2) defined territory
3) sovereignty
4) government with the power to decree and enforce
laws.
 3.2. Ancient States
3.2.1. North and Northeast

A. Punt
• Punt was the earliest state in Ethiopia and the Horn.

• It exists in the 3rd millennium B.C.

• Punt’s evidence found in the Egyptian hieroglyphic.

• According to this evidence, Egyptians had cultural and

commercial relations with Punt.
• The Punt’s King, Perehu Sent Iron, bronze, cattle, animals’ hair
and medicinal plants were exported from Punt to Egypt.
 Cont..

•In return, axes, daggers, swords, knives, sickles,

clothes, bracelets, necklaces, beads and other trinkets
were imported from Egypt to Punt.
•The exact location of Punt is not known.
• This is due to shortage of sources. But Scholars
suggested that the territory of Punt might have
stretched from the Nile Valley up to the Red Sea
Coast, and from there it further extended south wards.
 Da’amat and Other Cultural Centers in Northern
Ethiopia and Eritrea
•The state known as Da’amat had a center a little to the
south of Aksum. Inscription of the king of Da’amat
tentatively dated to the fifth century BC shows that they
used politico-religious title known as Mukarib.
•Various gods and goddesses like Almouqah (principal
god), Astarr (Venus god) and Shamsi (sun god) were
worshipped in Da’amat. There were similar practices in
South Arabia at the time.
•
 There were a number of cultural centers in northern Ethiopia. The major ones are:

 Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum

and was the oldest of these centers.
 It probably emerged around 1,000 BC.
 The South Arabian merchants and their agents bought
and stored ivory, gold and other commodities coming
from the interior.
• Hawulti Melazo: is situated to southeast of Aksum,
where stone tablets that are inscribed in rectangular
temple surrounded by a wall decorated with paintings
representing herds of cattle have been excavated.
 Cont..
 Addi-Seglemeni: is located at 10kms southwest of
Aksum, from where a stone slab is found and the
oldest Ethiopian monumental inscription is
discovered.
•There were also other cultural centers like;
–Addi Gelemo
–Atsbi Dera
–Hinzat
–Sefra
–Senafe and Tekonda etc
 The Aksumite State
•The nucleus of the Aksumite state was formed around
200-100 B.C
•Initially, its power was limited to town of Aksum and its
environs.
•Gradually, however, it expanded to include large
territories in all directions.
•In its heyday (peak), Aksumite territories extended from
the Red Sea coast in the East to the Western edge of
Ethiopian plateau overlooking the vast Nile Valley in the
west and from the northern most corner of Eritrea and
possibly as far south as northern parts of Shewa.
 Sources
1) Periplus of Erithrean Sea
 The document had given the following information:

• Adulis was the major port of Aksum.

• The long distance trade routes from Adulis and other markers on the
Red Sea coast passed inland through such centers as Kaskasse, Coloe,
Matara and even further west across Takaze River.
• The major items of export of the Aksumite state are natural
products.
• In turn, a number of manufactured products import from Egypt, India,
the Roman Empire and Persia.
 Conti..
2) The Christian Topography
 Was written by Cosmas Indicopleustes which had
given the following information;
commercial activities of the Red Sea areas.
the internal long distance trade between Aksum a
distant region called Sasu, most probably in Beni
Shangul and the adjoining lands beyond the Blue
Nile.
 Silent trade (No verbal communication)
 Aksumite kings had extensive contacts with the
outside world notably with the South Arabian region,
leading to exchange of ideas, material and spiritual
 Conti..
• Aksum was one of the four great powers of the world
(i. e. Roman Empire, Persia, China and Aksum) at
the time.
• It was a major naval and trading power from the first
to the seventh centuries.
• Aksumite ships were the main means of transporting
goods.
• Aksum was the only one with sufficient sources of
timber for ship building and in those days, the
technology for it existed in Adulis.
• Aksum had a large fleet of ships, which was used not
only for trade but also for its wars across the Red Sea.
 Conti..
• Kaleb (r.500-535) expanded overseas territories of
Aksum beyond Himyar and Saba.
• He appointed Abraha as governor of Arabia that
continued until 570 A.D.
• Kaleb was succeeded by his son Gabra Masqal
(535-48) who built a church at Zur Amba in
Gayint.
• It was during Gabra Maskal that Yared developed
Ethiopian Orthodox Church liturgical songs and
hymns.
 Causes for the decline of Aksum

The Aksumite state begun to decline since the late 7 th century

because of internal and external challenges.
1) Internal factor
local rebellions of the Beja, the Agaw and Queen Bani
al (Yodit)
Environmental degradation, decline in agricultural
productivity
2) External factor
the destruction of the port of Adulis by the Arabs
The whole network of Aksumite international trade came
under the control of the rising and expanding Arab
Muslims.
 D. Zagwe Dynasty 1150-1270 A.D
 The founder of Zagwe dynasty was the Agaw prince Merra
Teklehaimanot who married Masobe Worq, the daughter
of the last Aksumite king Dil Na'od.
 Later he overthrew his father-in-law and took control of
power.
• The Zagwe Dynasty made its center at Adafa near Roha
(Lalibela).
• Merra-Teklehaimanot's successors include Yimirahana
Kirstos, Harbe, Lalibela (1160-1211), Ne'akuto La'ab,
Yetbarek etc.
 Conti..
• The Zagwe Dynasty made its center in Bugna
District within Wag and Lasta, more exactly at
Adafa near Roha (Lalibela).
• The Agaw maintained the ancient Aksumite
traditions almost integral.
•Zagwe rulers renewed cultural and trade contact
with eastern Mediterranean region.
• The most important export items included slaves,
ivory and cotton, silver and various types of drags
and newly minted coins were imported.
 Conti..

•Furthermore, the Zagwe period was a golden age in Ethiopia's

paintings and the translation of some religious works from Arabic
into Ge'ez.
•Zagwe rulers are best known for the construction of cave, semi-
hewn and monolithic churches:
1. Cave: with some decoration inside, almost similar with natural
cave, eg. Bete-Mesqel.
2. Semi-hewn: this and the monolithic churches that have become
UNESCO world heritage are unique in constructions.
• Semi-hewn is with detailed interior decoration and partial
decoration outside.
 Conti..

3. Monolithic: with detailed decoration in the interior and

outside parts. They are completely separated (carved out)

from surrounding rock.

Among the eleven churches of Lalibela, Bete

Medhanelem is the largest of all and Bete Giyorgis is
said to be the most excellently built in the shape of the
Cross. The rock hewn churches were constructed to
establish the second Holy Land in Ethiopia next to
Jerusalem.
One of the Zagwe Churches (Bete Giyorgis)
Bete Medhanelem is the largest of all
 Causes for the decline of Zagwe dynasty
1) internal problems of royal succession
2) oppositions from groups claiming descent from
the ancient rulers of Aksum.
 The latter considered Zagwe kings “illegitimate
rulers” based on the legend of the Queen of Sheba.
 The legend was in turn based on a book known as
Kebra-Negest (Glory of Kings) that was translated
from Coptic to Arabic and then into Ge’ez.
 Based on the legend, the power claimants contend
that “Solomonic” Dynasty ruled the Aksumite
state until its power was “taken” by the Zagwes.
Yekuno-Amlak (r. 1270-1285), who
claimed decent from the last Aksumite
king Dilna’od, organized his forces with
the assistance of the religious hierarchy
and engaged the last king of Zagwe,
Yetbarek in battle.
Yetbarek was killed in Gaynt and
Yekuno-Amlak took the state power
proclaiming the “restoration” of
“Solomonic” Dynasty.
 3.2.2. East, Central, Southern, and Western States

3.2.2.1. Bizamo, Damot, Enarya and Gafat

A. Bizamo: was a kingdom located on the

southern curve of Abay River just opposite to the
present districts of Gojjam and around the
current Wambara area.
• It was founded in the eighth century and had
early connections with Damot.
 B. Damot:
•It was a strong kingdom that expanded its territories into most of
the lands the south of Abay and north of Lake Turkana , west of
Awash and east of Didessa.
•Motalami was a prominent king of Damot in the thirteenth
century.
C. Enarya
•It was a kingdom in the Gibe region in southwestern Ethiopia.
•The royal clan was Hinnare Bushasho.
•Enarya's kingship was a divine one: the king (Hinnare-Tato) was
considered as sacred.
•The real power rested with Mikretcho (council) including Awa-
rasha (king's spokes person) and Atche-rasha (royal treasurer).
 D. Gafat
•The territory of Gafat lies south of Abay River.
•It was inhabited by Semitic speaking related to
Harari and the Gurage.
•Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold.
•Before Christianity they practices own indigenous
religion.
•The title of rulers was Awalamo.
 3.2.2.2. Muslim Sultanates

• After the spread of Islam, Muslim communities and

states had been established along the main trade
routes from Zeila.
 These states include;

A. Shewa: Makhzumi Khalid ibn al-Walid, who

claimed decent from Meca, set up the Makhzumite
Sultanate in 896 A.D on northeastern foothill of Shewa.

B. Fatagar: was founded around Minjar, Shenkora in

the 11th century.
C. Dawaro: located south of Fatagar between upper waters
of Awash and Wabi-Shebelle extending to Charchar in
Northeast and Gindhir in Southeast. We have valuable
information on Dawaro by an Egyptian courtier Ibn Fad
Allah el-umari. Dawaro had a currency called hakuna for
transaction.
D. Bali: was an extensive kingdom occupying high plateau.
• Bali was one of the largest of Ethiopia’s Muslim provinces.
Its economic activity resembles those of other nearby
Muslim lands.
 Ifat

• This state located adjacent to Shewan Sultanate.

• It was established by Umar Walasma, who claimed
descent from Hashamite clan and said to have come from
Arabia between 1271 and 1285.
 The sultanate was fertile and well watered.
 They earned their living from cultivation of wheat,
sorghum, millet and teff, and animal husbandry.
 Chat was described for the first time as being consumed
as a stimulant.
 External Contacts

•Ethiopia and the Horn had contacts with Egypt

since at least 3,000 B. C.
• Ethiopia had relations with all commercially
active South Arabian Kingdoms.
•The introduction of Christianity to Aksum
established new smooth and friendly relation
between the region and Egypt.
•Following the introduction of Christianity, Aksum
established close relationship with the East Roman or
Byzantine Empire.
•But this relation deteriorated by the rapid expansion of the
Muslim Arabs. Mamluk presented a barrier to the contacts
between Christian Ethiopia and European states. Yet, the
legend of Prester John was served as a bridge for the revival
of the contacts between Christian Ethiopia and European
states in the 12th c.
 3.4. Economic Formations

• A. Agriculture and Land Tenure System

• Land has always been one of the most precious properties of human

society.

• The ancient system of land holding which survived in many parts of

Ethiopia and the Horn is the communal land tenure system.

• Peasants in the north had rist rights in their respective areas.

• Rist is a kind of communal birth right to land by group whose

ancestors had settled and lived in the area over long periods.
• It is inherited from generation to generation in accordance
to customary (habitual) law.
• The rist owners were known as bale-rist. How have gult
right.
• But they paid tributes to the state.
• They administered land on behalf of the central
government.
• Tribute was collected via state functionaries or officials
who were given gult right over the areas and populations
they administered on behalf of the central government.
Gult is a right to tax tribute on rist owners‟ produce.
• Gult right that became inherited was called Riste-Gult as
prominent well placed officials used to transfer their
position to their descendants.
 Handicraft

• Indigenous handcraft technology had existed since the

ancient period.
• Includes metal work, wood work and pottery,
Tanners produced leather tools and etc
• However, the artisans were mostly marginalized.
• The public attitude towards artisans was not
encouraging.
• So, the locally produced agricultural implements
and house furniture did not show significant
improvement and sophistication.
 Trade

•Trade was another important economic activity of

ancient states that obtained considerable income
from both internal and international trade.
•The major socio-economic and political centers of
earliest states have been major trade centers.
•A network of roads connected the centers with the
coast.
•The major concerns was to protect the trade
routes and make them safe from robbers.
 3.5. Socio-cultural Achievements
A. Architecture
•As the states expanded, architecture also began to flourish
and one of the unique architectural technologies was the
carving of stele around the third century AD. There were
totally fifty eight steles in and around Aksum.
•The steles were inscribed specifically at Gobodara from
which they were transported and planted in Aksum.
•The longest one of these stele measures 33 meters heights
(the first in the world). It is highly decorated in all of its four
sides. It represents a-14 storied building with many windows
and a false door at the bottom.
 Conti..

• It also stands pre-Christian symbols, which are a disc and a

crescent (half moon) at the top.
• Some scholars suggest that this giant stele was broken while the
people were trying to erect it.
• The second longest obelisk measures 28 meters height that was
successfully erected and represents a ten-storied building with
many windows and a false door at the bottom.
• The third longest stele measures 23 meters and represents a
nine-storied building with many windows and a false door at
the bottom. It is smooth at the back of its side with no
The Second Longest Aksumite Stele
• The Zagwe churches are regarded as some of the best
architecture of artistic achievements of the Christian
world.
• They were registered by UNESCO as part of world
cultural heritage in 1978.
• Further refinement can be observed in the construction
and decoration of the rock hewn churches in the Zagwe
period.
 Calendar
• Calendars were developed and adopted among various
peoples of Ethiopia and the Horn.
• Oromo calendar has been based on astronomical
observations of moon in conjunction with seven or eight
particular stars or group of stars called Urjii Dhahaa
(guiding stars) and Bakkalcha (morning star). There are
29.5 dates in a month and 354 days in 12 months of a
year.
• The Sidama calendar rotates following movements of stars with 13

months a year, 12 of which are divided equally into 28 days while

the thirteenth month has 29 days.

• The Sidama week has only 4 days (Dikko, Dela, Qawado and

Qawalanka) and hence each month has 7 weeks.

• Nominated Mote (King) is presented to Fiche Chambalala, New

Year ritual, for Qetela or popular demonstration.

• Ethiopic solar calendar has 12 months of 30 days plus 5
or 6 (is added every 4 years) Epagomenal days, which
contain a thirteenth month. A gap of 7–8 years between
Ethiopic and Gregorian calendars results from alternative
calculation in determining date of Proclamation. Thus,
the first day of the year, 1 Meskerem/Enkutatash is
usually September 11 (Gregorian).
• The Ethiopic solar calendar has evolved to become the
official calendar of the country.
• The Muslim (Islamic) calendar is a lunar calendar
consisting of 12 months in a year of 354 or 355 days.
• It employs the Hijra year of 622 AD, in which
Mohammed and his followers made flight from Mecca to
Medina and established the first Muslim community
(ummah).
• Dates in this era are usually denoted AH (After Hijra, "in
the year of the Hijra"). Years prior to the Hijra are
calculated as BH ("Before the Hijra").
• Other peoples like the Agaw, Halaba, Hadiya, Wolayta,
Gedeo, the Nilotes, etc have their own dating system.