People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University of Mohamed Lamine Debaghine Setif 2

Faculty of Letters and Languages
Department of English Language and Literature

Licence

Dr. AIT AISSA Mouloud

English Grammar

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 Parts of Speech: Introduction

Description of the Lecture

This unit is an introduction into the “file the part of speech”. Throughout the unit
students will become familiar with the meaning of grammar, part of speech and
division of English words
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this introduction, they should be able,
among other things, to;
1. Define the term grammar.
2. Define the parts of speech.
3. Recognize how parts of speech function in a sentence.

Introduction

Languages are systems; that is, they are characterized by purposeful

regularity. As little children, we acquire language over time by constructing rules
from data supplied by the native speakers around us. Nobody teaches us rules; we
arrive at them ourselves. The amazing thing is that we all construct the same rules.
This collection of rules is itself the system that underlies the language; (the grammar
of the language). By the time that children start to school, they have become adapted
at using the language, often creating grammatically complex sentences with no
formal, explicit and conscious instructions. They know the rules of the language (that
is, they know how to use the rule), but they are incapable of explaining how they do
and what they do. Consequently, this grammar book primarily came as a response to
explain and justify the teaching and learning the grammatical categories, rules and
usage throughout both intermediate and advanced levels.

1. Definition of Grammar

In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the

compositions of clauses, phrases and words in any given natural language.
Dictionaries define grammar as the rules and explanations which deal with the forms
and structures of words (morphology), their arrangement in phrases and sentences
(syntax), and their classification based on their function (parts of speech).

The rules of grammar, as the above definition suggest, are about how words
change and how they are put or arranged together into sentences. Grammar, then, is
the way in which words change in form and group together in order to make correct
sentences. So English is not just a collection of words but it is about the ways words
are put together to form sentences.
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 Syntax Morphology Parts of Speech
The arrangement of words It studies word structures, There are eight parts of
in phrases and sentences. especially morphemes, speech in the English
Syntax is about the which are the smallest language. They indicates
structure, patterns and units of language. They how the word functions
relationship of words, can be base words or in meaning as well as
phrases and clauses. components that form grammatically within the
Syntax attempts to words, such as affixes. A sentence. Understanding
uncover the underlying morpheme is a distinct parts of speech is
principles, or rules for linguistic form which is essential for determining
constructing well-formed not divisible or analyzable the correct definition of
sentences. into its constituents or any word.
smaller forms/units.

There are plenty of changes and modifications that can occur to English words
when they are arranged into sentences in order to use them in a correct, meaningful
and functional way. Among the different grammatical patterns that are available in
English with their possible changes are:

 The affirmative form: “subject + verb + object”

 The negative form: “subject + do + not + verb + object”
 The plural meaning: “noun + s”
 The making of questions: verb+ subject + object + question mark”
 The description of dead actions,
 The description of completed actions: “subject + have or has + past participle,
 The description of actions in progress,
 The description of the states, action, and so on through statue and action verbs,
 The description of real actions through conditional statement,
 The description of unreal actions through conditional statement,
 The expression of ability, possibility, ……through appropriate modals,
 The division of English words into Eight parts of speech,
 The multiple available combinations of the parts of speech,
 …………………………………………………………and so on

2. Grammar and Vocabulary

Before learning a language, what learners must understand is the vocabulary of

that language. This is because words give us a significant idea in our ability to speak
a target language. A language researcher one said, “Without grammar, one may still
be able to communicate, but without vocabulary, there will be no communication that
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can take place.” Based on that knowledge, you should then know that Parts of Speech
are the categorization of words. Learning about the parts of speech is the first step in
grammar study just as learning the letters of the alphabet is the first step to being able
to read and write. From learning the parts of speech, we begin to understand the use
or function of words and how words are joined together to make meaningful
communication. So both vocabulary and grammar are essential for learning,
comprehending and producing a language.

3. Parts of Speech

Although English has hundreds of thousands of words, every word can be

placed into at least one of eight parts. All English words perform different functions
in a sentence. They convey different meanings as per their position in the sentence.
Based on their use and functions, words are categorized into several parts under the
term Parts of Speech. The eight parts of speech are as follows: nouns, pronouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.
Parts of speech are sentence elements that work together to make up a
sentence. Just as a car is not a functioning car without all of its synchronized parts
working together, a sentence is similar to car, is not a functioning sentence without
the correct usage and combination of its essential parts of speech. The only difference
between the car and the sentence is that not all basic sentence parts –or parts of
speech- have to be all included to make up a complete, correct, meaningful and
functioning sentence, but its parts do have to work together accurately for a writer or
a speaker to convey his or her intended ideas. So the speaker must be selective when
he or she intends to produce a correct, meaningful and functional sentence. So
learners especially need to recognize the parts of speech in the context of the sentence
“not in a separate or isolation way”. That’s because many words function in more
than one part of speech. Only by analyzing the word in relation to its neighboring
words in a sentence you can see how a given word functions. Examples:
 Our mail is late today. “Noun-serves as subject of sentence”
 This pile of mail must be derived. “Noun-serves as object of preposition”
 Mail the letter today. “Verb-serves as action word in sentence”
 Your voice mail box is full. “Adjective-used with voice to describe box, which
the subject of sentence”.

 Select yes on the ballot. “noun”

 Cast a yes vote. “adjective”
 He voted yes. “adverb”
 Yes! “Interjection”
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3. 1. One Word = Many Parts of Speech

One word may belong to more than one part. In most instances, we can only
assign a word to a word class when we encounter it in context. So students have to
look at what a word is doing in a specific sentence before you can classify it (name its
part of speech). For example, look at these sentences.

 He ran fast so he wouldn’t be late for his classes. (adverb)

 They will fast to raise money for the charity. (tells about an action...verb)
 Their fast lasted for whole one month. (names a thing...noun)

4. Word Classes

Part of speech which can be divided into two broad sub-categories: major word-
classes and minor word-classes. Broadly speaking, the basic division of the parts of
speech includes two broad sections; the content “lexical words” and functional
“grammatical words” while the strict division of the parts of speech includes the
following eight parts: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions,
conjunctions, and interjections.

4. 1. Content Word

There are four major open classes that occur in the languages of the world;
nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs which carry the content of the speakers
message. For this reason, they are referred to as the content words of the language.
They are generally called open class words since “they accept and add new members
in principle by borrowing or inventing words” and large “comprising hundreds or
thousands of words”, and content words tend to have a specific, concrete meaning.
They tend to be fairly long “often disyllabic or longer”. By contrast major class like
nouns and verbs are open classes because new nouns and verbs are continually coined
or borrowed from other languages.
Since English inflections are applied to nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs,
we can assign a word to one of these four open classes if it can take the inflections
characteristics of that particular class. Because no language is completely regular
including English, we will find some words that can fit into more than one class, and
we will discover that some words belong to one of these four classes although they do
not take the inflections characteristics of that class. For a word that does not accept
the inflections of a certain class, we can still assign it to that class based upon other
characteristics that it shares with the members of the class, such as its position in a
phrase or sentence, the function words which accompany it, and how it functions in
the larger unit of which it is a part.
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4. 2. Functional Words
In linguistics, function word is a word that expresses a grammatical or structural
relationship with other words in a sentence. They signal the structural relationships
that words have to one another and are the glue that holds sentences together.
Function words have little lexical meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical
relationships with other words within a sentence. Languages do not easily add new
words to this set of words; they are always relatively few and resistant to change.
They are lexically unproductive and are generally invariable in form. Thus they form
important elements in the structures of sentences. This class of words tends to be very
short and occur frequently. Minor classes are those that have relatively fixed open
class membership. For example, prepositions are a closed class because there is a
fixed set of them in English; new prepositions are rarely coined. It should be noted
that since functional classes words are relatively few and closed, students have
simply to memorize lists of them. See the table below for more details.
Major Word-classes Minor Word-classes
Content, Lexical, or Open Words Functional, Grammatical Words
 Nouns: Algiers, Stephan, London,  Prepositions: on, under, over, near ….
freedom …………….…………….  Determiners: a, an, the
 Main Verbs: visit, go, travel, take,  Pronouns: she, who, I, others
see, agree …………………………  Conjunctions: and, but, or, as, if …….
 Adjectives: red, old, young, blue,  Auxiliary verbs: can, may, should, are
beautiful, good, bad ………………  Particles: up, down, on, off, in, out ….
 Adverbs: fast, always, slowly …  Numerals: one, two, three, first ……

Summary

 All English words are classed into eight parts according to their uses in a sentence.
 It is crucial to realize that a particular word is not a noun, or adjective. In a very
real sense, a word only has a part of speech when it is used in a sentence or
phrase. Students should always remember that English is a wonderfully flexible
language. As noted earlier, many words serve as more than one part of speech
depending on the context of the word. So students must count on the context of
the word not on the word itself in isolation. The form of a word is not a final guide
to the part of speech it belongs to. So a word is categorized by its function as well
as by its form. If one were to ask what part of speech the word “fast” is, it is very
hard to answer without knowing how it is used “this refers to its place in a
sentence and function”.

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 Parts of Speech: Nouns
Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about nouns as the first part of speech. Throughout this unit students
will become familiar with definition, kinds, uses and formation of nouns. The main
emphasis is to show how the way nouns function in a sentence. The unit counts on
theory, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this unit, they should be able, among
other things, to;
1. Define the term noun as the first part of speech.
2. List the main kinds of nouns.
3. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through nouns.

1. Definition

A noun is a word describing who “subject” or “what “object” in a sentence. A

noun is used to name a person, place, or thing. The word “thing” comprises anything
which can be perceived by human senses. Remember, that the term “thing” can be
anything-an animal, a device, a point, an object, an event, and so on. In addition,
nouns represent qualities, feelings, concepts, activities and measures. Nouns are the
most basic unit of speech. Examples:

 Persons: Stephanie, Dr. Edelstein, teacher, accountant …………….………….…..

 Places: Chicago, island, Italy, college……………….…………...…………..……..
 Things and Objects: novel, surfboard, bicycle, horse……………………………..
 Animals: Dog, cut, fish, cow, fox ………………………………….………………
 Substances: Gold, air, iron ………………………………………….……………..
 Actions: Race, dance, hit, travel ……………………….…………….…………….
 Qualities: patience, honesty, enthusiasm……………….....……...…………….…..
 Feelings: happiness, anger, confusion, sadness…………….….….....……....……..
 Concepts: knowledge, freedom, friendship, travel………......…..…..……………..
 Activities: snowboarding, dancing, management, eating……...….…..…...……….
 Measures: day, week, inch, kilometer, million…………….…...…....…………..…
 Conditions and States: peace, security, joy …………………..…….……..………
grammar Point
A noun is the name of a person, place, animal, thing, idea or emotion. In short, it is
a naming word.

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2. Characteristics of Nouns

All nouns have four characteristics called "properties": (1) gender, (2) person, (3)
number, and (4) case. Let us look at these properties one by one.
2. 1. Gender
In the English language, noun is "natural," not grammatical. That is, the gender
of a noun is determined not by the grammatical form of the word, but by the sex of
the person, place, or thing that is named. Gender, in English, denotes male sex,
female sex, either sex, or neither sex.
 Masculine gender denotes male sex. Examples of masculine nouns are as
follows: boy, brother, bull, cock, colt, father, stallion, husband, king, man, son,
and uncle.
 Feminine gender denotes female sex. Examples of feminine nouns: girl, sister,
cow, hen, filly, mother, mare, wife, queen, woman, daughter, and aunt.
 Common gender denotes either sex. Examples of common gender nouns: birds,
cattle, children, citizens, driver, friend, lawyer, neighbor, parent, relative, singer,
and worker.
 Neuter gender denotes neither male nor female sex. Examples of neuter gender
nouns: books, cabinet, city, desk, house, ink, lamp, pen, river, and tree.
2. 2. Person
"Person" is a characteristic or form which lets us know whether the word relates
to the speaker, to the person spoken to, or to the person or thing spoken about.
 A first person noun refers to a person who is doing the speaking. Example: "I,
John, was on the island of Patmos" (Revelation 1:9). In this sentence, the noun
"John" is in the first person because John is the speaker.
 A second person noun refers to a person who is being addressed. Example:
"Friends, Romans, and countrymen; lend me your ears." In this famous speech
from Julius Caesar, the nouns "friends," "Romans," and "countrymen" are in the
second person because they name people who are being spoken to.
 A third person noun refers to a person, place, or thing being spoken about.
Example: "In the beginning, God created the earth and sky." The noun "God" is
third person because he is the person being discussed or referred to.
2. 3. Number
"Number" is that something in the form of a noun that tells us whether the noun
refers to only one person, place, or thing, or to more than one. The singular noun
names only one person, place, or thing. The plural noun names more than one person,
place, or thing. Consider the following pairs or words: "book versus books", "apple
versus apples", "cat versus cats", "dog versus dogs", "roads versus roads"
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 Some nouns do not have a plural form. These nouns are called non-countable
nouns. Material things like bread, butter, coffee, gold, oxygen, silver, and dust are not
usually counted. Instead, they are measured. We do not say, "Give me two breads."
We say, "Give me two loaves of bread," or "two slices of bread."
Abstract nouns are non-count nouns. Abstract nouns include concepts like
freedom and liberty; emotions like love, greed, and hate; fields of study like biology,
chemistry, and engineering; qualities like beauty, excellence, and peace. None of
these abstract nouns has a plural form.
2. 4. Case
"Case" is the relation of a noun or pronoun to other words in the sentence.
English nouns have three cases: (a) Nominative, (b) Objective, and (c) Possessive.
 The nominative case is the use of a noun (or pronoun) as the subject of a
sentence, or as the predicate following a linking verb. ("Nominative" means
"pertaining to a name." Example: "The moon is shining." In this sentence, "moon"
is the subject nominative. When a noun (or pronoun) is the predicate of the
sentence following a linking verb, it is called the "predicate nominative."
Example: "God is love." In this sentence, the noun "love" is the predicate
nominative.
 The objective case is the use of a noun (or pronoun) as an object in a sentence.
That is, if a noun (or pronoun) receives the action of a transitive verb, the noun is
in the objective case. Example: "I like you." In this sentence, "I" is the subject,
"like" is the transitive verb, and "you" is the object that receives the action. A
transitive verb is a verb whose action carries over to another person, place, or
thing. The person, place, or thing upon which the action has an effect is "the
object" of the verb. Example: "John hit Mary." The noun "Mary" is the object of
the verb "hit" and is, therefore, in the objective case.
 The possessive case is the use of a noun (or pronoun) to show ownership or
relationship. A singular possessive noun is formed by adding an apostrophe (') and
an "s" to the noun. Examples: boy's hat; girl's bicycle; teacher's book; citizen's
rights. A plural noun ending in "s" is formed by adding the apostrophe only.
Examples: boys' hats; girls' bicycles; teachers' books; citizens' rights.

3. Kinds of Nouns

3. 1. Proper Nouns

Any formal name or formal title is considered a proper name. The proper noun
is the special word “name” that is used for a particular person, place, organization,
organism, or thing which is usually unique. Proper nouns are always written in a
capital letter at their first letter. From the examples above, “Katia, Larry, Isabel,
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Kevin, Animal Planet, Alaska Austin, Texas, Live Music and Capital of the World”
are all proper nouns. They are all specific and formal. Examples:

 Biden is the president of the United States of America.

 France is a democratic country.
 John is a good boy.

3. 1. 1. Classification of Proper Nouns

The table below includes the most common categories of proper nouns.

N Category of Proper Nouns Examples

1 days of the week Sunday, Saturday, Friday
2 Months June, January, February
3 Holidays Easter, Passover
4 Entities like people, animals, groups, Albert Einstein, The Jackson Five
corporations and clubs. Veteran Writers
5 historical events, periods, documents Middle Ages (period)
6 Trademarked or Copyrighted Names Introduction to Psychology
7 special events, calendar events Mother’s Day, Memorial Day
8 names of people and places Steven Jones, Kennedy Center
9 names of structures, buildings Park Mall, Lincoln Memorial
10 names of trains, ships, aircraft, other Queen Elizabeth, Discovery,
11 modes of transportation Qatar Airlines
12 names of products and brands Dial soap, Jeep Cherokee
13 names of officials Senator Kennedy, President Biden
14 works of art and literature Tobacco Road, Animal Farms
15 ethnic groups, races, languages, Algerian, Italian, Asian, French,
nationalities
16 cities, states, and governmental units Algiers capital, Republic of China
17 streets, highways, and roads Locust Avenue, 80 Boulevard
18 landmarks and geographical locations Rocky Mountains, International Date
19 public areas and bodies of water Chippewa Forest, Raccoon River
20 institutions and organizations Luther College, Rotary Club,
21 Physical or Metaphysical Locations Pacific Ocean
such as regions, celestial identities, The Moon
and afterlife and spirituals realms

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3. 1. 2. General Capitalization Rules

 Capitalize the first word of a sentence. If the first word is a number, write it as a
word. Examples:
 This is my best sport.
 Five women showed up to volunteer.
 Capitalize the pronoun I or any contraction made using I (I’m, I’d, I’ve, I’ll). The
professor told me that I needed to take a prerequisite before taking his class.
 He thinks that I'd decide to move to Algiers.
 I know I'll be ready for this test.
 Capitalize proper nouns, but not common nouns. Consider the following pair
words between brackets. (John versus uncle), (Ann versus aunt), (NEW York
versus city), (Harvard versus university), (Dell versus computer)
 Capitalize the first word of a quotation. Examples:
 When will you be finished?
 My new neighbor said “Good morning,” as I approached the door.
 “Good morning!” I answered, somewhat surprised. “You must be Sylvia.”
 Do not capitalize the first word of a partial quotation.
 He called her “the best problem solver alive.”
 “The new edition,” Ari explained, “will be available in two months.”

3. 2. Common Nouns

They are not specific and do not require capitalization. They are used to name
general items rather than specific ones. Common nouns are everywhere, and you use
them all the time, even if you don’t realize it. Wherever you go, you’ll find at least
one common noun. Street, closet, bathroom, school, mall, gas station, dogs,
iceberg, living room; all of these words are things, and thus they are common nouns
They are all represents general things or sense. So these nouns refer to any and every
person or thing of the same kind or class, not to a particular person or thing: Common
here means “shared by all.” It is worth to note that common nouns are further
divided into collective, abstract and individual nouns. Examples:

 The class is studying grammar.

 The nearest town is 40 miles away.
 He is a good boy.
 Ann is a girl.

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The following chart shows how proper and common nouns work in practice.

Common Noun Proper Noun

girl Katia, Ann, Randa ………………………..……………………...
boy Karim, John, Stephan …………………..…………..……………
man John, Rover, Jack………………………..………….……………
president Donald Trump, Poutin, Abraham Lincoln …………....…………
city Algiers, Paris, Batna, Setif, Bejaia, New York ……..…………...
river The Nile, Mississippi, Soumam …………...…………….………

3. 3. Collective Nouns

A collective noun is the name of a number of persons or things taken together

and considered as one unit. They are used to name a collection, a group of people, or
things of the same kind such as class, team, government, etc. Often, they are followed
by a prepositional phrase specifying what they are composed of. It is worth to
mention that large subset of collective nouns are specific to certain kinds of animals
known as nouns of assembly. Again collective nouns should not be confused with
mass nouns. Examples:
 The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.
 The police dispersed the crowd.
 I saw a fleet of ships in the harbor.
 A herd of cows ate all the grass.
 A team of football players
 Barcelona win the match. (The speaker means the individuals (players) of the
team and the verb “win” is without (-s))
 Barcelona wins the match. (The speaker means “Barcelona” team as one
identity and the verb “win” should be “wins” with (-s))

3. 4. Abstract Nouns

An abstract noun is a noun which names quality, concept, virtue or state, which
one cannot perceive through the one’s five physical senses. They are used to refer to
things that we cannot see or touch. Example words like love, freedom, courage,
democracy, decision, poverty, situation, etc. Examples:
 We all love honesty.
 Cleanliness is next to godliness.
 Courage is the virtue of leaders.
 I love to remember the happy days of childhood.
 Love is a holy feeling.

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3. 4. 1. Special Notes about Abstract Nouns
 Concrete nouns are names of material things, i.e. things having a material form,
shape or size. Abstract nouns are the names of qualities found in various kinds of
persons, places, and objects. Since they have no material form, shape or size, they
cannot be seen or touched. We can recognize them only through our mind. We can
see sugar but cannot see sweetness, so sugar is a concrete noun and sweetness an
abstract noun. In short, concrete nouns refer to physical properties and abstract
nouns refer to mental properties. Examples:

Concrete Nouns Abstract Nouns

Sugar sweetness
Book idea
Milk taste

 Many abstract nouns are formed by adding suffixes (-ness, -ity, -tion) to
adjectives or verbs to make a noun form. Examples are happiness, formality, and
gradation. Examples:
Adjective Abstract Nouns
Kind Kindness
Gentle gentleness
Curious curiousness

 Abstract nouns can also be formed from verbs. Examples:

 John knows German very well.
 John’s knowledge of German helped us while getting around in Austria. In the
second sentence, we changed the verb know into the abstract noun knowledge.

3. 5. Material / Concrete Nouns

A material noun is the name of a material, substance, or ingredient things are

made of. They can be articles of food or drink as well: iron, copper, steel, gold, coal,
silver, rice, wheat, milk, water, tea, sugar. It is worth to note here that concrete nouns
are names of material things, i.e. things having a material form, shape or size.
Furthermore, a material noun is a type of common noun but a distinction is made
between the two. A common noun is usually a countable noun but a material noun is
an uncountable noun. Examples:
 The cow gives us milk. In this example, cow is a common noun (countable),
but milk is a material noun (uncountable).
 The brown seeds give coffee. In this example, the word “seeds” is a common
noun while coffee is coffee is a material noun.

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 Grammar Point
If a noun names something that can be detected by the five senses, it is called a
concrete noun. Nouns like pen, home, bicycle, brain, shirt, moon, mountain,
desk, eyes, book, door, mirror ……………. are concrete nouns. On the other hand,
if a noun refers to qualities which do not exist in the real world and cannot be felt,
tasted, seen, heard or touched, they are categorized as abstract nouns. Examples:
hope, democracy, beauty, swiftness, friendship, idea, fiction………...…….………

3. 6. Countable Nouns

A countable noun is an individual object that can, as the name suggest, be

counted. If you can have one, two, three, etc. of the noun, it is countable. These nouns
can appear in the singular and plural form, and can be used with indefinite articles in
the singular form. It is worth to be noted here that generally a noun used in answer to
the question how many is a countable noun. Furthermore, common nouns and
collective nouns are by and large countable. Examples:

 How many sessions did you attend? I attended five sessions.

 Table = it is a countable noun since we can say one table, two tables ………...
 A letter, letters, a book, books

3. 7. Uncountable Nouns or a Non-count or Mass Noun

A non-countable noun refers to things that are not individual and therefore
cannot be counted in their normal sense because they exist in a “mass” form.
Furthermore, these nouns stand for substances that cannot be counted but can only be
measured. Therefore, they cannot be made into the plural form, and in their normal
meaning, they cannot be preceded by the indefinite article. The nouns of this kind
normally take a singular verb. It is worth to note here that a noun used in answer to
the question “how much” is an uncountable noun. These nouns include:

 Abstract ideas: news, information advice, fun, weather, beauty

 Concrete nouns: water, hair, money
 Feelings: love, happiness, anger, joy,
 Human attributes: honesty, peace, permission, patience, courage,
 Blocks of things: food, butter, water, bread, sand,

3. 7. 1. Countable and Uncountable Nouns Differences

Certain nouns can be countable in one meaning, and uncountable in another, it

depends to their use in the sentence. Students should always remember and relate the

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word to its context. When we want to refer to the quantity of the uncountable items
we use values of measurement which are countable. An uncountable noun is
frequently made into countable by adding such phrases as a piece of, a cup of, a grain
of, a game of, a bolt of, a flash of, a clap of, or five kilos of.

Uncountable Nouns Countable Nouns

 A jar of coffee  Three coffees, please
 The bread  A loaf of bread
 The news  A piece of news
 The milk of the cow  Five liters of milk
 tea  A cup of tea

3. 8. Appositive Nouns

Appositives “as non-restrictive modifiers”, add information that is not

essential for the identification of the referent of the phrase so modified. When one
noun follows another to describe it, the noun which follows is said to be in
‘apposition’ to the noun which comes before it. So they are noun or noun phrase that
identifies a nearby noun or pronoun. Appositives begin with a noun or an article, as a
phrases they do not have their own subject and verb, and they are usually blocked off
in writing by comma but occasionally are separated with a colon (:) or dash (—).In
speech, they are surrounded by perceptible pause and often a fall in voice pitch, akin
to the aside spoken by a stage actor. Appositives are almost always treated as
parenthetical asides elements after their head noun. Examples:

 The President of France, who is in his 7th year in office, has only one more
year to serve. In cases like this, the writer assumes that the reader will know
who the President of the US is and so does not need the appositive information
to identify him. Nonetheless, the writer adds the information that the President
is in his 7th year in office as a sort of secondary predicate in addition to the
primary one, namely, that he has only one more year to serve.
 My son Bill is happy.
 My husband John is very busy by now.
 The bicycle, an antique stingray, cost twenty thousand dollars.
 Stephan, our captain, made twenty runs.
 John, my uncle, is a very humorous person.
 Stephan's ambition, to become a champion in football, is within his capacity.
 Ann, his wife of forty years old, suddenly decided to open her own office.

15
4. Gender of Nouns
Since the middle ages, English nouns have natural gender, reflecting on the sex of the
individual:
 Males have masculine gender: actor, man, boy, aviator, bull, rooster.
 Females have feminine gender: actress, woman, girl, aviatrix, cow, hen
 Sexless objects have neuter gender: tree, box, book, floor, chair
 Common nouns denotes both male and female. See the table below.
Masculine Feminine Sexless /Neuter Common
Boy Girl Gold Student
Man Woman Teacher Rice
Brother Sister Doctor Flower
Uncle Aunt Child River
Bull Cow Diplomat Table

4. 1. Masculine and Feminine Formation

 The feminine of nouns is formed in two ways: the first way is by adding “ess” to
the masculine noun or form. Furthermore, professional activities are often referred
to in the common gender. The feminine forms authoress, poetess, and directress
are no longer in use. Examples:
Masculine form + ess Feminine form
duke ess duchess
actor ess actress
priest ess priestess
prince ess princess
hunter ess huntress
Lion ess lioness
host ess hostess
waiter ess waitress

 Or the feminine form is made by adding she/girl/woman to the masculine form.

Examples:
Masculine Form ➔ Feminine Form
boy-friend ➔ girl-friend
businessman businesswoman
➔
policeman policewoman
chairman ➔ chairwoman
he-goat ➔ she-goat
sportsman sportswoman
➔
salesman saleswoman
16
 ➔
➔

 But in many cases, the feminine form is not derived from the masculine form. In
the examples listed below, the feminine form is a totally new word, not related to
the masculine form phonetically. Examples:
Masculine ➔ Feminine Masculine ➔ Feminine
Boy ➔ Girl Drone ➔ Bee
Brother Sister Gentleman Lady
➔ ➔
Father Mother Horse Mare
Bull ➔ Cow Husband ➔ Wife
Cook ➔ Hen Nephew ➔ Niece
Dog Bitch Sir Madam
➔ ➔
Drake Duck Uncle Aunt
➔ ➔
➔ ➔

 Most of the nouns denoting profession/occupation are in the common gender such
as the following example words: “ambassador, doctor, minister, pupil, artisan,
editor, monarch, reader, artist, enemy, monitor, politician, engineer, musician,
scientist, captain, friend, orphan, singer, child, infant, person, speaker, clerk,
judge, player, student ………………………………………………….…………..”

De-gender Language
The English language traditionally used only male pronouns when speaking of
people in general, e.g. A doctor treats his patients kindly, as though no women
were doctors (which, in fact, was true during certain periods of Western history).
Language reflects social change; today women have more equal representation in
language usage because they do in society in general. Now English speakers try to
use he or she, she or he, s/he, his or her, etc. The easiest way to avoid the problem
is to use a plural rather than a singular generic noun so that they/them/ their (which
are neither masculine nor feminine) may be used, e.g., Doctors treat their patients
kindly.

5. Plural Formation
All nouns may be singular (referring to one) or plural (referring to more than
one). In English only countable nouns which can be made into the plural form. In

17
their singular form, they are preceded by the indefinite article ‘a/an’. The cases of
plural formation are as follows:
 The plural forms of the singular countable nouns are normally made by adding “s”
to the most nouns. Examples:
 a hat = hats;
 a duck = ducks;
 a name = names,
 a visit = visits,
 However, nouns ending in a sibilant sounds “s, z sh, ch, x and o” form their plural
by adding “es” to the singular form. But all nouns ending in -o preceded by a
vowel take only the “s” form. Examples:
 a class = classes;
 a bushes = bushes;
 a church = churches;
 an ax = axes)
 a mongo = mangoes
 a radio = radios Here “o” is preceded by a vowel and takes only “s”.
 a ratio = ratios
 a stereo = stereos
 Nouns ending in “a consonant + y” form their plural by changing “y” to “i” and
then adding “es” to the singular. But when the –y ending is preceded by a vowel,
the plural form simply takes “s”. Examples:
 an army = armies
 a spy = spies
 a country = countries
 a boy =boys Here “y” is preceded by a vowel and takes only “s”.
 Many nouns ending in “f” or “fe” form their plural by changing “f” or “fe” into
“ves”. It is worth to note here that the following words are not applicable to this
rule “chief, roof, gulf, grieve, dwarf, safe, serf, brief, proof, leaf, and belief”.
Furthermore, there are some words in this category which have both plural forms
such as staff, scarf, hoof, and wharf. Examples:
 a wife = wives
 a Life = lives
 a thief = thieves
 Some nouns in English form their plurals irregularly. Examples:
 a man = men
 a goose = geese

18
  an ox = oxen
 a datum = data
 a foot = feet
 a mouse = mice
 a louse = lice
 a nucleus = nuclei
 A compound noun normally forms its plural by adding –s to the principal word.
 a commander -in- chief = commanders –in- chief
 a coat –of- mail = coats –of- mail
 a son –in- law = sons –in- law
 a daughter –in- law= daughters –in- law
 a step-son = step-sons
 a maid-servant = maid-servants
 a passer-by = passers-by
 English is an eclectic language, taking words and even their plurals from other
languages: [Note: Use a good dictionary for unfamiliar nouns.] Examples:
 Latin: datum = data
 bacterium = bacteria
 medium = media
 Greek: criterion = criteria
 phenomenon = phenomena
 crisis = crises
 French: chateau = chateaux
 beau = beaux
 tableau = tableaux
 Some nouns have the similar singular and plural forms: swine, sheep, deer, fish
(but also fishes) cod, trout, salmon, pair, dozen, score, gross, hundred, and
thousand (when used after numerals). Some are used only in plural.
 Names of instruments having two parts forming a kind of pair: bellows, scissors,
tongs, pincers, and spectacles.
 Names of certain articles of dress: trousers, drawers, and breeches.
 Certain names of games: billiards, draughts, cards, and dominoes.

Grammar Point
When we change the singular nouns in a sentence into their plural forms, we often
need to make some other changes in the sentence.
 a/one book ➔ many books
19
 this book ➔ these books

 that book ➔ those books

 The book is red. ➔ The books are red.

 The book was broken. ➔ The books were broken.

 The book has a handle. ➔ The books have handles.

 his/her/its book ➔ their books

6. Possessive Nouns

Common and proper nouns can sometimes be further classified as possessive

nouns. A possessive noun shows ownership, belonging, or that something is part of
something else. They are easy to find in a sentence because they always include an
apostrophe (’). Apostrophes are used to show that one or more things belong to one
or more people or things. Apostrophes are often used because they shorten sentences,
meaning fewer words for the reader. The following table represents the rules for
forming the possessive forms of nouns with examples.
Rules for forming possessive forms of nouns
Condition Possessive form Examples
 If a noun is  Add an apostrophe (') plus  the neighbor's boy
singular and does “s” to the noun  the child's room
not end in “s”  John's career
 If a noun is  If a new syllable is formed  my boss's opinion
singular and ends in the pronunciation of the  Dennis's house
in “s”, be guided possessive, add an  witness's chart
by the way you say apostrophe plus “s”
the word  If adding an extra “s”  Ann Hastings' store
would make the word seem  Phillips' factory
hard to pronounce, add  Ann Parsons' bicycle
only an apostrophe
 If a noun is plural  Add only an apostrophe  pupils' class
and already has an (')  librarians' gate
“s” at the end.  the Jones' company
 If a noun is plural  Add an apostrophe (')  women's role
and does not end in then add “s”  men's career
“s”  children's plays
 The words his,  They are possessive and  Yours faithfully
hers, its, theirs, they are not written with  Its color
20
 yours, ours, mine the possessive sign (’).  The paper is mine

The following notes refer to the description of English possessive nouns. The cases
available in the sense that the use of apostrophe with ‘s’ denoting possessive case
should be restricted to:

a. Living things. Here the possessive form of a noun is rarely used in formal writing
with plants and non-living objects. For example; the Director’s secretary, the
baker’s shop, a boy’s foot, a cat’s tail. On the other hand, for non-living things and
plants, it is better to write "the legs of the table" instead of "the table's legs" or
"the leaves of a tree" rather than "the tree's leaves.
b. However, it is acceptable to use the possessive form for common expressions
referring to time, space, weight and measurement, such as day’s journey, in a
year’s time, a foot’s length, an hour’s talk ……………………………………..
c. Avoid using two or more possessives together in a sentence. Here’s an example:
Ann's boyfriend's father's car is for repair. This above sentence contains 3
possessive cases. Only one is acceptable while two others are false in one
statement. A better version of the sentence would look like this: The car
belonging to the father of Ann's boyfriend is for repair.
d. Thing personified; as, Nature’s law, India’s heroes, fortune’s favorite
e. Certain dignified objects; as, At duty’s call, the court’s decree
f. A few familiar phrases; as, At his wit’s end, at a stone’s throw, for mercy’s sake
g. If both nouns are possessive, each one owns a separate thing. For example;
Mary’s and Susan’s houses are on the same street.
h. Changing the location of an apostrophe can change the meaning of a sentence.
Look at each of the following sentences. The position of the apostrophe tells the
reader whether one person or thing possesses something, or if it’s more than one
person or thing doing the possessing. That is, it tells whether the word that
possesses is singular (referring to one) or plural (referring to more than one). The
words in parentheses explain what the apostrophe means.
 These are the girl’s books. (The books belong to one girl.)
 These are the girls’ books. (The books belong to more than one girl.)
i. Possessive pronouns do not need apostrophes because the spelling of the word
itself shows that it is possessive. The words it’s, you’re, and they’re are not
possessive pronouns; they are contractions of it is, you are, and they are. Examine
these sentences and learn the difference.

7. Contraction Form

21
 Contractions are a common feature of English, used frequently in ordinary
speech. In written English, contractions are used in some semiformal writing and
mostly in informal writing. They usually involve the elision of a vowel – an
apostrophe being inserted in its place in written English – possibly accompanied by
other changes. Many of these contractions involve auxiliary verbs and their
negations, although not all of these have common contractions, and there are also
certain other contractions not involving these verbs
Apostrophes can show possession (the teacher’s book is beneficial), and also
can show the omission of one or more letters when words are combined into
contractions. You would use a contraction to shorten and combine words. In formal
writing, contractions are not used as frequently (if at all). Some instructors allow
contractions in assignments, and some do not. You should check with them about
their policy if it is not clear from the syllabus. If you do use contractions, however, be
sure to include the apostrophe in place of the letters you omit. Furthermore, don’t use
symbols in place of words such as abbreviations, acronyms, contractions and so on,
even if it seems simpler or more efficient. Write out the complete word in any written
communication if you want to be taken seriously. Examples:

 United States of America (not USA)

 four (not 4)
 to, too, two (not 2)
 and (not &)
 extra (not x-tra)

Summary

The system of English nouns can be diagrammatically drawn as the following.

22
Exercise 1

Direction: Read and underline all the nouns you can find in the following
sentences. Check your answers in the answer key.
1. The dog chased the cat under the porch.
2. Muffins made with blueberries are delicious.
3. My daughter sold her computer to a friend.
4. Robert drove his car to Saint John and shopped for a new truck.
5. So much snow covered the roads that even truck drivers pulled into motels.
6. The passengers on the ship witnessed the collision with the iceberg.
7. The Titanic sank in a few hours; many husbands and wives were separated.
8. Penguins live near the South Pole, but these birds aren’t bothered by the cold.
9. Many retired couples move to Florida where the weather is warmer.
10. Shediac is closer to the Confederation Bridge than Riverview is.
Exercise 2
23
Direction: Fill in the blanks with suitable collective nouns.
1. A ………..…………. of birds flew high in the sky.
2. They saw a ………..…….……. of lions at the zoo.
3. The farmer has a ……….…………. of cattle on his farm.
4. He ate a ………….………..of grapes today.
5. Our friend shows us a …………………… of stamps.
6. We saw a …………..……… of sheep on our way home.
7. Police have arrested a …………..……… of thieves.
8. She bought a ………….………… of bananas from the market.
9. The ………….………. of pupils are listening attentively to their teacher.
10. You can put the …………………….. of tools in that box.

Exercise 3

Direction: Underline the nouns in the following sentences. Write CN about

common nouns and PN about proper nouns.
1. Shakespeare was a great writer.
2. He wrote many books in English.
3. One of his famous papers is Animals Farm.
4. The works of Charles Dickens have been translated into many languages.
5. Moonlight flickered on the dried leaves on the path from Black Lake.
6. Marry sent a parcel to her sister.
7. Paris is a big city on the Middle of Europe.
8. Robert and his family moved to Alberta when the mill closed.
9. Do most people in France read the newspaper on the weekend?
10. English is a language with many exceptions to the rules of grammar.
11. Maple syrup is produced in rural areas of North America.
12. The hockey arena in Beresford is located near the main street.
13. Early settlers to the New World came from France and England.
14. The stores on Wall Street are planning a large sale and carnival to boost their
profits.

Exercise 4

Underline the countable nouns and circle the uncountable nouns in the following
sentences.
1. Ann likes to eat biscuits with milk.
2. Susan found a strand of hair in her soup.
3. Susan’s hair is very long.
4. The monkey ate five bananas and some nuts.

24
 5. We cannot survive without food and water.
6. I have some apples in my bag.
7. May I have a glass of water?
8. The teacher carried two books with her.
9. How much money is needed to buy two liters of water?
10. Most children love sweet.
11. I bought a paper yesterday for my father.
12. She has beautiful hair on her head.
13. We had many interesting experiences during our holiday.
14. You need experience for this job.
15. I drink coffee with sugar.

Exercise 5

Divide the words in this exercise into four lists of sentences: concrete nouns,
abstract nouns, collective nouns and mass nouns. Check your answers in the
answer key.
1. My class mates encourage me to participate in the contest.
2. Little girls like rose so much.
3. My family supports me in my studies.
4. Justice makes sense to human lives everywhere.
5. Computer science is very interesting nowadays.
6. There was a lot of traffic in town over the holidays.
7. Couples like to celebrate the fourteenth February every year.
8. A large amount of deer were shot this season.
9. We ask out God for his grace wherever we are in the planet.
10. We go to school every day to study and learn.
11. The crowd is in front of the university to attend the final exams.
12. The staff of the administration is working hard to ensure better circumstances.
13. Ann receives too much junk mail.

Exercise 6

Instruction: Rewrite the following sentences using the plural form of the nouns
in each sentence. You may need to make changes to the verb from too.

1. The engineer drove the car out of the garage for testing.
2. A battery in the series has not been connected properly.
3. A student brought a loaf of bread for the class party.
4. The train halts at this station for a short time only.
5. The library in the university is very well stocked.
25
 6. The person was amazed by the trick of the magician.
7. A choir sang along with the teacher at the piano.
8. The Indian team is very good at one-day match.
9. The employee was introduced to the senior in the group company.
10. A mosquito buzzed in my ear as we sat watching the video.

Exercise 7

Instruction: rewrite the following sentences using the possessive form of nouns.

1. She is the mother of Ann.

2. This is the story of Nelson Mandela.
3. What are the names of the singers?
4. The crops of the farmers were destroyed in the floods.
5. Uncle Mohan is designing the room of the kids.
6. Please do not disturb the nests of the birds in the tree.
7. Let me see the results of this year.
8. I am quoting this from the novel of Dickens’.
9. The horns of the deer are called antlers.
10. She is replying to the email of her sister.
11. We are going to attend the performance of the sister of my friends.
12. Could you guide me to the house of the brother of Mr. Susan?

Exercise 8

Instruction: Rewrite the following sentences by changing the gender of the

nouns denoting people and animals.

1. My grandfather took my baby sister to the mall in a perambulator.

2. The bride on the horse is my sister –in-law.
3. The king asked his men to decorate the court.
4. My nephew had fun chasing the big red hen on our farm.
5. I once mistook the mare for a horse.
6. The hostess took good care of her guests.
7. We saw a tiger feeding on a deer carcass during the morning safari.
8. The old widow sat watching the peacocks in the garden.
9. The actress played the role of a waitress in the movie.
10. Mohan’s stepmother is a generous woman.

Exercise 9

26
Instruction: Add capital letters where necessary with justification.

1. I discussed the matter with my professor.

2. We were studying Robert Frost’s poem “The death of the hired man”.
3. All grade 12 students take history and english.
4. Usually college classes begin the day after labor day.
5. You know, dad, I haven’t had the car all week.
6. He shouted, “what’s happening?”
7. The doctor sent her to the hospital last wednesday.
8. After graduating from high school, he went to Vancouver island university.
9. My aunt is president of her club this fall.
10. My cousin plays hockey for simon fraser university.

Parts of Speech: Pronouns

Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about pronouns. Throughout the unit students will become familiar
with many aspects of pronouns. The emphasis is put on the meanings, kinds, and
uses of pronouns in a sentence. The unit is made up of theory, examples and
exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully finished this lecture, they should be able, among
other things, to;
1. Define the pronoun as the second part of speech.
2. List the main Kinds and common pronouns.
3. Compare pronouns with nouns.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through pronouns.

1. Definition of Pronouns
27
 Pronouns are small words operate just like a noun in a sentence. So pronouns
are words that substitute for nouns or another pronoun that have already been
mentioned in a sentence. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific noun, which
is called its antecedent. The pronoun is a substitute word, and the antecedent is the
noun that it is substituting. It is important to remember, however, to use pronouns
carefully. As noun substitutes, pronouns provide variety and efficiency. The use of
pronouns makes this paragraph sounds more natural, interesting, precise, concise, less
repetitive and more communicative. Compare and examine the sentences below.

 1. He saw it when they purchased it.

 1. Ann saw the book when the students purchased the book.
 2. They were happy when it was over.
 2. Students were happy when the exam was over.
 3. The gift that we gave them was made last week.
 3. The gift that I my classmates gave to our teachers was made last week.
 4. What did you buy from them?
 4. What did John buy from businessmen?

 Pro means “for”

 Noun means “the name of a person place or thing.
 Pronoun means “for a noun” so a pronouns = Pro + name “Two at a Time” =
Noun Equivalent

2. Pronoun and its Antecedent

The noun or noun phrase that the pronoun refers in the sentence is called
antecedent "ante + cede". It is worth to note here that "ante" means "before",
"cede" means "to go", altogether "ante + cede" means "to go before of the
pronoun". So an antecedent or "goes before" or existed before the pronoun, can
occur either before the noun it describes in a sentence. The antecedent must always
be a single word, either stated or implied. The pronoun must agree with the
antecedent it replaces. This means that the pronoun and its antecedent must match.
In other words, if the antecedent is singular, the pronoun must be singular; if the
antecedent is plural, the pronoun must be plural. Sometimes, the antecedent can
follow the pronoun.

 John said that he would be late. Here the pronoun “he” substitutes for the noun
mentioned before “John”.

28
  After he built the house, Stephan died. Here the pronoun “he” comes before its
antecedent, “Stephan”.
 Students must be always ready for their best preparation for their exams. Here
the pronoun “their” and its noun “students” must agree and match in number,
gender ………..

3. Pronouns and Nouns

Pro as a prefix of the word pronoun means 'for' or 'acting as' for something
“noun” else in the sentence A pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun or a noun
phrase. In other words, it has all the characteristics of a noun: it can function as a
subject/object/complement in a sentence. So a pronoun is used to avoid the repetition
of nouns or noun phrases as it is indicated by the examples below:
 1. Karim went to the shop because Karim wanted to buy a bicycle.
 2. Karim went to the shop because he wanted to buy a bicycle.
 1. Walking is a form of sport. Walking is easier than swimming.
 2. Walking is a form of sport. It is easier than swimming.
But a pronoun is different from a noun in that it neither cannot take a pre-
modifying adjective nor can it take a determiner or a prefix/suffix. The form of a
pronoun is fixed. It is worth to be noted that pronouns are like nouns, pronouns too,
have number. But the number system of pronouns is different from that of nouns
because an s is not added to pronouns to turn them into plural. The singular and plural
forms of pronouns are fixed such as “I, me, my, mine ….” versus “we, us, our ….....”
.

It is worth to mention again that the gender system of pronouns is different from that
of nouns because a suffix like "ess" is not used to mark gender distinctions. The
gender of pronouns is fixed. See the examples in the table below:

Masculine Feminine Common gender pronouns Neuter gender

he, she, I, we, you, they it,
him, her, mine, ours, yours, theirs its,
his, hers, myself, yourself, ourselves, themselves itself
himself herself each other, one another anything,
everybody, nobody, anybody nothing,
who? which? what? something,

4. Kinds of Pronouns

4. 1. Personal Pronouns
29
 The first person refers to the person speaking or writing (I, we), the second
person to the person addressed (you) and the third person to the person spoken or
written about (he, she, and they). In a speech situation the first and second person are
necessarily present, the third person may or may not be present. These seven personal
pronouns are called personal pronouns on the basis of their role in a speech act.
Personal pronouns can be divided according to number into singular and plural and
according to person into First person, Second person, and Third person. The main
things to remember about personal pronouns are;
 They are based on number "singular versus plural",
 They are also based on gender "masculine versus feminine" and,
 They are also based on person "human versus non-human". Personal pronouns
refer to the three persons involved in communication (I, you, he, she, it, etc.)
Impersonal: refer to non-humans (it, they)
 They are aloes based on Case is a term used in grammar to talk about the special
forms of pronouns needed when they are used in different places in a sentence.
 Personal pronouns do not always refer to people. Personal means first person "the
speaker", second person "the person spoken to" and third person "another person
or thing as absent in the discussion "
When you are talking about a single thing, you almost always use it. However,
there are a few exceptions. You may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or
she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other
vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as female and
referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:
 This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsation dog.
 The Titanic was a splendid ship but she sank on her first trip.
 My first bicycle was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.
 Canada has now opened her border for emigrants.

4. 2. Indefinite Pronouns

They refer to a person, place, or thing that may or may not be specifically
named. An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount.
It is vague and "not definite". They usually do not have a definite or specific
antecedent as a personal pronoun. They are further divided into singular indefinite
pronouns which include "any, anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, everybody,
each, neither, another, nobody, no one, none, nothing, somebody, someone,
something………………." and plural indefinite pronouns which also include "all,
several, few, both, some, many ………….." Examples:

30
  Everybody will select another to help with everything. "The three words
written in bold type are all indefinite pronouns since they all take the place and
do not refer to a specific or definite person or thing".
 Someone is knocking on the door. Singular indefinite pronoun
 Everyone should answer in his/her exam sheet. Singular indefinite pronoun
 All the students are concerned with the last exercise. Plural indefinite pronoun

4. 3. Demonstrative Pronouns

They are used to point out or demonstrate something more particular like
person, place, thing or idea. They are very small group of pronouns but they are
extremely useful in making clear sentences. The basic function of demonstratives is
to indicate the nearness or distance of the person or object referred to, from the
speaker. The pronouns "this" and "these" are used to point out something close to the
speaker but "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away from the speaker.
Demonstrative pronouns have number contrast such as: "this with these" and "that
with those". It is worth to mention that the word "such" can be used as either singular
or plural. Examples:

 Give her the cake. Or give her this. Cake is the antecedent of this which is
close to the speaker.
 This is the point I want to clarify.
 Those are my articles.
 That is the case of interest.
 Such a horse is hard to find. Singular
 Such horses are hard to find. plural

4. 4. Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are used when the “receiver” of the action is the same
person as the “doer”. In short, if someone does something to himself or herself, the
action is expressed using a reflexive pronoun. Reflexive pronouns are used to reflect
something back to the subject of the sentence or clause. So the term reflexive means
'bent back', in the sense of 'bending the object back to the subject.' A reflexive
pronoun is used when the subject and the object refer to the same person or thing.
This can be seen from the agreement between the subject and the reflexive object: In
English, the paradigm reflexive pronouns are formed by appending or attaching
"self" or "selves" to the objective form of the pronoun stem. Consequently, reflexive
pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural).

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 A reflexive pronoun is used as a substitute for a noun in the objective case i.e.,
as a direct object. Of course this substitution is used to avoid an awkward
construction 'John ... John'. They are also further divided into singular reflexive
pronouns which include “myself, yourselves, himself, herself and itself” and plural
reflexive pronouns which include “yourself, ourselves, himself, and themselves”.
Students must note that the forms "hisself" and "theirselves" do not exist as reflexive
pronouns in English. If the sentence is directed to one person, use the singular form
yourself, but if it refers to a group, use the plural form yourselves. Examples:
 John looks to John in the mirror. Or John looks to himself in the mirror. Here
the reflexive pronoun "himself" is used as a substitute for the same noun in
the objective case.
 We find the solution ourselves.
 It ate the grass itself.
 They want to discover the situation themselves.
 I respect myself.

4. 5. Intensive or Emphatic Pronouns

Notice that all the above reflexive pronouns can also act as intensive or
emphatic pronouns, but the function and usage are different. An intensive pronoun
emphasizes its antecedent. Furthermore, emphatic pronouns look exactly like
reflexive pronouns but they are used to emphasize a noun or another pronoun. They
are further divided into Singular emphatic pronouns: “myself, yourself, himself,
herself and itself” and Plural emphatic pronouns: “ourselves, yourselves and
themselves” For example, when you want to point out that you did something all by
yourself, you might say,

 I repaired the computer myself. Or I, myself, wouldn’t defend the same issue.
 You, yourself, are the more likely student to get the best average.
 They planned for the visit to Algiers themselves.
 I inspected the car itself before deciding it was useless.

Comparison between Reflexive Pronouns and Emphatic Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns Emphatic Pronouns
1. I made the cake myself. 1. I myself made the cake.
2. Have you yourself met the girl? 2. Have you met the girl yourself?
3. The president promised to increase 3. The president himself promised to
salaries himself. increase the salaries.
4. The directress spoke to me herself. 4. The directress herself spoke to me.

32
 5. The question was not easy itself. 5. The question itself was not easy.
6. You asked to pay attention 6. You yourselves asked to pay
yourselves. attention.

4. 6. Relative Pronouns

A relative pronoun relates or refers back to a noun or pronoun called its

antecedent. It also joins clauses. So it is a pronoun as well as a conjunction. Relative
pronouns introduce relative clauses and noun clauses. It is called relative pronoun
because it relates to the word that it modify. So Relative pronouns are used to insert
special grammar structures called clauses into a basic sentence. It is worth to note
here that the term “clause” really means extra bits of information in a sentence,
expressed in a special way. Some of the relative pronouns are as follows:
 Relative pronouns: who, whoever, whom, whomever……....to refer to people
 which..........................................................................................to refer to things
 that..................................................................................to refer to people/things
 The person who called me yesterday is my close friend. In this example, "who"
relates to "person", which it modifies and introduces the relative clause "who
called me yesterday"
 Those who built the glass houses shouldn't throw heavy objects.
 I don't know who is standing at the door.
 The boss whom you discussed with left the room.
 They watched the show which was prepared for Ramadan.
 The lecturer that presented the conference didn’t get a wage.

4. 7. Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun

represents the thing no known (what we are asking the question about). The forms of
relative pronouns and interrogative pronouns are identical, but their functions are
different: the former join clauses, the latter ask questions. They are used to initiate
interrogative statements when you want to ask about someone or something. There
are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which. Notice that the
possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative pronoun (an interrogative
possessive pronoun). Examples:
 Who did you invite for lunch? (As object)
 Who told you the news?
 Whom did you tell?
 What is your name?

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  Which came first in the race?
 Whose has not arrived at the airport?

4. .8. Possessive Pronouns

These pronouns can be used independently. They are used to express

ownership/possession/relationship. Some of them are: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours,
yours, and theirs. The following table summarizes the different cases of pronouns. In
short, possessive pronouns are used to refer to a specific person/people or
thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and sometimes
belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things). We use possessive pronouns
depending on:

 number: singular (example: mine) or plural (example: ours)

 person: 1st person (example: mine), 2nd person (example: yours) or 3rd person
(example: his)
 gender: male (his), female (hers) Look at other examples below:
 Look at these bags. Mine is the small bag. (subject = My bag)
 I like your book. Do you like mine? (object = my book)
 I searched everywhere for your pen. I found Ann's pen but I did not find yours.
(object = your pen)
 My plants are dying. Yours are flourishing. (subject = Your plants)
 All the answers were true but his was the best. (subject = his answers)
 Ann found his key but Marry couldn't find hers. (object = her key)
 Here is your bicycle. Ours is in the garage, where we left it. (subject = Our
bicycle)
4. 9. Reciprocal Pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun is used when each of two or more subjects is acting in the
same way towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B is talking to A.
The action is "reciprocated". John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I give you a
present and you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and the cat bites the dog.
There are only two reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words: "each other
and one another". When these reciprocal pronouns are used: first there must be two
or more people, things or groups involved (so we cannot use reciprocal pronouns
with I, you [singular], he/she/it), and second they must be doing the same thing.
 Stephan and Ann love each other.
 Ann and Marry hate each other.
 The five students were all helping one another.
 Both armies faced harsh fight against each other.
34
  The enemies were fighting one another.
 The balls were floating against each other.
Summary

Pronouns are like nouns. Students must always remember that there are the subjective
case and the objective case with the personal pronouns.

 The use of the subjective case is when each pronoun can be used as the subject of
the verb. Examples: She is a teacher. They are professionals.
 The use of the objective case is when each pronoun can be used as the object of
the verb. Examples: We saw him last night. She looks at me all the time.
 The first person pronoun I is always a capital letter whatever its position in the
sentence. Examples: I delivered the lesson to my pupils. Yesterday, I delivered
the lesson to my pupils.
 The pronoun you is the only second form for singular and plural. Examples: You
are quite right. All of you.
 The pronoun it is used to refer to something non-human such as a thing, a
substance, an action, a feeling, an idea, or a statement. It is worth to mention that
this pronoun is used again to identify a person as empty subject and to give
emphasize.

Exercise 1

Copy these sentences into your notebook and then underline the pronouns.

1. Who told us that no one would be at the park?

2. This belongs to her class.
3. She never gave them any of it during the class.
4. Robert called to tell them about that case.
5. What did you give him and his wife for the holidays?
6. We always welcome suggestions from our students.
7. Mine factory was destroyed by the flood, but the insurance covered it.
8. Give me some coffee!
9. They told about the hardships we survived successfully.
10. Many told about the kindness of strangers as visitors.

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Exercise 2

Circle the correct form of the pronoun. When you have finished, check your
answers with the answer key in the back of the book.
1. (She, Her) and John are planning on attending the match.
2. (We, Us) girls insist on being admitted to the university.
3. Our teacher gave the extra credit to Ann and (I, me).
4. No one met him and (she, her) together at the class.
5. How many tickets did you purchase for (we, us)?
6. I have to meet (they, them) before the class closes.
7. (He, Him) travels to Algiers every summer.
8. Find the director’s papers and give it to (him, he).
9. The boys challenged (we, us) girls to a race. (We, Us) won, of course.
10. When will the boss present the gift to (she, her)?
11. I hope that (she, her) accepts that new job in Paris.
12. Someone told (we, us) that a new shop would be opening in the city very soon.
13. What do (they, them) plan to do about the contest for PhD?
14. Will you please help (he, him) unload the garbage?
15. How many tickets will he deliver to (she, her)?

Exercise 3

Read each pair of sentences. Underline the pronoun in the second sentence.
Then, underline the words from the first sentence that the pronoun replaces (the
antecedents). One example is given. Example: The students are reading a story. It
is about a dragon.
1. John and I went to the cinema theater. We bought some sweets there.
2. The magician cut a woman in half. Then, she pulled a rabbit from a hat
successfully.
3. Marry and Ann played with the puppies. Marry tossed the ball to them rapidly.
4. Robert went swimming with John. He and John dove under the water line.
5. John listened to love songs on her smart phone. After an hour, it ran out of
batteries and closed out.
6. Dark heavy storm clouds rolled in over the city. They blocked the sunlight from
the city.
7. Father and mother went on a trip to Paris. They will be back next month.
8. The carpenter's hammer is in the truck. His screwdriver is next to it.
9. Have you seen Ann's doll? It has been missing all the time since we are in the
village.
10. That is the Robert's house. Their car is in the driveway.
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Exercise 4

Use a suitable reflexive pronoun for each sentence.

1. Ann, you need to protect ………………. from the sunshine.

2. John hurt ………………… skiing last week.
3. We saw …………….. in those crazy costumes and couldn’t stop laughing.
4. Stephan and Bill are working two jobs to put ………………. through college.
5. The flying object turned ………………… around and disappeared in the night.
6. I bought ………………. some new clothes yesterday.
7. Marry calls ……………… “doctor” even though she hasn’t graduated yet.
8. John and Stephan, find ………………. a place to sit, and I’ll be right with you.
9. Susan cut ……………….. while she was fixing her articles in the store.
10. Each learner has to teach ……………….. how to study well.

Exercise 5

Combine each sentence by using a relative pronoun and eliminate the repeated
words. Use who, whom, whose, which, and that.
1. I met an actor. The actor’s picture won an important prize.
2. We bought a house. The house cost us $180,000.
3. Ann introduced me to her close boyfriend. Her boyfriend is a doctor.
4. Marry bought a new dress. The new dress cost $5000. She had to return it to the
shop.
5. John gave Ann a gift. The gift had diamonds and rubies.
6. Mrs. Susan is talking to her learners. The learners’ researches are done on whole
week days.
7. Robert lives with his sister. His sister is an English teacher.
8. The soldiers were injured in war. The president is awarding medals to the
soldiers.
9. Mr. John graded the tests. We took the tests on Saturday.
10. The director knows the candidate. The candidate was chosen to be the boss.

Exercise 6

Fill in the blanks with suitable Relative Pronouns given in the brackets:
1. The building ................. (where/that/who) I live in was built in the 1720s.
2. That is John, the boy .............. (who/which/whom) has just arrived at the airport.
3. Do you remember the name of the man ........... (whom/whose/that) car you
crashed into?
4. I mean ................. (that/which/what) I say.

37
 5. The hotel ................. (that/which/where) we stayed in was very pleasant.
6. This is the best book ................. (that/which/whose) I've ever read in my life.
7. Mrs. Ann, ................. (that/who/whom) is a taxi driver, lives in a country side.
8. Thank you very much for your e-mail....... (that/who/when) was very interesting.
9. The man ................. (whose/which/that) father is a doctor forgot his car.
10. The children ................ (whom/who/that) shouted in the street are not from ours.

Exercise 7

Underline the all the reflexive, emphatic and reciprocal pronouns used in the
following sentences. Then tell which is which.
1. She cut herself when she was cleaning the house.
2. The soldiers hoisted each other over the stone wall.
3. Wash the dish yourself this time.
4. The players patted one another on the back after they scored.
5. You will have to go yourself to the university.
6. I myself won’t put up with you.
7. Marry and Stephan built their new house themselves.
8. She limited herself to less than 1800 calories a day.
9. A nurse should protect himself or herself from infectious diseases.
10. We laughed when we watched ourselves on Internet show.

Parts of Speech: Verbs

Description of the lecture
This lecture is about verbs as the third part of speech. The unit explores key
concepts of verbs such as definitions, classes, basic forms, subject and predicate
agreement. Throughout the unit students will become familiar with the meanings
and uses of verbs in tenses and sentences. The unit counts on theory, tables,
examples and exercises.
Objectives of the lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce a general overview about verbs.
2. List the classes and kinds of verbs.

38
 3. Enable learners to reflect on the specific basic forms and changes of verbs.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through verbs.

Introduction

The third part of speech known "verb" is one of the main element of every
sentence. The verb is king in English sentence. The importance of the verb in a
sentence is the same as the vowel sound in the syllable formation. The shortest
sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-word sentence with a verb, for
example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence with any other type of word
except with the verb. The verb can be said to be the most important element of a
sentence because the structure of a sentence depends largely on the verb. The
difference between the sentences:
 Leave.
 He laughed
 He built a house.
The difference is mainly that the first sentence is an order while the second sentence
has the verb laugh, which needs nothing to complete its meaning, but the third
sentence he built, which requires an object to complete its meaning: what did he
build?- A house. The difference between leave, laugh and built is lexical which
means that the two verbs represent different meanings or activities

1. Definition of a Verb

A verb is a word or a phrase with which we can make an assertion. What is

asserted is an action, condition or state. Every sentence must have a verb. A verb is
the central unit of any sentence of clause, and all the other words in a sentence take
grammatical form based on how they relate to it. Verbs change form to indicate
five main roles which are person, number, tense, voice, and mood. The
main verb of a sentence is often preceded by one or more helping verbs,
which together form a complete verb. There is no sentence is generally
complete without the use of verb. Without a verb, we cannot have a complete
sentence. So the study of verbs is important because the verb is the most important
part of a sentence “speech”. It is obligatory even in the shortest of sentences to
include a verb. Here are some hints that may help you locate verbs:
 A sentence "clause" is not a sentence "clause" without at least one verb. Some
compound and complex sentences may include more than one verb because they
include more than one clause.
39
 A verb is the central unit of any sentence or clause, and all the other words in a
sentence take grammatical form based on how they relate to the verb.
 Verbs are words that tell us what a subject does or is: verbs usually tell about an
action. Verbs may tell also about states.
 Verbs are often found in the middle of sentences. While imperative sentences start
with a verb.
 A verb can sometimes be made up of more than one word, called a verb phrase.
Oppositely, some verbs may consist of one word.
 Verb phrases may have up to five words.
 Some verb phrases have more than one word and are sometimes interrupted or
separated from the auxiliary verb or verbs by small words that are not part of the
verb like not, never, always, seldom, already, sometimes, usually, rarely ………
such as they have just tasted the food. Here the word just is neither a non-verb
word nor an auxiliary. Tasted is the main verb while have is the auxiliary.
 Verbs change their form to tell about actions taking place at different times. For
example, we moved to a new house last week can be changed to show the action
happening in the future. We will move to a new house next week. The word
moved became will move; therefore, they are still verbs the first one is a one verb
word while the second is a verb phrase. Here are some sentences that show verbs
at work. Notice that some verbs have more than one word and are sometimes
interrupted by small words that are not part of the verb.
 I hit the ball. (It refers to an action.)
 Shut up. Order (There is only one word in this sentence which is a verb.)
 She is asleep. (It refers to a state.)
 I watch my favorite TV show every day. Action
 She is in a good health. State
 Have you sent that letter?
 They are travelling to America. Verb phrase
 Change has come to Algeria. Verb phrase
 Stop! (Short sentence of one word which is the verb stop.)
 They left. Intransitive verb
 My father thinks that he can rebuild his old house.
 They might have been being chased before her car smashed into the bridge.
Five words verb
 Most excellent students are usually sitting on the steps when the teacher
arrives. Words of the verb are interrupted by usually.

2. Particle “Verb Phrase”

40
 A particle is the combination of a standard verb such as make or put with one
or two particles. In some cases the particle is an adverb such as ‘up’, ‘together’; in
others it is a preposition such as ‘through’, ‘in’. A phrasal verb often has a meaning
which is different from the original verb. Thus turn down means something like
‘reject’, rule out means ‘eliminate’, find out is ‘discover’, and go on is ‘continue’;
these are not meanings that could have been predicted from the meanings of the verb
and the particle independently. Here are some examples of phrasal verbs:
 So she went on for some weeks cutting and hewing timber trees.
 Moral reform is the effort to throw off sleep. . .
Alternative terms for phrasal verb are ‘compound verb’, ‘verb – adverb combination’,
‘verb – particle construction’.
3. Kinds of Verbs

We understand from the previous definition and examples that there are two kinds of
verbs; action verbs and state verbs.

3. 1. Action Verbs

They are also called “Dynamic Verbs” or “Doing Verbs”. Most verbs are
action verbs. They show that something is being done or that something is
happening. They refer to actions that can be observed with the five senses. Most
action verbs refer to physical actions and describe events which happen in limited
period of time, and have a definite beginning and end. Action verbs have both simple
and progressive forms. Examples;

 My pupils participate in the lesson. Action

 The children ran after the cat.
 My father is visiting the place of my work.

3. 2. Stative Verbs

They are also called “Non-conclusive Verbs”. A very small number of verbs
express a state of being. These non-action verbs are sometimes called linking verbs
or copula verbs. They refer to states that cannot be observed with the five senses.
They show that something or somebody exists. Most state verbs describe states which
continue over a period of time and need not to have well defined beginning and end.
State verbs cannot usually have a progressive form and they express meanings such
as being through a form of be (am, are, is, was, were, been) or cases of having,
opinions, thinking, perception, wants, preference, and feelings through the five senses
verbs such as (smell, taste, look, sound, feel, seem, appear, become, grow, remain,
prove). Examples;
41
  I listen to hat music. (It refers to the use of senses.)
 They envy to have that small animal in their house. (It expresses a want and
preference.)
 I guess it is a difficult question. (opinion)
 They perceive well the case. (perception)

Action Verbs State Verbs

 Dynamic  Non-conclusive and static
 Physical  Mental
 Period of time with clear limits  Period of time with unclear limits
 Describe progressive and simple cases  Describe only simple cases

3. 3. Linking Verbs

Some verbs are called non-action, state of being, or linking verbs. They are the
verbs that do not show action – those verbs that are either a form of be (am, are, is,
was, were, been) or that are associated with the five senses (smell, taste, look, sound,
feel, seem, appear, become, grow, remain, prove). So when some verbs are used to
express a state of being, or the fact that something has certain qualities, they are
considered as linking verbs. They are called like this because they link the subject to
an adjective (the subject and the subject complement). A linking verb does not have
much meaning in itself. It "links" the subject to what is said about the subject.
Usually, a linking verb shows equality (=) or a change to a different state or place (>).
Linking verbs are always intransitive (but not all intransitive verbs are linking verbs).
Notice that you can replace each of these linking verbs with the verb seem or is or
become. Examples;
 The dog is black.
 Ann is a teacher. (Ann = teacher)
 The food tastes delicious. Here food does not have taste buds or a mouth and,
therefore, cannot perform the physical action of tasting. The smoke smelled
stronger now.
 The weather becomes cold. The weather >cold)
 The sculpture felt smooth. Or the sculpture became/seemed smooth.
 The presentation music sounds interesting in the class. Or the presentation
music seemed interesting in the class. (music = interesting)
 The justification looks interesting to this question.
 The sky grew dark before the storm.

3. 4. Notes about Action Verbs versus State Verbs

42
 A few verbs can be used as either action verbs or linking verbs. Here are the most
common ones; look, smell, grow, taste, sound, feel, look …Notice that some
verbs such as looked can be either action or non-action, depending on how they
are used in a sentence. Examples:
1. Ann looked nice.
2. Ann looked out the door. You must ask yourself in the first sentence whether
Ann is actively using her eyes or not. She is not; therefore, looked in the first
sentence is a linking verb. In the second sentence, Ann is actually using her
eyes to look out the door. Thus, this time looked is an action verb.
 If these verbs are used to describe a physical action, something that can really
happen or that is observable, they are considered to be action verbs. Examples;
 Ann tasted the food.
 John smelled the smoke from the near forest fire.
 She felt the water cold before she swam.
 Stephan grew 5 centimeters last year.
 The investigator looked carefully at the evidence.
 If some of these verbs are used to express a state of being, or the fact that
something has certain qualities, they are consider to be linking verbs.

4. Transitive versus Intransitive Verbs

A transitive verb takes “requires” a direct object to complete its meaning: A

terrorist kills the President (the President is the direct object of the verb kills). So a
transitive verb always has a noun that receives the action of the verb, called the
direct object. Examples:
 Ann raises her hand. The verb is raises. Her hand is the object receiving the
verb’s action. Therefore, “raises” is a transitive verb.
 I saw a car.
 He brushes his teeth three times a day.
 They are playing electronic games.
 He speaks English.
Transitive verbs sometimes have indirect objects, which name the object to whom or
for whom the action was done. Example:
 John gave Stephan the book. The verb is gave. The direct object is the book.
(What did he give? The book.) The indirect object is Stephan. (To whom did he
give it? To Stephan.)
An intransitive verb has its complete meaning by itself and does not have a direct
object or indirect object to complete its meaning: She died. Many verbs, like speak,
can be transitive or intransitive. Although an intransitive verb may be followed by an
43
adverb or adverbial phrase, there is no object to receive its action. Look at these
examples of intransitive verbs:
 Ann rises slowly from her seat. The verb is rises. The phrase, slowly from her
seat, modifies the verb, but no object receives the action.
 She has arrived.
 Ann laughs.
 They speak fast.

5. Classes of Verbs

Verbs are classified into two categories; Main verbs and Auxiliary Verbs. Main
verbs occur independently in a sentence and convey the complete meaning of the
action. But there are some verbs which occur along with the main verbs and indicate
tense, aspect voice, mood / intention of the speaker. They are called auxiliary verbs.

5. 1. Lexical/Ordinary/Main Verbs

Main (lexical) verbs occur independently in a sentence and convey the complete
meaning of the action. Sometimes they are helped by auxiliary verbs. All verbs other
than auxiliaries are called main verbs such as read, write, eat, drink, etc. A Main Verb
is any verb in a sentence that expresses action or the state of being of the subject in
that sentence and it always carries a real meaning. The lexical verb is the head
element and comes at last in complex verb phrase; the elements preceding the head
are auxiliaries. So when a verb phrase contains more than one verb, the last verb in
the phrase is the main verb. All other verbs are auxiliaries. Examples;

 Stephan finds the right solution. “main verb”

 John might deliver the mail. “modal verb + main verb”
 She is doing her best to get the level. “auxiliary verb + main verb”

5. 1. 1. Regular Verbs

Within formal classification, we should start with regular verbs, which are easy
to remember. These are obtained by adding an -ed (play, played, played) at the end of
the first form, or in case the verb end in e, only a -d (hire, hired, hired). To the great
relief on non-native speakers, all English verbs are regular ones, except for a few
hundred irregular verbs discussed in the next section.
Most verbs of English are regular. Regular verbs can be conjugated into four
forms. These forms are important, since they are the basis for all conjugations. All
verbs have an infinitive form or a base form before conjugation. Regular verbs follow
a standard set of rules for forming their present participle and past forms. The present

44
participle is formed by adding -ing. If the verb ends with the letter e, drop the e
before adding -ing. The past is formed by adding -ed. If the verb ends with the letter
e, just add d.

5. 1. 2. Irregular Verbs

Unfortunately, many other verbs are irregular, and, equally unfortunately,

they tend to be the ones most commonly used. Some verbs form their principal parts
by changing their spelling. These verbs are called irregular verbs. Irregular verbs
make extensive use of the memory of non-native speakers, as their second and third
form cannot be deduced or predicted from the first one. Sadly, they need a lot of time
to be learnt, which cannot be avoided as many of them belong to the core English
vocabulary. So they are different in their simple past and past participle in the sense
that they form their simple past and past participle.
The optimistic approach to irregular verbs is to remember that out of many
thousands of English verbs only a few hundred ones are irregular, which can be
further reduced based on their frequency. Still more than a hundred of them (with
three distinctive forms completed with their meaning) remain, with different
procedures to memorize them. The most common is to further categorize them by
establishing patterns in the table below:

N Category Examples
1 Vowel change irregular verbs buy, make, see
2 Compounds of irregular verbs have the same form befall, understand
3 A few irregular verbs have two forms burn, learn
4 A few irregular verbs with all the three forms identical cut, put, quit
5 Most of the irregular verbs have different forms be, begin, bear

5. 2. Auxiliary Verbs

They are also called “Helping Verbs”. Auxiliary verbs are words that make
certain semantic features of a main verb; they have no meaning on their won. They
are necessary for the grammatical structure of the main verb and henceforth of a
sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. In other words, they are dependent
because they are only added to another verb “main verb” to make the meaning and
the form clear, full and complete. Helping Verbs are called Auxiliaries. They are
twelve in number: be, do, have, can, may, shall, will, must, ought, used (to),
need, dare. Generally, auxiliaries are used primarily to show the following meanings.

45
 Serve as support to the main verb.
 Whether the action takes place in the present, past or future “tense”,
 Whether the voice is active or passive,
 Whether an action is complete, habitual or continuous.
 In negation, interrogatives and emphatic statements.
 Whether an action is necessary, possible “mood”.
 In short answers to avoid the tedious repetition of words. Examples;
 She will travel to Paris on the plane. Here will is an auxiliary while travel is a
main verb. It is worth to mention that sometimes, will can be a main verb, as in
I willed all my property to my children. When will is before a main verb,
however, it is a helping or auxiliary verb. The same case with have, do and be
 Stephan can find the right solution. Can versus find
 John might deliver the mail. Might versus deliver
 Did you write your lesson? did versus write
 Students must learn English well.
 Do you like fish? Yes, I do. Or No, I don't.

Auxiliary verbs are also divided into two sub-groups which are ordinary auxiliary
“primary helping verbs” and modal auxiliary verbs “modal helping verbs” as it is
indicated in this table.

Primary Auxiliary Verbs Modal Auxiliary Verb

 Be: Am, is, are, was, were,  Shall, should,
 Have: have, has, had  Will, would,
 Do: do, did, does  May, might
 Can, could
 Must, ought to, need, dare, used to,

5. 2. 1. Primary / Ordinary Auxiliary Verbs

There are three ordinary auxiliary verbs; “be”, “have”, and “do”. They change
their forms according to the Person or Number of the Subject. The primary
auxiliaries are fully productive verbs of English which can (with different
senses) all be used as full lexical verbs. Students must note that these three
verbs can be used as helping verbs or as main verbs. On this section we talk about
them as helping verbs. The table below summarizes the auxiliary verbs in terms of
forms and uses:

46
Number Primary Various forms
auxiliaries
1 be is, am, are, was, were, been, being

2 do do, does, did, doing, done

3 have have, has, had, having

Uses of the ordinary auxiliary verbs

Auxiliary Uses Examples
be  to make continuous tenses  She is revising her lessons.
 to make the passive voice  Small fish are eaten by big fish.
have  to make perfect tenses  He has done completed his job.
do  to make negatives  She does not like swimming.
 to ask questions  Do you like some sugar?)
 to show emphasis  She does want to pass my exam.

5. 2. 2. Modal Auxiliary Verbs

Modal helping verbs are used to "modify" the meaning of the main verb in
some way. A modal auxiliary is a verb used with another verb "never used alone" to
express an idea or actions exist as conceptions of the mind such as possibility,
necessity, obligation, absence of obligation, advice m …etc. which are not expressed
by the main verb of the sentence and henceforth changes the meaning of the main
verb in that sense. The main features of modals auxiliaries are as follows:
 Modals don’t have infinitive, present participle or past participle forms. For
example, we never use ‘to should, ‘musting’ or ‘canned’.
 Modals are always followed by the base form (root form or the first form) of a
main verb.
 Modals can never stand alone. They are always used to help a main verb.
 Modals can’t be used as main verbs except in a few cases.
 Modals can’t be used in all the verb tenses.
 When a Modal is followed by ‘be’ + Present Participle form of the verb, this
indicates that one is talking about the present or the future.
 When a Modal is followed by have + Past Participle, this indicates that one is
talking about the Past.
 In Passive sentences, the pattern is: Modal + be + Past Participle Form or,
Modal + have been + Past Participle Form

47
 Modals do not inflect. They do not have any ‘-s’ form, ‘-ing’ form or ‘-ed’ form.
 Modals do not take any primary auxiliary to form negative sentences.
 To form negative sentences, the article ‘not’ is added after the modal.
 Questions are formed by placing the modal before the Subject. In case of ought to,
‘ought’ is placed before the subject and ‘to’ after it.
 Modal verbs are used in Question Tags.
 There are 13 Modal Auxiliaries: will, would, shall, should, can, could, may,
might, used to, ought to, must, dare and need.
 ‘Need’ and ‘Dare’ can also be used as main verbs.

6. Verbs’ Basic Forms

All English language verbs have five basic forms, except the modal auxiliary
verbs. We use these forms of verbs to write and talk about things that happen at
different times: past, present, and future. These five forms are as follows;

1. Base form,
2. Past simple,
3. Present simple,
4. Past participle and
5. Present participle.

It should be noted that there is something very special about verbs in English. Most
other words (adjectives, adverbs, prepositions etc.) do not change in form (although
nouns can have singular and plural forms). But almost all verbs change in form. For
example, the verb to work has five forms: (to work, work, works, worked, and
working) See the table below for more clarification.

The Five Basic Forms of English Verbs

Form Infinitive Past Simple Present Past Present
Simple Participle Participle
They are They are They are They are They are
marked marked with marked marked with marked with
with the “ed” for with “s” or “ed” for “ing” at the
“to” at the regular “es” for regular end for both
beginning verbs. For “she, he verbs. For regular and
irregular and it” and irregular irregular verbs
verbs see the with the verbs see
list base form the list
Regular To work Worked Work “s” Worked Working
To love Loved Love “s” Loved Loving
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 To smoke Smoked Smoke “s” Smoked Smoking
To travel travelled Travel “s” travelled Travelling
Irregular To be Was/were is/am/are Been Being
To go went go “es” gone going

6. 1. The Main Uses of the Verbs’ Forms

 Past Simple: t is used to refer to actions which happened and finished in the past.
(See the lesson of the simple past tense)
 Present Form: It is used to refer to general and habitual actions. (See the lesson
of the simple present tense)
 Past Participle: It is used as part of the perfect form of a verb “See perfect
tenses.” and in a passive voice after the appropriate form of “to be”. “See passive
voice”.”
 Present Participle: it is used as a part of the continuous form of a verb. “See
continuous tenses”

Consequently, all verbs have the following forms:

Verb Form Domain of Use Examples

Base form Imperative Play tennis with me.
Present tense You play very well.
Infinitive I’d like to play.
“s” or “es” Present tense “third person Simon plays very well.
form singular”
Past form Past tense They played back the film.
“Ing” form Active participle You are playing very well.
Gerund Playing tennis is fun.
“ed” form Past participle They have played back the film.
Passive participle The film was played back.

7. Finite and Infinite “Non-Finite” Verbs

7. 1. Finite Verbs

The finite forms of verbs are those which have been changed “conjugated” to
take their correct form for the particular function they have in a sentence. In other
words, a finite verb is one that can be the main verb of a sentence or as part of the
main. Finite means “bound”. Finite verbs must agree with the number and
person of its subject. It is bound by the tense of a sentence. A sentence does not

49
make any sense without a Finite verb. A finite form is a verb which is limited by
the number or the person of its subject and also on the tense of the subject.

7. 2. Non-finite Verbs

Unlike the finite verbs, non-finite verbs are not bounded by tense, person or
number of the subject. A non-finite verb is an infinitive, gerunds and participles.
Non-finite verbs do not change their form even when the person and the number of
the subject changes. See the following sentences in the table below and pay attention
to the words written in bold type.

Number Finite Non-finite

1 You leave the home. Kept disappearing
2 It is right. Anxious to stop
3 You are playing. See the thief filmed
4 John hates working John hates working
5 My friends hated. My friends hated working.

Here the verbs ‘disappear’, ‘to stop’ and ‘films’ are not governed by the change
in number or person of the subject or any change in the tense. Such verbs that are not
changed despite the change of the subject and the tense are called Non-Finite Verbs
which take the following three types: Infinitives, Gerunds and Participles.

8. Subject and Predicate

The person or thing about which we make the assertion is called the subject of
the verb, and what we say about the subject is called the predicate. A predicate must
contain a verb and contain many other elements too; “the verb is often referred to as
the predicate of a subject.

In more traditional grammars, a verb phrase is similar to what is considered a

predicate. In linguistics, a verb phrase (VP) is a syntactic unit composed of at least
one verb and its dependents -objects, complements and other modifiers-but not
always including the subject. Thus in the sentence “A fat man put the money quickly
in the box”, the words “put the money quickly in the box” are a verb phrase; it
consists of the verb “put” and its dependents, but not the subject “a fat man”.
Consider the sentences in the table below for more details:

Number Subject Predicate

1 The soldiers move across the rain forest.
The soldier moves across the rainforest.
50
 2 Nelson is a great sailor leader.
Scientists are great leaders.
3 You open the door.
She or he opens the door.
4 They breathe pure air in the country side.
It breathes pure air in the country side.
Conclusion: If the subject is a single-word, it is either a noun or a
pronoun. If the predicate consists of a single-word, it must be a Verb.

9. Subject –verb Agreement

Subject-Verb Agreement means that subjects and verbs must always agree in
number. By agreement, we mean the relationship between the subject and the verb
that should exist according to the grammatical rules. Not only does a verb change its
form to tell time, but it also can change its form to indicate how many subjects it has.
In the present tense verbs must agree with their subjects: both must be singular, or
both must be plural. It should be noted that you must add an –s or –es at the end of
the verb when the subject (or the entity performing the action) is a singular third
person: he, she, it, or words for which these pronouns could substitute. Subject-Verb
Agreement Errors are very serious and signal that the writer does not have mastery
over the English Language. Thus, it is important that writers understand the following
thirteen different situations that might cause subject-verb agreement errors. Because
of these special situations, there are thirteen corresponding rules to ensure that our
subjects and verbs always agree in number.

1. Two or more subjects connected by “and” are considered plural and require a verb
form without an “s”. Examples:
 The dog and the man are here.
 Bob and his sisters are going back home.
 John, Ann and Stephan go to the university to make some repairs.
2. If a subject is modified by the words “each” or “every” that subject is singular and
will take a verb form that ends in “s.” Examples:
 Each boy and girl walks to their parent home.
 Every student has to pay attention to the last exercise.
 Every participant attends the conference room.
3. If plural subjects are joined by “or,” “nor,” or “but,” the verb must only agree with
the subject that is closest to it. Examples:

51
  Either Ann or her sister goes to classroom. Not Ann or her sister goes to
classroom.
 Neither Ann nor her sisters go the classroom.
4. Indefinite pronouns are usually singular and take a verb form that ends in “s”.
(Check the unit of pronoun.) Examples:
 Everyone goes to school.
 Everything comes back eventually from school.
5. The subject of a verb is never in a prepositional or verbal phrase. Therefore, you
must isolate the phrase and find the proper subject. Examples:
 The mother duck (with all of her little ducklings) walks to the store.
 The mother duck (including all her ducklings) walks to the store.
6. Some indefinite pronouns and nouns will be singular or plural depending on the
object of the prepositional phrase. These words are always about number or
amount such as: all, half, some, none, most, part, etc. Examples:
 Some (of the teachers) are absent.
 Some (of the food) is over.
 The mother duck and all (of her ducklings) walk to the store
7. When a collective noun, such as family, group, committee, or class, is the subject,
the verb will end in “s.” Examples:
 My family with all my rich uncles always walks to the store.
 The Algerian national football team participates in the world cup.
8. A few nouns, such as economics, mumps, measles, or news end in “s” but are
considered singular. You can tell these “s” words are singular because if you take
the “s” away, you don’t have a noun. For example, economic and new are
adjectives that describe a noun. Mump and measle just don’t make any sense.
 Economics is her favorite subject matter in university.
 News of today is so interesting.
9. When the subject is a unit of measurement of time, distance, money, weight, etc.
The unit is considered singular, and the verb will end in “s.” Examples:
 Twenty dollars of sugar is too much to buy at once.
 Fifteen meters of kite string tangles very easily.
10. In a question or in a sentence that begins with there or here, the verb will often
come before the subject. Examples:
 Where is my bag?
 There are my bags.
11. The verb must agree only with the subject. It should be noted here that concord
“agreement” of subject and verb: the verb agrees with its subject in number and
person. Examples:
52
  The dangerous situation we face is all the negative assumptions people have.
12. Gerunds (“ing” words) can be subjects and follow all the same rules above.
 Speaking with teachers is very beneficial.
 Speaking with teachers and attending the lectures are very beneficial.
13. When using who, that or which, you must look to the noun these relative pronouns
are referring to in order to determine whether the subject is singular and will have
a verb ending in “s” or is plural and have a verb without an “s.” Examples:
 The students who attend the conference are intelligent.
 The student who attends the conference is intelligent.

10. Functions of the Verb Word

In English, verbs convey information through changes in their form. Verbs can
be transformed out of their infinitive form according to their five properties: tense.
The transformation rules all use one of the four verb forms. Here in the table below
are the five different things we find out from a verb.

The five different things from a verb

Person Person is divided into three categories (first, second, and third person),
and tells the reader whether the subject is speaking (first person), is
spoken to (second person), or is spoken about (third person).
Number Number refers to whether the verb is singular or plural.
Tense Tense tells the reader when the action of a verb takes place either in the
past, present or future.
Voice The voice of a verb shows whether the subject of the verb is performing
an action or is being acted upon. In the active voice, the subject of the
verb performs an action; in the passive voice, the subject of the verb is
being acted upon.
Mood The mood of a verb denotes the attitude of the speaker. English verbs
can take one of three moods: indicative, imperative, or subjunctive.
 Indicative: This mood is used to express questions and statements.
 Imperative: This mood is used to give commands or directions.
 Subjunctive: This mood is used to express a wish, a request, a
requirement, or a condition that is contrary to fact. Often,
subjunctives are accompanied by the helping verbs would, could, or
should, must, need,

11. Tense and its Stages

53
 So far we have learned that there must be a verb in every sentence to make it
understandable and the verb has to agree with the subject of the sentence in both
person and number. We have also seen that verbs are generally the “doing” words;
i.e. they tell us what the subject does. We are now going to learn that verbs also tell
us about the “time”. The time indicated by the verb is called the tense.

Before we study the meaning of this word “tense”, let us just consider what
we mean by the word “time”. It is very important to know about the following three
main kinds “stages” of “time”:

 The “Past”, which refers to an event that has already happened,

 The “Present”, which refers to an event which is happening now,
 The “future” which refers to some event that will happen at some later time.

When we come to study English Grammar, we realize that the “tense” of verbs
means exactly the same thing as time. The “tense” of verbs is divided into the same
main three parts: the past tense, the present tense and the future tense. Tense is
merely an inflection in verbs to distinguish the time of the verb. So we must use
the verb in its right tense to tell us when the action or state takes place, i.e. in the past,
present or in the future. In short, the tense of a verb is the form used to denote the
time of the action and its completeness, completeness, or as simple. There are three
times at which an action can take place, viz, present, past and future, and in each of
these there are three stages or aspects which are simple, completeness or
incompleteness. The following table summarizes the time concept with its stages
“aspects” of simple, completeness and incompleteness.

Stages and Tenses Present Past Time Future Time

Simple I speak I spoke I will speak
Continuous I am speaking I was speaking I will be speaking
Perfect I have spoken I had spoken I will have spoken

12. Question Tags

Tag question is a statement that is followed by a mini-question. These mini-
questions or short questions at the end of a statement are known as Question tags.
Question tags are usually asked for further confirmation or to check information or to
ask for agreement. A question tag is also called a tail question. Question tag is a
short question tagged (added) to a sentence asking for agreement or confirmation. A
sentence expresses an assumption and a question tag expects confirmation: The
structure of a question tag is as follows:
statement + auxiliary or modal + subject (pronoun)
54
The statement expresses an assumption and the question tag expresses confirmation
of the assumption. The whole structure is made up of two parts: Statement and
Question tag. It should be noted when the statement is positive the tag question must
be negative and vice versa. One has to keep the following points in mind:
1. A positive statement is followed by a negative question tag.
2. A negative statement is followed by a positive question tag.
3. If the verb in the main sentence is in the present simple, the question tag is
formed by using the words ‘do’ or ‘does’,
4. On the other hand, if the verb in the main sentence is in the past simple, the
question tag is formed using the word ‘did’.
5. If the statement contains a word with a negative meaning, the question tag is
supposed to be positive.
Important Reminder
The structure of a sentence with a question tag is either
1. (a): Positive Statement + Negative Tag Question or
2. (b): Negative Statement + Positive Tag Question. Examples:
 She is a doctor, isn't she? Positive statement with negative tag question
 He runs slowly, doesn't he?
 She isn't a teacher, is she? Negative statement with positive tag question
 He doesn't hate her, does he?
 Nothing can protect him, can it?
 He has scarcely any food, has he?

Summary

We have seen so fat that verbs are important elements in any sentence. English verbs
can be:

 Dynamic or static verbs

 Lexical verbs (regular versus irregular verbs)
 Auxiliary verbs (ordinary and modal auxiliaries)
 Transitive versus intransitive verbs
 Finite versus non-finite verbs
 …………………………………………etc.

Exercise 1
55
Direction: Read and underline all the verbs you can find in the following
sentences. Check your answers in the answer key.
1. We learned about the effects of the storm from Norma.
2. Many branches had been broken by the wind.
3. Heavy icy was still bringing down many power lines.
4. Only a few people could stay in their houses without electricity.
5. After three days, food became scarce.
6. Volunteers arrived with emergency supplies.
7. People from nearby communities brought many loads of firewood.
8. Soon, life was returning to normal.
9. They are calling it the storm of the century.
10. We hope that we will not have another ice storm this year.

Exercise 2
Direction: In each sentence, write the helping verb in bold type and the main
verb in italics in the following sentences.

1. I am reading about the Junior Olympics to participate this session.

2. She was racing in a wheelchair race during her summer holidays.
3. My classmates will write reports about their courses every session.
4. Sarah had joined the senior school for more training sessions.
5. The racers were using special racing wheelchairs.
6. They are training several times a week to catch the contest.
7. William had overcome serious health problems last year.
8. Sarah has raced for several years.
9. Her mother had given her a great deal of support.
10. She is practicing for next year’s Olympics competition.
11. No American woman had captured three gold medals at one Olympics.
12. The Junior Olympics are held every summer.
13. We will tell other about your achievements in this competition.
14. The games were started in 1967.
15. The beautiful sailboat was built in 1985.

Exercise 3
Direction: Write in bold type the correct verb form of the two in parentheses in
the sentences below.

1. The barbershop quartet (sang, sung) in close harmony in front of the audience.
2. I (saw, seen) a hilarious sitcom on television show last night.
56
 3. My father must have (spoke, spoken) to the coach about my case.
4. The soprano (took, taken) an extra breath for her high notes.
5. The seal (swam, swum) to the rocky island yesterday.
6. Four players were (threw, thrown) out of the game.
7. A burglar has (stole, stolen) the diamond jewelry from the story.
8. John (wrote, written) several papers on the computer last week.
9. The milk must have (froze, frozen) on the porch of the kitchen.
10. A baby robin has (fell, fallen) out of the nest in the room.
11. The principal (rang, rung) the fire alarm to start work.
12. We have (shook, shaken) the tree to get some apples to fall for my daughter.

Exercise 4

Direction: Underline the verbs in the following sentences. For each verb that you
identify, indicate whether it is an action or a linking verb.

1. The dog jumped over the fence.

2. The baseball hit the boy in the face.
3. His car smashed into a bridge.
4. We watched a movie last night.
5. The students were happy about their marks.
6. My sister’s name is Paula.
7. Mr. Smyth was my uncle.
8. They will be angry about your forgetfulness.
9. We were afraid of the storm.
10. We feared the storm.
11. The little mouse squeaked loudly.
12. There were fourteen people in that class last year.
13. My old roommate from college drove to Fredericton last night.

Exercise 5: Linking Verbs

Direction: Underline the linking verbs in the following sentences.

1. One of our wittiest American poets was Oliver Wendell Holmes.
2. On his walks about the streets he always looked wan and wistful.
3. Is Holmes’ sense of humor wholesome?
4. I am sorry the fruit tasted bitter.
5. The pie smells good, and now I am hungrier than ever.
6. Sand painting is a form of Indian art, and is different from watercolor painting.
7. Because of his lack of schooling, he became a regular visitor at libraries.
8. A statue of Edison is appropriate for the building.
57
 9. It was cold, and warm clothing was their only protection.
10. The treatment of the Indians seems cruel to me.
Exercise 6: subject-verb agreement

Direction: Insert the correct form of the present tense of the verb in the blank
spaces in the following sentence. The verb to be used is given in brackets at the
end of each sentence.

1. A new house…………...a lot of money. (cost)

2. Most articles…………...more now than they did a few years ago. (cost)
3. Jet aero planes………………..very fast. (fly)
4. An aero plane………………...more quickly than a bird. (fly)
5. The countryside ……………..very beautiful in spring. (look)
6. Those children……………...very healthy. (look)
7. One of the players……………..from the same village as myself. (come)
8. In Britain many workers……………. to work in their own cars. (go)
9. All the pupils in our school………...English. (learn)
10. The owner of that factory …………...very rich, and ...in a large house. (be, live)
11. One of the pupils in our class…………..a motor cycle. (own)
12. Some people……..traveling by sea, as it………....them sea-sick. (dislike, make)
13. The postman…………...each morning with the letters. (call)
14. A snail…………..very slowly. (move)
15. All the books on that shelf…………..to me. (belong)
16. He aunt and uncle………...a house in the country. (have)
17. Four ounces ………….....the smallest quantity we sell. (be)
18. Apple pie and custard………….my favorite dish. (be)
19. Ten miles…………...a long way to walk. (be)
20. The tallest of the three boys…………...next door to me. (live)

Exercise 7: Tag Questions

Add the appropriate tag to the following sentences. (Remember that when you
add to the tag the existing full stop must be changed to a comma.)
1. We haven.t had our lunch yet.
2. We were only just in time.
3. The car broke down at a most awkward time.
4. Everyone is liable to make mistakes.
5. She will miss the train if she doesn.t hurry.
6. The garden looks very attractive.
7. The journey was not an easy one.
8. The attendant would not let us in.
58
9. I never drink tea.
10. The hotel was not too expensive.
11. Let's go and see their new house.
12. He easily loses his temper.
13. Elephants are very strong animals.
14. There was not a single seat vacant.
15. We mustn.t forget to pay for our tickets.
16. You needn.t leave so early as this.
17. See that the safe is securely locked.
18. We hadn.t much time to spare.
19. No-one could tell us the way to the station.
20. Your father mightn.t like us to use his new typewriter.
21. That was not a very polite thing to say.
22. Most of us voted against the proposal.
23. There's no sense in wasting one's money.
24. Our team hasn.t been beaten all this season.
25. We could go for a trip round the world if we had the money.
26. Let's go for a swim.
27. Sit in this more comfortable chair.

59
 Parts of Speech: Adjectives
Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about adjectives. It provides the conceptual as well as technical
frameworks of adjectives to identify their classification and uses in English
sentence. The emphasis is put on the definitions, kinds, examples and exercise.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully finished this lecture, they should be able, among
other things, to;
1. Define the part of speech known as adjective.
2. List the main kinds of adjectives.
3. Recognize how adjectives function in sentences.
4. Show the relationship between adjective and other related words in a sentence.
5. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through adjectives.

Introduction

Pretend that you are going to the airport to meet a man you have never seen
before. You are talking to him on the telephone. You are describing yourself to him
so that he will recognize you in the crowd. In order to give him a clear mental picture
of what you look like, you must use adjectives. Are you tall, short, or medium-sized?
Are you thin, heavy-set, or average in build? Is your hair black, brown, red, blond, or
gray? Here you add descriptions to yourself that give your recipient a full and clearer
picture about you. So the “detail or descriptor” words you add in front of the noun
like short, tall, thin, heavy, blacks are words called adjectives.

1. Definition of Adjective

Adjectives are words that are used to describe or "modify, qualify, identify,
quantify; restrict, alters or limits the meaning of" nouns or pronouns or they
restrict the application of the noun or noun and add descriptive details. In other
words, they fulfill this role by describing, identifying or quantifying nouns and
pronouns. They present details about a noun or pronoun often by telling and
answering the following questions: What kind? How many? How much? Which one?
And so on. Examples:

 Colored birds flew by. (Colored is an adjective word describes and specifies
birds from others?)
 Boys are happy today. (Happy is an adjective words describes the state of
children as happy from other states)

60
  Small, independent companies are becoming more interesting. (What kind of
companies?)
 We have six boxes in four states. (How many boxes?) (How many states?)
 That chain of health clubs started as a small operation. (Which chain?) (What
kind of operation?)
 He is energetic and forceful, while she is personal and deliberate.

 Adjective = ads to noun or pronoun " they add to the meaning of a noun or
pronoun
 Adjective = Advertises "advertises details about a noun or pronoun by telling
what kind, which one, how many" about a noun.

2. A Useful Way to Fix Adjectives

Imagine that you are in a large meeting room full of people. Your director tells
you this order “Give this piece of paper to the woman”. The only problem is that
there are twenty-three women in the room. To which one should you give the paper?
Here you could not decide about the woman unless your boss might have said “the
tall woman”. The word tall is an adjective and somewhat helpful, as only six of the
women are tall. To which tall women should you give the paper? Here you could not
again decide unless your director perhaps said to you, “the tall, blond woman with
the black dress”. The words tall and blond are adjectives that help you pick out a
specific woman from a large group. Furthermore, the group of words “with the black
dress” is also a form of adjective words that help limit the meaning to one particular
woman among the twenty three women in the meeting. In other words, these
adjectives limit the noun woman to one specific person. Examine the sample
sentences below for a better understanding of adjectives.

 I have a cup.
 I have a red cup.
 I have a big dark red cup.

The first sentence does not tell anything about my cup, only that I have one cup. The
second adds the adjective red. This descriptive word makes the sentence more
interesting and helping the reader to see your cup in his/her mind’s eye as red by
excluding all other colors except red. The meaning of the word cup has been more
limited from all the cups in the world to only those that are red. The third sentence
adds even more details. Consequently, one of the secrets of good writing is to include
lots of details (adjectives).

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 Complementation Modification
When one element in an expression Modification occurs in a construction in
creates the grammatical expectation that which an expression is accompanied by
another expression will also occur, the an element not grammatically required
expected element complements the by it. For example, because nouns do not
expecting element. For example, typically require adjectives, beautiful
transitive verbs create the expectation of modifies weather in beautiful weather.
an object, as in: Verbs and adjectives do not typically
 Ann fractured [her ankle]. require that they be accompanied by
 John sends [me a letter]. adverbials, so violently modifies swore
 Sally gave [her] [a shot of in swore violently
morphine]

3. Position of the Adjective

In English, the normal position of the adjective is before the noun or pronoun it
modifies. In order to avoid confusion, try to place adjectives as close as possible to
the nouns or pronouns they modify. Most one-word adjectives come right before the
nouns they modify. Examples:
 The broken window let in the cold air.
 The cold war imposed plenty of danger on nations.
 The main street is very active.
 She prepared a delicious meal.
Occasionally, to draw attention and special effect to the adjective, it may be
misplaced after the noun they describe, especially when used with linking verbs,
since anything out of its ordinary place is noticed and stressed. Examples:
 A child, busy and dynamic, is the best thing in him.
 He is energetic and forceful.
 She is personal and deliberate.
 The window, broken, let in the cold air.

4. Order of the Adjectives

A single noun can be described by a list of adjectives. When more than one
adjective is used to modify a noun, it is important to consider the order in which the
adjectives appear. Generally, the adjectives most important in completing the
meaning of the noun are placed closest to the noun. Normally we don’t use more than
three adjectives with the same noun. Notice that when we use adjectives from
different categories we don’t use commas or “and”. Following is the usual order of
adjectives in a series:

62
 1. Determiners: articles (a, the), demonstratives (this, those), and possessives (his,
our, Mary’s, everybody’s), amounts (one, five, many, few), order (first, next last)
2. Coordinate adjectives and opinions (subjective evaluations or personal
opinions): nice, nasty, packed, pitiful
3. Adjectives describing size and Dimension: big, huge, little, tiny
4. Adjectives describing shape: long, short, round, square
5. Adjectives describing age: young, old, modern, ancient
6. Adjectives describing color: blue, green, red, white
7. Adjectives describing nationality and origin: Italian, French, Japanese
8. Adjectives describing architectural style or religion: Greek, Gothic, Catholic,
Jewish, Muslim
9. Adjectives describing material status: cardboard, plastic, silver, gold
10. Adjectives describing purpose:
11. Nouns functioning as adjectives: soccer ball, cardboard box, history class:
 I have a big brick house (article, size, and material)
 Put your articles in these old brown cardboard boxes (demonstrative, age,
color, material)
 My friend is a beautiful young Italian woman (article, personal opinion, age,
nationality)

Adjectival Phrases and Clauses

Nouns and adjectives can be modified not only by adjectives, but also by adjectival
phrases and clauses. Examples:
 The table near the door is made of oak.
 The chair, which was placed in front of the window, was an heirloom.
 Those who decide to come will not be disappointed.

5. Kinds of Adjectives

5. 1. Proper Adjectives

Proper adjectives are adjectives derived from proper nouns, particularly from
names of geographical places (continents, countries, states). Adjectives like these
describe origin or source. Proper adjectives must begin with a capital letter as
opposed to French language.

 The French town has an interesting history.

 Many of my friends are Americans.
 This house is a fine example of Victorian architecture.
 The Elizabethan era was very special to the nation.
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  The Roman Empire was the largest in the history.

5. 2. Attributive Adjectives

Adjectives can be divided into two categories based on their position in a

sentence. Adjectives can occur both before and after a noun. Adjectives which
precede the noun they modify are usually referred to as attributive adjectives.
Therefore, the main difference between attributive and predicative adjectives is that
attributive adjectives occur before the noun whereas predicative adjectives occur after
the noun. Examples:

 Heavy rain is expected. (Heavy is an attributive adjective preceding the noun.)

 We saw white swans in the river.
 Two large red cardboard milk cartoons.

5. 3. Predicate Adjectives

An adjective which is separated from the noun or pronoun it modifies by a verb

is often referred to as a predicate adjective. The term predicative gives a description
of the subject in the sentence. Students must pay special attention to adjectives that
follow verbs. Sometimes, the adjective follows a verb, but it describes a noun or
pronoun that comes before the verb. It is worth to mention that speakers prefer to
place the adjectives after the noun to get a special effect and adjectives used in this
way take a linking verb before. The words: “tall, green, black, long. Narrow,
heavy, large and awkward” are all predicate adjectives. They are placed after the
linking verb and give more information about the person or thing which comes before
the verb. Examples:

 The trees were tall and green. (Tall and green is a predicative adjective
following the noun horse.)
 The horse is black.
 The streets are long and narrow.
 It is heavy, large and awkward.

5. 4. Participles used as Adjectives

As has already mentioned with the use of verbs, present and past participles of verbs
can be used as adjectives. Participles as adjectives are used in following way:

5. 4. 1. Present Participles

Present participle is used as adjectives when they refer to actions being

performed by the things being described. Generally speaking, a present participle
64
when used as adjective usually donates the characteristics of the modified noun rather
than its verbal action. It is to be noted that when the present participle is used to pre-
modify a noun, it has the meaning of active voice while the past participle has the
meaning of passive voice. Examples:

 The falling star

 The barking dog
 The exploiting class is rich. From this example, the exploiting class means the
class exploits people.
 Nigeria is a developing country.

5. 4. 2. Past Participles

Past participle used as adjectives when they refer to actions which have been
performed on "over" the things being described. A past participle when used as
adjective indicates the state of the modified noun with passive meaning. From the
examples above, we can see that a present participle or a past participle is used as an
adjective to pre-modify a noun or a noun phrase. It is to be noted that when the
present participle is used to pre-modify a noun, it has the meaning of active voice
while the past participle has the meaning of passive voice. Examples:

 The scattered leaves

 The broken heart
 The exploited class is poor. From this example, the exploited class means the
class is exploited.
 UK is a developed country.

Adjectives may be divided into two main classes: (1) descriptive adjectives, and (2)
limiting adjectives. The first type tells about a noun by describing some quality that
belongs to it. While limiting adjective tells something about a noun by limiting it
rather than describing its qualities. There are three major classes of limiting
adjectives: (a) articles, (b) numerals, and (c) pronominal adjectives.

5. 5. Absolute Adjectives

Still other words cannot be used in comparisons, because of their meaning.

These words are called absolute adjectives - words such as, correct and dead. An
answer on a test is either correct, or not correct. It cannot be more correct, or
correcter. If something is dead, it is dead. It cannot be less dead or more dead.
Example of absolute adjectives are “complete, conclusive, eternal, final, immaculate,

65
level, perfect, perpendicular, perpetual, right, round, spotless, square, supreme,
unanimous, unique ………………………

6. Comparison of Adjectives
A significant formal feature of attributive adjectives is that they can be graded.
This is known as degrees of comparison. This is a property adjectives share with
adverbs. There are three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and
superlative as they are shown in the table below.

Positive adjective Comparative adjective Superlative Adjective

They describe one thing It compares two things It compares more than
and offer no comparison only with “er”, “more” or two things with “most” or
with as + adjective + as “less”. Examples: “least”. Examples:
to indicate equality John is smaller than John. This is the best offer of
between two people or He is older than me. all.
things. Example: This bag is more beautiful This is the oldest mosque
She is as tall as him. than that of mine. in India.

7. Determiners

A determiner signals the coming of a noun in a sentence. Determiners are

words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically similar. They all come at the
beginning of noun phrases, and usually you cannot use more than one determiner
in the same noun phrase. (Dra, 2009: 18) Determiners fall into the following
categories:
a. Articles “a, an, the" (See the chapters of articles)
b. Possessives Adjectives are used to show who owns or possesses something. The
possessive adjectives are: my, our, your, his, her, their, its, whose"
c. Each, every, some and any “Each and every" have similar but not always
identical meanings. Each = every one separately while every = each, all Each
expresses the idea of 'one by one'. It emphasizes individuality. Every means half-
way between each and all. It sees things or people as singular, but in a group or in
general. Furthermore, some = a little, a few or a small number or Amount while
any = one, some or all. Usually, some is used in positive (+) sentences and any in
negative (-) and question (?) sentences. In general, something/anything and
somebody/anybody are used in the same way as some/any.
d. Possessive case when you want to show that something belongs to somebody or
something, you usually add “s" to a singular noun and an apostrophe ' to a plural
noun. See the unit of nouns for more details about possessives. For examples:
 the girl's clothes (one girl)
66
  the girls' clothes (two or more girls)
e. Demonstratives winch are used to point out people or things “this, that, these,
those"
 This car is red.
 This girl is tall.
f. Distributives which refer to each member of a class separately: “each, every,
either, neither"
g. Number expressions such as “another, many, several, some, any, no, few,
enough, a number of, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, some of, many of, one, two, three
... (cardinal numbers) "
h. Quantifiers such as “much, some, no, any, little, enough, a lot of, lots of, plenty
of, much of, some of"
i. Interrogatives They combine with nouns to form interrogative expressions used
in questions: such as “what, which"
 What color is the sky?
 Which girl is the tallest?
Summary

 Adjectives in English are invariable; they have the same form for singular and
plural, feminine and masculine nouns. Adjectives in English are not affected by
number or gender or case because they do not have to agree with the noun they
modify. Examples:
 A good boy = good boys
 A good girl = good girls
 The only exceptions are the demonstrative adjectives this and that, which change
to these and those before plural nouns.
 This cat = these cats
 That man = those men
 However, adjectives of quality can be placed after the verbs as. "Be, look, seem,
appear, smell, taste, sound,"
 I am hungry. Can I have something to eat? It smells good.
 Adjectives can have both attributive and predicative use.
 This book, which boy, my dog = attributive use
 He made her happy, tom felt cold = predicative use
 Within the predicative use of adjectives, verbs used in this way are called link
verbs or copulas. Examples:
 This idea sounds interesting.
 He made her happy.

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Exercise 1

Direction: Read and underline all the adjectives you can find in the following
sentences. Check your answers in the answer key.
1. The little boy ran along the dusty road.
2. Six delicious cookies were cooling on the rack.
3. The dark brown painted dripped on the new white carpet.
4. A beautiful red rose bloomed in a quiet corner of that flower garden.
5. The old curtains were torn and faded, and they flapped in the light breeze.
6. After a few hours, they arrived at the train station, nine miles from Paris.
7. The hockey arena is located on Water Street beside the steel mill.
8. They used paper plates for the annual picnic.
9. These apples are juicy and red.
10. The long summer months are usually hot and dry.
Exercise 2

Direction: Underline the adjective of quality and quantity in each sentence.

1. The young soldier was wounded.

2. A spider has many legs.
3. The city has beautiful lakes.
4. I gave him some books.
5. It was an interesting film.
6. Ruff is an obedient dog.
7. There are many beaches in Goa.
8. We sat outside the cottage to enjoy the refreshing air.
9. There are several badminton players in India.
10. I gave her all the pencils.
Exercise 3

Direction: State whether the bold written words are demonstrative adjectives or
demonstrative pronouns.
1. These cakes are very delicious.
2. Whose is this nice car?
3. That boy in the white uniform is suitable for such occasions.
4. These are sweet cakes.
5. This is interesting offer for you.
6. This sound is similar to my car’s house.
7. Those fruits look better for my health.
8. These cars look beautiful but they are very expensive.
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Exercise 4

Direction: Underline the adjectives and say whether they have been used
predicatively or attributively.
1. There was heavy damage to buildings in that area.
2. Ann called several times.
3. The children were excited about the picnic.
4. Marry was absent last week.
5. Kolkata is a large city.
6. The wise man waited patiently.
7. The first prize was taken by a young child.
8. The last train leaves at 11:30 p.m.
9. Some dreams often seem real.
10. This book is a good read.
Exercise 5

Direction: In the following sentences, indicate the adjectives and the noun each
modifies. Don't forget articles.

1. The road was rough and uneven.

2. An old rusty car is parked in my space.
3. The child licked the sugary sweet icing from a big spoon.
4. A ragged string dangled from the dusty light bulb.
5. I have had a boring, depressing day.
6. Invite those six people.
7. This trip takes several days.
8. Do you like spicy, Mexican food?
9. We bought Shelley and Tim’s house.
10. The little girl had big, sparkling blue eyes.
11. These parcels are heavy.
12. Our cousins were eating huge, juicy apples.
13. Give them some light summer clothes.
14. Karl’s hockey skates are dull.
15. Two cats, sweet and lovable, sat on the dining room table.

Exercise 6

Direction: Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with the
comparative or the superlative degree, whichever you think is needed, of the
adjective or adverb that is given in brackets at the end.

69
 1. This book is………....than the other one. (interesting)
2. My grandmother is the ………....member of our family. (old)
3. An aero plane can travel…………..than a train. (fast)
4. Everest is the………….mountain in the world (high)
5. Who arrived……………..., John or James ? (early)
6. This is the ………....piece of work I have ever undertaken. (difficult)
7. She always did things the …………..way. (easy)
8. Which season is……….....summer or winter? (hot)
9. Who is the …………...pupil in your class? (tall)
10. Which is the ………....way to the railway station? (near)
11. Of the two brothers, the…………..was the..............(young, clever)
12. I shall not stay...............than I can help. (long)
13. The………....I stay in this place, the.............I like it. (long, much)
14. Which of the three routes is the…………....? (short)
15. The ……….....man that has ever lived could not answer that question. (wise)
16. The carpet was…………...than we expected. (dear)
17. The …………....person can sometimes make mistakes. (careful)
18. Could you walk a little………....please? (slow)
19. That is the..................joke I have ever heard. (good)
20. The journey was the...............we had ever experienced. (tedious)

Exercise 7

Write a comparison for each sentence. One example is given.

Example: Harry’s writing is worse than yours.

1. Danny receives …………… grades than his brother. (good)

2. We live ………….. from the university than you do. (far)
3. Nancy’s students speak ………..than most. (well)
4. The food in this restaurant is …………than in the one on the corner. (bad)
5. Ron feels much ……….. today after taking his medicine. (good)
6. Ben ran………… than any other athlete. (far)
7. Lucy sings …………than Anita. (well)
8. This recipe sounds …………..than yours. (good)
9. Cleveland has ………….weather than Richmond. (bad)
10. Mel plays the guitar………….. than I do. (well)

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Exercise 8

Combine the two sentences to show equal comparisons. There may be several
possibilities for some of the sentences.
1. Kevin hit two home runs in yesterday’s game. Dave also hit two home runs.
2. It’s 75 degrees in Oahu and 75 degrees in Dallas.
3. Maureen ate three pieces of pizza, and her sister ate three.
4. Brian sleeps eight hours every night and Rita sleeps eight.
5. Phil weights 180 pounds. Harry weighs 180 pounds.
6. Tracy works very diligently in school. Trisha also works very diligently.
7. This sweater costs $10.95. The yellow one also costs $10.95.
8. Joel runs a mile in ten minutes. His brother also runs a mile in ten minutes.
9. The long dress is very elegant. The short dress is also elegant.
10. José spends four hours a day studying English and four hours studying math.
11. Some high school students do six assignments for homework every night. Some
college students also do six hours of assignments.
12. Joan Collins has a lot of jewelry. Liz Taylor has a lot of jewelry.
13. In their new apartment, the Andersons have six pieces of furniture in the dining
room and six pieces in the living room.
14. There are only 18 students in the chemistry class and only 18 in the physics
class.
15. I paid $45 for my textbook. Anne paid $45 for her b

71
 Parts of Speech: Adverbs
Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about adverbs as parts of speech. It provides the conceptual as well
as technical frameworks of adverbs to identify their classification and uses in
English sentence. The lecture emphasis is put on the definitions, kinds, examples,
comparison and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this unit, they should be able, among
other things, to;
1. Define the part of speech known as adverb.
2. List the main kinds of adverbs.
3. Recognize how adverbs function in sentence.
4. Show the relationship between adverbs and verbs, adjectives and adverbs in a
sentence.
5. Compare adverbs with adjectives.
6. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences with adverbs.

Introduction

Nouns and verbs make straightforward statements about what things are and
what they do. However, the world is not black and white – there are infinite details
that need to be expressed. Modifiers give additional information about nouns,
pronouns, verbs, and themselves to make those things more definite. There are two
types of modifiers: adjectives and adverbs. Students have just learned that adjectives
modify nouns and pronouns. Another type of describing word or modifier is the
adverb.

1. Definition

Adverb is a word or group of words used commonly to modify "describe,

qualify, restrict or limit" verbs, but it can also modify an adjectives, another
adverb or a phrase in a sentence. They are used to qualify any content word except
a noun or pronoun in a sentence. Adverbs add to the meaning of a verb "or an
adjective or another adverb" often by telling or answering the questions of: when,
how, where, and to what extent a person or object does an action. Adverbs are a bit
more flexible than adjectives because single-word and multiple-word adverb phrases
can generally be placed either before or after the words they modify. Simply, adverbs
need to be placed where the reader can clearly grasp the meaning you intend.

 Today we must complete the project. "when –adverb of time"

72
  Mitch approached the intersection cautiously. "approached how"
 He seems especially competent. "how"
 Did you see the schedule there? "where"
 The prosecutor did not question him further. " what extent"

Grammar Point
 Adverbs add something more to the meaning of the verb.
 Adverbs = ads to verb "adds to the meaning of a verb (or an adjective or another
adverb) by telling what, when, where, why, how ……"

2. Position of Adverbs

Adverbs have three main positions in the sentence. They are as follows:

Front Position Middle Position Final Position

Front position at the Middle position (between Final or end position
beginning of a sentence the subject and the main (after the verb or object).
(before the subject). verb). Examples: Examples:
 Now we will study  We often study  We study adverbs
adverbs. adverbs. carefully
 Yesterday, I met my  I usually have my  I used to drive slowly.
friend. breakfast outside.

3. Order of Adverbs

There is a basic order in which adverbs will appear when there is more than one. The
royal order is as follows: adverbs of manner, adverbs of place, adverbs of
frequency, adverbs of time and adverbs of purpose. Consider these sentences then
notice the order of the adverbs in the previous sentences in the table below:

 Ann studies enthusiastically in the class every day before midday to keep in
grade.
 Stephan goes impatiently into Algiers every week after dawn to get a
transaction.
 John revises carefully in his room every week morning to get good marks.
 Marry lives interestingly in the countryside every summer in August to
remember the family.
The royal order of adverbs in a sentence.
1 2 3 4 5
Manner Place Frequency Time Purpose
enthusiastically in the class every day before midday to keep in grade

73
impatiently into Algiers every week after dawn to get a transaction.
carefully in his room every week morning to remember the …...

4. Kinds of Adverbs

4. 1. Adverbs of Manner

These adverbs express the manner of an action and answer the question word
how. In short, they are used to show how an action took place, is taking place or will
take place. They usually occupy the end position of a clause, but they may come at
the beginning of the clause in order to emphasize the idea or in the middle position of
a clause when the clause contains no adverb of frequency. The following words are
the most common adverbs of manner "quickly, slowly, kindly, bravely, happily,
badly, fast, hard, easily, badly, hard, fast, well …………" Examples:

 How is she writing the grammar lesson? She is writing the lesson carefully.
 How is he doing the exercise? He is doing the exercise slowly.
 We waited patiently for the football match to begin.
 Quickly, I sold the fruits in the markets.

4. 2. Adverbs of Place / Position

They are called adverbs of location "adverb phrases and clauses of location".
They are used to indicate the place of an action and characteristically answer the
question word where. They tell us where something happens. In short, they are used
to show where an action took place, is taking place or will take place. They often
occupy the end position of a clause, where they precede adverbs of time and adverbs
of purpose. The common adverbs of place are: "here, there, near, by, up, down, in,
out, everywhere, nowhere, somewhere, anywhere, nowhere else ………" Examples:

 Where is your watch? It's here.

 Where is your mother? She has gone out.
 I am going there tomorrow.
 He left his car in the driveway last night.
 I know the company where she works.

4. 3. Adverbs of Frequency

They tell us for how often an action took place, is taking place or will take
place. Furthermore, they express the frequency of an action. They answer the
question how often? In traditional grammar they are called Adverbs of Number, but
in current English they are called Adverbs of Frequency. Some of them are: "usually,

74
often, always, seldom, occasionally, rarely, never, ever, twice, often, every day,
normally, frequently, hardly, scarcely, once a week, twice a week, and
sometimes……....… etc." In a sentence, these adverbs will come directly before a
simple verb tense. When these adverbs are used with perfect tenses (have + past
participle) they are placed between have and the past participle. If the compound
tenses are used as questions, then the frequency adverbs are placed directly before the
past participle. Examples:

 John always checks out his computers before he sells them to his customers.
 Have you never gone to Stone Mountain near Atlanta?
 I had never told false news all over my life.
 They rarely talk to each other in the meeting.
 They sometimes stay up all night.
 Have you ever ridden a plane?

4. 4. Adverbs of Degree or Intensifiers

They tell us about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective, or another

adverb. They answer the question how much? How far? And to what extent? It is
worth to mention that in current English they are called intensifiers because they have
a heightening or lowering effect on the words they modify. Therefore, the word
degree means the amount or level of something. The most common degree adverbs
are: "almost, just, nearly, very, fairly, too, quite, enough, hardly, a lot, a bit, a great
deal, really, totally, utterly, more, most, barely, absolutely, extremely, perfectly,
most, much, hardly, very much, so such, of course, rather, …………..etc." Examples:

 She is too ill to go to school.

 She is rich enough to purchase a plane.
 The teacher is extremely right.
 This solution is much the best.

4. 5. Adverbs of Certainty

They are used to express how certain or sure we fell about an action or event.
Some of them are as follows: "certainly, definitely, probably, surely………….…etc."

 Surely, you are the best.

 Probably we are going to visit the supermarket later on.
 Definitely you are the best.

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4. 6. Adverbs of Time

Adverbs of time tell us when the action of the verb does or does not occur.
These adverbs state the time of the job, action or events and for how long. In short,
they are used to show when an action took place, is taking place or will take place.
The most common time adverbs are: "today, yesterday, tomorrow, early, lately, the,
once, one of these days, recently, by now, already, someday, still, now, soon, yet,
then, later, all day, since, ago, back, before, nowadays, and point in time, afterwards,
today, soon, immediately, then, eventually …………………..…etc." these adverbs
are usually placed at the very beginning or at the very end on the clause, in front of
position or in the end position. They indicate the time of an action and answer to the
question when. Examples:

 When will you do this work? I have done it already.

 When did you buy this car? I bought it a week ago.
 I worked all day for the exam.
 Yesterday, i finished the last test.
 Now, i am looking for a new job.

5. Adjectives and Adverbs as Modifiers

A modifier is a word that limits, changes, or alters the meaning of another word.
Therefore, an adjective limits, changes, or alters the meaning of a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives are usually placed before the noun. Examples:

 The blue, puffy clouds are near our village. Here the words the, blue and puffy
are all modifiers to the noun word clouds.
 A sad, carefree child is my neighbor.
 A poor dark chocolate layer cake is yours.

There are two main classes of modifying words in English—adjectives and adverbs.
Adjectives modify nouns and adverbs modify pretty much everything else—verbs,
adjectives and other adverbs. They modify these in much the same way as adjectives
modify nouns—by adding criteria that must be met. For example, in ran quickly,
quickly modifies ran and therefore requires that whoever ran didn’t run in any old
way, but did it quickly. Other example includes expressions like take regularly,
regularly modifies take and therefore requires that whoever take must do it
frequently.

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6. Degrees of Comparison

Like adjectives, adverbs too have three degrees of comparison: positive,

comparative and superlative. The comparative is formed by adding -er (more in
longer ones) and the superlative by -est (most).
a. Adverbs of one syllable take er in the comparative and est in the superlative:
 Fast, faster, fastest
 Hard, harder, hardest
 High, higher, highest
b. Adverbs of two or more syllables form their comparative or superlative form by
putting more or most before them:
 Slowly, more slowly, most slowly
 Politely, more politely, most politely
 Sweetly, more sweetly, most sweetly
c. Irregular comparatives and superlatives forms
 Well, better, best
 Badly, worse, worst
 Much, more, most
Summary
 Morphologically, the most common feature of adverbs is the majority of adverbs
have the derivational suffix (-ly), such as quickly, slowly, barely, etc.
Syntactically, there are two types of syntactic functions that characterize verbs:
1. Adverbial which modifies or tells us something about the sentence or the verb.
It may be a single adverb, a phrase, or a prepositional phrase, or clause
element:
2. Modifier of adjective and adverb. Let us consider the following example: - far
more easily intelligible.
 One of the secrets of good writing is to include lots of details (adjectives), so the
reader can accurately see the whole picture you are describing in his/her mind’s
eye.

77
Exercise 1
Direction: Read and underline all the adverbs you can find in the following
sentences. Check your answers in the answer key.
1. Computers are relatively new devices.
2. Many businesses use them daily.
3. Today, very fast computers are needed.
4. They produce statistics quickly and accurately.
5. Generally, they are quite easy to use.
6. Many people have never used a computer.
7. The baby has been very cranky lately.
8. Finally, she wrote the very last sentence correctly.
9. She smiled brightly and said that she was really sorry.
10. Politely, he asked for a second helping.
Exercise 2
Direction: Pick out the adverbs in these sentences and write them in the
appropriate columns. Mention the type of adverb and the verb, adjective or
adverb to which it is added.
1. The newspaper is published daily.
2. I bathe twice daily.
3. The soldiers fought bravely.
4. I have seen this film before.
5. I can't find the keys anywhere.
6. The teachers arrived at the school early.
7. The stadium was completely packed.
8. Parents treat their children affectionately.
9. We are leaving for the zoo shortly. Please come home quickly.
10. The customer climbed upstairs and met the owner of the shop.
Exercise 3
Direction: Choose the suitable word in brackets to complete the following
sentences.
1. They dance the American style ……………………… (beautiful / beautifully)
2. He panned their trip to Paris very ……..….…………..(careful / carefully)
3. John painted his new house very …………………….….. (bad / badly)
4. They speak their language ……………....…….….. (quiet / quietly)
5. Turn the button down, it is too …………………….….. (loud / loudly)
6. She skipped ……………..…… down the road to the school. (happy / happily)
7. My father drives too …………….…..…….….. (fast, well)
8. My grandmother knows the road……….………….….. (good /well)
9. My friend knows to play guitar ……….………….….. (terrible / terribly)
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 10. I and my class mate are going camping tomorrow morning so we have to get up.
…… ….….. (early / soon)
11. Stephan does not often study …………………….….. (hard / hardly)
12. Sometimes our headmaster arrives ……..……………. at school. (late / lately)
Exercise 4
Direction: Write the adverbs words in bold in the following sentences and
indicate the type of the adverb.
1. The children enjoyed the picnic hugely.
2. He never comes to our house.
3. Mother is out in the garden.
4. He blurted the truth innocently.
5. I am going to tidy my room tomorrow.
6. Our neighbors have gone abroad by now.
7. I saw that movie last year.
8. I always jog in the morning.
9. I have found it. It is here.
10. Tom ate the burger greedily.
Exercise 5
Direction: Identify the bold type word as either an adjective or an adverb with
justification.
1. She cooked his delicious food very quickly.
2. He is a bad teacher.
3. Suddenly the earthquake changed their live dramatically.
4. Please try to be more careful.
5. He works so heavily in those circumstances.
6. They master the English grammar perfectly.
7. He is a quick talker, but he never listens.
8. I speak very badly.
9. There was a loud noise yesterday. Did you hear it?
10. He's a careful speaker of English language, I think.
11. Our visitors left quite abruptly.
12. The foreigner came to the village cautiously.
13. The roses smelled fragrant around us.
14. My little brother is only six years old.
15. The girls screamed frantically when they saw a ghost in front of them.
Exercise 6
Direction: List the adverbs in this exercise. For each adverb, tell whether it
modifies a verb, adjective or adverb.
1. Dave asked politely for another piece of pie.
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 2. Thoughtfully, the old man chewed his dinner.
3. Make sure that you review daily.
4. The apples had been tightly packed in the box.
5. Tim was very happy about his success.
6. I am sincerely grateful for your help.
7. His deeply tanned body told of hours in the sun.
8. You must travel very fast if you are going to get there in time.
9. The soldiers were really tired after their training.
10. She strolled leisurely down the mall.

Exercise 7: Distinguishing Between Adjectives and Adverbs

Direction: Choose the correct modifier. Indicate the type of modifier, i.e:
adjective or adverb.
1. Marry behaves (good, well).
2. Ann feels (sad, sadly) about the death of her dog.
3. I am not (really, real) sure if I will have a party.
4. The directions were (simple, simply) to follow.
5. I don't feel (good, well).
6. The repairs went (slowly, slow).
7. The change in speed was (gradually, gradual).
8. You work too (serious, seriously) sometimes.
9. We feel (awful, awfully) about what happened.
10. These chocolates taste (good, well).
11. Firefighters must respond very (quick, quickly).
12. Marry spoke in a (calm, calmly) voice after the accident.
13. Tiger Woods putted (bad, badly) on that last hole!
14. The lights shone (brightly, bright) in my eyes.
15. John did (good, well) on his second driver’s test.
Exercise 8
Correct each sentence so that the correlative conjunction is in the right place or so
that the subject and verb agree. Two examples are given.
 Example: Ben not only plays the guitar but also the flute. Ben plays not only the
guitar but also the flute. (two instruments)
 Example: Either the soldiers or the captain prepare to march against the enemy.
Either the soldiers or the captain prepares to march against the enemy. (agrees
with the subject closer to the verb)
1. Both Annika and Tara is cousins.
2. Neither the boys nor their sister are planning a career in medicine.

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3. The band members, as well as the director, goes on tour next month.
4. We not only have cards for baseball but also for football players.
5. Either Friday’s concert or Saturday’s are fine with me.
6. We are planning not only to go to Switzerland, but also to Austria.
7. John, as well as his friends, hope to be professional writers someday.
8. Neither fats nor sweets is part of a good, healthy diet.
9. The bride’s elegant bouquet not only was filled with gardenias, but also lilies.
10. The guests, including the president, pays compliments to the hostess.
11. I both want to buy the stereo and the cabinet.
12. Neither the house nor the doors has to be painted.
13. The flowers, as well as the oak tree, is growing well after the storm.
14. The government both has the power and the authority to raise taxes.
15. Both the plane and the pilot is landing safely.

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 Parts of Speech: Prepositions
Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about prepositions. It provides the conceptual as well as technical
frameworks of prepositions to identify their classification, kinds and uses in
English sentences. The lecture counts on the definitions, kinds, uses, examples and
exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this unit, they should be able, among
other things, to;
1. Define the part of speech known as preposition.
2. List the main kinds and common prepositions.
3. Show the relationship of prepositions with other related words in a sentence.
5. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through prepositions.

1. Definition of Preposition

Prepositions are little words that are used to join nouns, gerund, and pronouns
to other words in a sentence. As the word itself suggests ("pre" is a prefix means
"before" while position refers to a place), a preposition is a word in a position before
its object "a noun or pronoun". Prepositions are used in sentences to show a
relationship between the object of the preposition and another word in a sentence. It
is worth to mention that prepositions may tell us about the position, time, ownership
or movement. It should be noted that the nouns or pronouns that follows the
preposition is called the object of the preposition. In the following sentence notice
how the word preposition changes the meaning of the sentence between the subject
and object. So prepositions are important words because they add more detail to a
sentence. The word around is a preposition which tells the relationship between the
boy moved and the school. Other prepositions show different relationships between
the boy moved and the school. Examples:

 The boy moved at the school.

 The boy moved through the school.
 The boy moved into the school.
 The boy moved down the school.
 The boy moved behind the school.
 The boy moved to the school.
 The boy moved besides the school.
 The boy moved near the school.

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 A preposition is a word usually placed before a noun or pronoun to show place,
time, cause, purpose, or means.
 Propositions or Ad-position = pre + position "connectives" = "they precede a
phrase that act a as a modifier or a noun by indicating a position in time,
location or manner".

2. English Preposition Rule

There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has
no exceptions. This rule is as follows: A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is
never followed by a verb. By "noun" we include:
 noun (dog, money, love)
 proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
 pronoun (you, him, us)
 noun group (my first job)
 gerund (swimming)
A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a
verb, we must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form. In
the following sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That should be impossible,
according to the above rule:
 I would like to leave now.
 He used to take cigarette. Here in these two sentences, "to" is not a preposition.
It is part of the infinitive of the verbs ("to leave", "to take").
3. Prepositional Phrase
Prepositions and the nouns/pronouns that follow them are always grouped
together and treated as a single grammatical unit, called Prepositional Phrases. A
prepositional phrase is comprised minimally of a preposition and its object to add
more detail to a sentence. In other words, a prepositional phrase is a group of words
that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun, noun phrase, pronoun or a
gerund subordinate clause. It should be noted that the object of a preposition is
typically a noun or a pronoun. Consider this expression: Preposition (in) + Object
(the water) = Prepositional Phrase (in the water). Example:
 Stephan, the researcher from Algeria, wrote an excellent research paper on the
computer. Here (on the computer) is a prepositional phrase.

3. Difference between Prepositions and Adverbs

The difference between a preposition and an adverb is that an adverb answers the
questions, Where? When? How? To what extent? by itself. It should be noted that
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adverbs are content words in the sense that they can fulfill their role and meaning
only through one word while prepositions are functional words in the sense that they
cannot full their meaning ad role alone so they need to be embedded with other words
in a sentence to function properly unlike adverbs. Examples:
 Ann moved up. (Up is an adverb because it takes only one word to tell where
Ann moved.)
 Ann moved up the stairs. (Up is a preposition because it takes more than a
single word to tell where Ann moved.)
 John walked aboard. (Aboard is an adverb because it takes only one word
needed to tell where John walked.)
 John walked aboard the plane. (Aboard is a preposition because it takes more
than one word to tell where John walked.)

Positions of Prepositions
Positions Examples
1 Preposition + Noun or Pronoun at home, about him, on the table
2 Question-word + verb + subject + What is this bag for?
preposition + question mark Which room did you sleep in?
3 before a relative pronoun The room in which I live is big.
4 In exclamations What a society we live in!
5 in the passive construction The situation is being looked into

4. Kinds of Prepositions

4. 1. Simple or Common Prepositions

Simple prepositions consist of only one single word. They are the most used
prepositions. Simple prepositions are important words. Speakers use individual
prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions
"of", "to" and "in" are among the ten most frequent words in English. Here is a
short list of around 70 of the more common one word prepositions. Many of these
prepositions have more than one meaning. Please refer to the table below for
meanings of prepositions and a dictionary for precise meaning and usage. The table
below represents the most common simple prepositions. Examples:
 We are waiting at the station.
 The dog is under the table.
 My copybook is in my bag.
 A captain in below a general.
 The supermarket is between a mosque and the bank.

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 The most used simple prepositions
across at from aboard over under opposite to
beside with behind underneath amidst
through within like amongst by out
after atop unlike down outside
besides in save past toward(s)
of throughout round about up among
including without below around despite
excluding before minus during except
against inside since per excepting
between worth above versus following
pending
on times bar beneath as
beyond
along barring near for
on/up
until concerning than plus
amid
till considering off via but
of upon

4. 2. Complex or Common Prepositions

They do the same as common prepositions. Complex or compound prepositions

consist of more than one word which are all altogether treated as one single unit in
the sentence. The table below represents the most common compound prepositions.

 My car is parked in front of the Hotel.

 The prime minister is out of the service.

The most used compound prepositions

as to according to by way of in front of
onto along with by virtue of for the sake of
as for away from in the light of in favor of
out of because of with regard to in light of
into by means of in course of in spite of
up by reason of in order to in search of
in addition to with an eye to on behalf of in quest of
in lieu of with a view to together with in the event of
instead of with respect to due to in view of
but for in accordance with owing to with reference to

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5. Meanings of Prepositions

The best way to learn the correct use of prepositions is by reading, listening,
speaking and writing as much as possible. The use of prepositions is not determined
by their kinds but by their relations in a sentence. Keep in mind that same
prepositions can be used for different relations. See the table and figure below.

Meaning Prepositions Examples

Location "In, on, at, inside, within …." Trust no one within this room.

Mode of Transport "By, in, on ………….." I prefer travelling by road.

Cause "Because of, on account of, Out of curiosity the little boy
from, out of, for ... of, of opened the bag.
………….."
Subject Matter "About, on, regarding…..." a talk on linguistics
…………………. …………………………. ……………………………..

Summary

 Prepositions are present in every sentence people use when communicating an oral
or written message to another person. For this reason, prepositions have an
important role when learning English language. When using prepositions, their
meaning may be literal or figurative; this imposes some challenge to students.

86
 Prepositions are high frequency items belonging to one of the eight word classes
into which English lexicon can be divided. They can be defined as a relatively
closed class that is not prone to quick changes.
 From a morphological viewpoint, prepositions can be defined as invariable word
forms which, throughout the history of English, almost never took any inflections.
 Prepositions and their relation to semantics have always been problematic. They
are often considered to have too little semantic content or, vice versa. Most
linguists consent that nouns, adjectives and main verbs are items with a full lexical
meaning. When it comes to prepositions, question might arise, whether they
should also be regarded as lexical elements with their own lexical meaning or
rather as semantically empty grammatical elements.
Exercise 1

Read and Underline the prepositions, circle the nouns/pronouns that complete
them in the following sentences. Check your answers in the answer key.
1. Put your coats on the bed in the guest room.
2. Paula walked through the park and then turned towards home.
3. She hid the presents behind the desk and under the stairs.
4. The color of her dress was really flattering.
5. The books on airplanes were placed beside those on trains.
6. The chairs on the porch were painted white.
7. Guests with tickets entered first.
8. The sap from maple trees is boiled into syrup.
9. We saw six pheasant on the road to Stanley.
10. The man with the long scarf just robbed the store in the mall.

Exercise 2

Complete the sentence with the correct preposition from the choices given.

1. We are very excited ……...…our trip to Spain next week. (at, with, about, over)
2. I am very fond ………..…… drinking green tea. (for, of, about, at)
3. Almost all politicians were involved …………... the scandal. (in, at, with, from)
4. I am looking forward …. having a meeting with you next. (with, at, to, from)
5. At the moment, she is recovering ………..…..her injuries. (at, of, from, with)
6. I’m dreaming …. becoming a famous scientist one day (for, with, about, into)
7. My cousin is married ………….. a famous American (with, for, to, from)
8. I am responsible ………….….. training the new recruits. (at, about, with, for)
9. Many people took advantage ………….. the low prices offered by the new shop
(of, for, with, to)
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 10. I was not quite satisfied ………………. the exam results. (at, for, with, about)
11. The president was thankful ……..…. everyone who helped in the campaign (to,
with, for, at)
12. Everyone in this town will benefit ………. the new hospital (from, with, at, into)
13. For two full days, the man was fighting …………….. his life. (up, with, at, for)
14. My dad shouted …….. me because I didn’t do what he said (to, at, with,
towards)
15. She insisted ………..…… helping me with the dishes. (on, with, for, about)
16. Almost all car companies care …………... the environment (for, at, about, with)
17. Wearing a seat belt can protect you …. being killed in a car. (with, of, about,
from)
18. Ten people were killed when a bus collided …….. a car (into, with, at, towards)
19. The customers came to the shop to complain … their service (about, at, on, for)
20. Our atmosphere consists ……. oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide (into, of,
with, for)

Exercise 3

Direction: List the prepositional phrases in this exercise. After each one, tell
whether it is used as an adjective or an adverb.

1. The men on the roof worked for two hours in the heat.
2. During the night, the rest of the water drained from the basement.
3. He lived near the mall which was located to the north of the city limits.
4. The women in the kitchen looked under the tables and in the closet.
5. The old lady with the big hat cut into the line in front of me at the store.
6. On Fridays, all of the staff at the radio station eats lunch at the old mill.
7. In the middle of a big spacious lawn, the designer placed a beautiful statue.
8. Because of the storm, the volunteers did not hear about the revised forms.
9. Since his return, the children from the day care at the church have walked
around the block every day.
10. After his graduation in 1992, he answered an ad for a job in Manitoba.

Exercise 4

Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with the correct preposition.

1. The writer Shakespeare lived...............the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I.

2. He was born …………...1564, and died………......1616.
3. My birthday is…………...October 28th.
4. The train leaves................2.30, and arrives in Edinburgh.................6.15.

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 5. I will call and see you............... Sunday………….… three o. clocks.
6. The work must be finished…………...the end of the week.
7. The burglars entered the house…………....the owner's absence.
8. The exhibition is to be officially opened……..Wednesday next, …………3 p.m.
9. Please let me have your answer……………..the end of the month at the latest.
10. We are having a party………….....New Year's Day.
11. She always went to see her parents……………...Christmas.
12. A gale got up………………..the night, and did much damage.
13. She will be twenty-five...............August 11th.
14. .................what year was she born?
15. I shall be back..................about twenty minutes' time.
16. Could you meet me................2.30……………....Saturday afternoon?
17. They ought to be here……………...now.
18. I will call at your office some time……………..the morning.
19. They ceased work.......................sunset.
20. Christmas Day is………………....December 25th.

Exercise 5

Fill in the blank spaces in the following passage with the correct preposition.

The clock is famous ……1… its reliability, which can be attributed to one
……2…. its designers, the horologist Edmund Beckett Denison. The tower was
completed ……3….1859, so Denison had time to experiment and invented the
double three-legged gravity escapement which provided the best separation …4……
pendulum and clock mechanism. The pendulum is installed …5……. an enclosed
windproof box sunk..…6……. the clock room. It is 3.9m long, weighs 300 kg and
beats every two seconds. The clockwork mechanism …7……. the room below
weighs five tons. The idiom of putting a penny …8…., with the meaning …9……
slowing down, sprang ……10…..the method …11……. fine-tuning the clock's
pendulum. …12…….top ……13……the pendulum is a small stack ……14…..old
penny coins; these are to adjust the time ……15…..the clock. Adding or subtracting
coins has the effect of minutely altering the position ……16…..the pendulum's
center…17……. mass: adding or removing a penny changes the clock's speed
……18…. 0.4 seconds ……19……. day.

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 Parts of Speech: Conjunctions
Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about conjunctions. It provides the conceptual as well as technical
frameworks of conjunctions to identify their classification and uses. The lecture
counts on the definitions, kinds, uses, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this unit, they should be able, among
other things, to;
1. Define the part of speech known as conjunctions.
2. List the main kinds and common conjunctions.
3. Recognize how conjunctions function in sentences.
4. Show the relationship of conjunctions with other related words, clauses and
sentences in a sentence.
5. Compare between prepositions and interjections.
6. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through conjunctions.

1. Definition of Conjunction

Conjunctions are part of speech, like prepositions, are also joining words or
connectives. As the term its self suggests, "con + junction" the first part "con"
which is a Spanish word means "with" while the second part refers to the place
where two or more elements or lines meet or conjoined. A conjunction is like a
bridge. As the Golden Gate Bridge connects San Francisco with Marin
County in California, a conjunction links words or groups of words
together. Conjunctions always travel in pairs.

Conjunctions are words that are used to connect other words, phrases, clauses,
groups of words or sentences. Conjunctions are like prepositions but they are
different from them in their scope in a sentence because conjunctions do exactly the
same job like marriage. Conjunctions can be found in any position in a sentence
except in the very end. Before you can really understand conjunctions, students will
need to work through the last unit of the file of part of speech "sentence".
Conjunction takes an important role in the writing. Without conjunction, the meaning
of the text will be not logic. Examples:

 John, Stephan, and Ann are all looking for keys. "The conjunction word and
joins equal words which are all proper nouns together."

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  Ann and Katia revised the recent lesson, but they could not understand it.
Here in this sentence the words "and" "but" are conjunctions. And joins two
nouns; but joins two complete ideas.
 You may be interviewed by a human resources officer or by a supervising
manager.

Conjunctions = conjoins = "connects words, phrases or clauses –at the hip- like
conjoined twins". They are connectors or connectives.
 Coordination means combining two sentences or ideas that are of equal value.
 Subordination means combining two sentences or ideas in a way that makes
one more important than the other.
Single Word such as and, Compound such as Correlative such as
but, nor, for, yet, because, provided that, as long as, so...that, either …….or,
although ……...… in order that. So that …….. neither ……..nor ……

2. Kinds of Conjunctions

Language scholars have divergent views on the kinds of conjunction. For

instance, some of them divide conjunctions into two classes: coordinating and
subordinating conjunctions. These scholars leave out correlative conjunctions
because, according to them, correlative conjunctions are similar to coordinating
conjunctions. However, there are traditionally three kinds of conjunctions basically.
They include: correlative conjunction, subordinate conjunction, and coordinating
conjunction.

2. 1. Coordinating Conjunctions or Coordinators

Coordination is used to join equal rank, items, independent clauses and

parts in a sentence. In short, they are used to join two equal and similar
grammatical units of the same class, rank or pattern: a noun with a noun; an adjective
with an adjective; and so on. So they are used to join two "coordinate elements of
equal rank" in order to show the logical connection between ideas. A coordinating
conjunction shows that the elements "independent clauses" it joins are similar in
importance and structure. Furthermore, they link two sentences that do not depend on
each other for meaning and structure. Coordinating conjunction is somewhat different
from other conjunctions because in addition to connecting clauses, it can also connect
words. However, the phrases produced are not prepositional phrases. A coordinate
sentence also known as a compound sentence consists of two or more Independent
clauses joined either. The most common coordinators are "and, but, or, nor, for, yet,
so….." See the table and examples below:
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  The boys and girls worked at fair. "Boys and girls are equal noun words"
 John or Stephan can go with you tonight. "John and Stephan are equal proper
nouns"
 I would like to help you, but I will be busy tonight. "But in this example joins
two sentences or two complete ideas.

The words and, nor, or can connect nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or
prepositional phrases as a series of elements. Use nor in negative sentences. The table
below illustrates how coordinating conjunctions connect different word classes.

Word Class Examples

Nouns  There are pens, paper, and pencils on the shelf.
 Take the red blouse or the green blouse.
 I don’t like a Porsche nor a Cadillac.
Verbs  Joe plays guitar and sings well.
 The group can’t dance nor act.
 We will swim or ride our bikes on Saturday.
Adjectives  Paul is athletic, studious, and generous.
 Today is not sunny nor warm.
 Those socks are black or blue.
Adverbs  The scouts walked quietly and carefully through the woods.
 These questions are neither neatly nor correctly answered.
 In ballet jump quickly or elegantly, or don’t jump at all.
Prepositional  Look under the bushes and among the flowers for the hidden
Phrase Easter eggs.
 You will find your socks under the bed or in the closet.
 Don't hang the picture over the mantel nor above the door.

Use of comma in Coordinating Conjunctions

 Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that
they join. When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is
always correct to place a comma before the conjunction. Examples:
 Ann wants to become a doctor in the future, so Ann is studying medicine at
university.
 I would like to help you, but I will be busy tonight.
 However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma
is not really essential. Examples:

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  She is rich so she helps poor people.
 The boys and girls worked at fair.
 When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional. Example:
 She likes cars, bicycles, trains and planes. or
 She likes cars, bicycles, trains and planes.

2. 2. Correlative Conjunctions or Correlatives "Item Pairs"

They are called correlatives because they go in pairs. Correlative conjunctions

join elements of equal name and rank (such as adjectives or nouns) and emphasize
the elements being joined. The most common correlatives are as follows: "both/and,
either/or, neither/nor, not only; but also, and weather /or ……………………….." S
As suggested before and by their name, correlative conjunctions correlate, working in
pairs to join phrases or words that carry equal importance within a sentence. Like
many of the most interesting parts of speech, correlative conjunctions are fun to use.
At the same time, there are some important rules to remember for using them
correctly.

 When using correlative conjunctions, ensure verbs agree so your sentences make
sense as in the example: Every day, either loud sound or sun shine deprive Ann
from her lessons.
 When you use a correlative conjunction, you must be sure that pronouns agree as
in the example: neither Ann nor Sarah expressed her happiness when their father
came back from his long trip.
 When using correlative conjunctions, be sure to keep parallel structure intact.
Equal grammatical units need to be incorporated into the entire sentence as in the
example: Not only did Ann cook potato for John, but she also fixed a steak for her
dog.
 It is worth to mention that correlatives are followed by the same class of words in
a sentence. See the examples below:
 She has not only a car but also a bus. (noun + noun)
 They saw neither Ann nor John. (noun + noun)
 We neither phoned Stephan nor wrote to her. (verb+ verb)
 He is not only young but also beautiful. (adjective + adjective)
 If I don't return in an hour then call the police.
 As you more make efforts so you will succeed.

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3. 3. Subordinating Conjunctions or Subordinators "dependent clauses"

Subordination in English grammar is the process of linking two clauses in a

sentence so that one clause is dependent on (or subordinate to) another. Clauses
joined by coordination are called main clauses or independent clauses. This is in
contrast to subordination, in which a subordinate clause
The majority of conjunctions in English are "subordinating conjunctions".
Subordinating conjunctions are used to join clauses of unequal rank in a complex
sentence. They connect two or more clauses which do not have the same syntactic
status and importance. In short, a subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate
(dependent) clause to a main (independent) clause: These clauses usually are "1" an
independent "main" clause and "2" a dependent "supporting" subordinate clause.
They introduce a dependent clause and indicate the nature of the relationship between
the dependent clause and the independent clause. They are used to introduce
subordinate clauses and join them to principal clauses/ main clauses. Example:

Main or Independent Subordinate or Dependent Clause

Clause
Ann goes shopping although It is very cold.
Subordinating
Conjunction

A subordinate or dependent clause "depends" on a main or independent clause.

It cannot exist alone. Imagine that somebody says to you: "Hi! Although it was cold
today," What do you understand? Nothing! But a main or independent clause can
exist alone. You will understand very well if somebody says to you: "Hi! It is cold
today."

Important reminder: Kinds of Conjunctions

Coordinating Subordinating Correlative
They are sued to link or They are used to join and They are pairs of
join two words or independent and complete conjunctions used in a
phrases that re equally clause with a dependent sentence to join different
important and complete clause that relies on the words org groups of words
in terms of grammar main clause for meaning in a sentence such as: eiher
when compared with and relevance such as: /or, neither/nor, but/also,
each other such: as and, although, whether, until hardly/when ….
for, yet …………. ……………

4. Subordinators and Dependent Clauses

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 Joining two independent clauses with a subordinator transforms one of them—
the one which begins with the subordinator—into a dependent clause. Even though
this clause will still contain a subject-verb unit, it cannot stand alone as a sentence.

Independent Clause Dependent clause

(a complete sentence) (no longer a complete sentence)
 The young blond heiress was often in  Although the young blond heiress
the internet sites. was often in the internet sites
 She was almost finished with his last  Because he was almost finished with
year of school. his last year of school
 They find the exam difficult.  Even They find the exam difficult
 You are intelligent.  Though you are intelligent
The Dependent clauses above pretending to be sentences are actually fragments, a
grammar error you can read more about the “Fragments” in the next section.
Consequently, the group of words beginning with a subordinating conjunction
would be a sentence fragment by itself.

5. Subordinators & Emphasis

Unlike coordinators, subordinators do not give equal emphasis to the ideas they
connect; instead, the clause that begins with a subordinator—the dependent clause—
receives less emphasis. Compare the following two sentences:
 Although she wanted to see the movie in the cinema, Ann did not want to pay
more Euros.
 Although she did not want to pay more Euros, Ann wanted to see the movie
in the cinema.
In the first sentence, the subordinator “although” de-emphasizes Ann’s desire to see
the movie in the cinema; her reluctance to pay more Euros seems more important. In
the second sentence, however, the subordinator “although” de-emphasizes Ann’s
reluctance to pay more Euros, and her desire to see the movie in the cinema seems
more important. Consequently, be careful, then, when deciding where to place the
subordinator—this placement can change the meaning and emphasis of your
sentence. It should be noted again that when a subordinator introduces a sentence, put
a comma after the first clause. But if the subordinator comes in the middle of a
clause, you don’t need to set it off with a comma.
 After he arrived home, he moved directly to bed. Subordinator at the
beginning of the sentence takes comma at the end of the clause.
 He moved directly to bed after he arrived home. Subordinator at the middle of
the sentence does not take comma.

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 Important Note:
Students must make distinction between coordinators and subordinators. They have
to use coordinators when they want to equally stress both ideas or clauses; if
instead they want to de-emphasize one of the ideas “clauses”, they have to use a
subordinator with less important clause for an unequal stress.

6. Fragments or Incomplete Sentences

In English, a sentence must contain a subject-verb unit; a fragment is a group

of words that pretends to be a sentence but doesn’t actually have a valid subject-verb
unit. It should be noted here that the group of words beginning with a subordinating
conjunction would be a sentence fragment by itself. Quite often, we use fragments
when we speak. We count on our tone of voice and our expression or the reaction of
the listener to fill in the spaces. In writing, this isn’t possible, so it’s important to
write complete sentences that express complete thoughts. Discuss these examples:

 Across the city “it is a fragment because this group of words contains neither
a subject nor a verb”.
 Stringing his new football racquet “it is a fragment because the group of words
contains no subject”.
 A big hotel with a view of the forest “it is a fragment because the group of
words contains no verb”.
 John received the highest grade on the final arts test. “It is a sentence because
this group of words contains a subject John and its verb received that is why
this sentence is marked by a full stop at the end unlike others”.
 Even she had gained the race “it is a fragment because although the group of
words contains a subject pronoun she and its verb gained, the conjunction word
although makes it dependent clause and does not express a complete thought”.

6. 1. Common Sources of Fragments

 The fragment is a dependent clause, a group of words that contains a subject-verb

unit but cannot stand alone because it begins with a subordinator. Examples:
 Since they stopped
 Although she is my uncle
 Unless he get recovered
 Because she was failed
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 The fragment is a phrase, a group of words that does not contain a subject-verb
unit. Many times, phrases are easy to identify. For example:
 A small, horrible adventure
 Found in the Park Mall
 The poorest woman Africa
 Two types of phrases can be a bit trickier to spot, however, because they contain
words that look like verbs but aren’t acting as part of a valid subject-verb unit:
 The boy eating an apple
 The fruit that cleaned

6. 2. Strategies for Fixing Fragments

In order to turn a fragment into a complete sentence, you have a couple of

options. The first one is when writers simply need to combine a fragment with a
neighboring sentence to produce a grammatically complete meaningful and
functional sentence while the second option is when they need to complete the
sentence by supplying the missing subject or verb, or by attaching an independent
clause. Examples:

Fragment Complete Sentence

 Though they are intelligent  Though they are intelligent, they did not
 Students did that error too. But answered well. First option
only when they did not revise  Students did that error too, but only when
well. they did not revise well.
 The boy eating an apple  The boy was eating an apple
 My chatty next door neighbor.  My chatty next door neighbor loves to
She loves to gossip. gossip.

Grammar concepts about fragment to know:

 Fragment—a group of words, punctuated as a sentence, that does not express a
complete thought
 Subordinating conjunction—a joining word that creates a dependent clause
 Dependent clause as sentence fragments -A dependent, or subordinate, clause
cannot stand by itself as a sentence; it needs an independent clause to support it.
Even they contain a subject and a verb, their meaning is incomplete.
 Before we went on to the next project
 Whenever this company changes its policies
 Subordinating Conjunctions –they are used to modify an independent clause
in some way; and join it with a dependent clause. If a group of words that would
normally be a complete sentence is preceded by a subordinating conjunction,

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 something more is needed to complete the thought. In the sentences that follow,
each of those fragments has been rewritten to express a complete thought.
Notice that each sentence now has both an independent and a dependent clause.
The dependent clauses are in bold.
 If they left a minute earlier than usual, they could not catch up their train.
 When our teacher finished his lesson, he left the classroom immediately.
 Whenever Ann did her best tried to introduce herself, she failed.

7. Semantic Meaning of Conjunctions

Conjunctions have a remarkable capacity for expressing a variety of meanings.

So it is necessary to know which conjunction to use and in which sense in a particular
construction. See the table below.
Conjunction Semantic Meanings Examples
And plus/addition Five and ten is fifteen.
also/in addition to He is young and beautiful.
sequence She took out his gun and fired.
result/consequence Give me blood and I give you love.
purpose She arrived here and saw her father.
continuing process She can dance for days.
gradual increase/decrease He is getting worse and worse.
contrast There are pupils and pupils.
contrast/concession He is poor but honest.
But yet/however/in spite of He worked hard but he failed
disagreement/surprise You like her very much but me no.
alternative He will buy a car or a bus.
Or negative condition (if not) Start early or you miss the train.
negative condition She has no car or bus.
No/not/never Positive choice He will eat either ice or bread.
Either or Negative choice He likes neither fish nor milk.

Summary

 Conjunctions are the scotch tape of the grammatical world. They join together
words and phrases. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating
conjunctions, conjunctions subordinating, and correlative conjunctions.
 Coordination and subordination join two sentences with related ideas.

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 Coordination joins sentences with related and equal ideas, whereas subordination
joins sentences with related but unequal ideas.
 Sentences can be coordinated using either a coordinating conjunction and a
comma or a conjunctive adverb and a semicolon.
 Subordinate sentences are characterized by the use of a subordinate conjunction.
 In a subordinate sentence, a comma is used to separate the main clause from the
dependent clause if the dependent clause is placed at the beginning of the
sentence.
 Prepositions and conjunctions are both invariable in form.
 Conjunctions, like prepositions, are also joining words or connectives because
their function in a sentence is to connect the modifier with the thing it modifies.
Conjunctions are like prepositions but they are different from them in their scope
in a sentence. Prepositions join two words while conjunctions join two words,
phrases, clauses and sentences.

Exercise 1

Direction: Read and Underline the conjunctions, circle the nouns/pronouns that
complete them in the following sentences. Check your answers in the answer
key.
1. Although she missed the bus, she and Lily still arrived on time.
2. Andy bought it because he liked it yet he never wore it.
3. Betty or Fran will bring the books which you wanted.
4. The waiter who served our lunch was really nice but slow.
5. I saw the nests that the robins built both on the porch and in the tree.
6. Until we see it, we won’t believe it.
7. If you are ready, we can leave so we will be on time.
8. When they had finished, they gave it to the teacher.
9. Roller blades and skateboards are very popular.
10. CDs are great because they have good quality sound.

Exercise 2

Direction: Complete the following sentences with and, but or or.

1. I asked for some bread ………1…… butter.
2. Mr. ……2……… Mrs. Stephan have three children.
3. Marry is a good singer ……3……… a poor dancer.
4. We wish you a Merry Christmas ……4……… a Happy New Year.
5. Is their new baby a boy ……5……… a girl?
6. The book has 2000 words ……6………. 300 drawings.
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 7. Susan is taller than Ann ……7…… shorter than Marry.
8. Are you going by car ……8……… by bus?

Exercise 3
Direction: Copy these sentences and underline the subordinate conjunctions you
can find.
1. Since the maple trees were damaged in the storm, they will be cut down.
2. I wonder why they are leaving so early.
3. Mark knows more than I do about that case.
4. It isn’t certain whether they will come or not.
5. The engineer from Mainframe explained how they would build the bridge.
6. Before they read the instructions, they couldn’t fix it themselves.
7. After the lecture, the students asked if they could stay.
8. Although he is stronger, he couldn’t turn it.
9. Because you were late, you missed it.
10. Thieves broke in while we were away.
11. The roads were slippery because the snow was followed by rain.
12. Although it was quite sunny, the wind was cool.
13. I don’t know how I will get there.
14. If you are short, you can’t reach that cupboard.
15. The story explained why people believed in the ghost.
16. He always talks as if he were an expert.
17. Unless the Leafs win this game, they are out of the playoffs.
18. Les is five inches taller than I am.
19. After he won the gold medal, he turned pro.
20. You just answered my questions before I asked them.
Exercise 4

Direction: In each sentence below find the conjunction and underline it. On the
line at the right, tell whether the conjunction connects adverbs, adjectives,
nouns, or groups of words.

1. My sister and the girl will play.

2. The man was tall and handsome.
3. Either Don or Ned is coming.
4. You may leave, but he must remain.
5. He left quickly and quietly.
6. No one else came, but we finished the project.

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 7. The cat pounced silently but surely.
8. The weather was clear but cold.
9. The wind was cold, and I knew winter had arrived.
10. Either John or Henry is to blame.

Exercise 5

Circle the conjunctions and underline which parts of the sentence are connected.
Decide whether they are connecting two complete ideas, just two words of the same
part of speech, or a contrast.
 Example: Tony is out today, but he will return tomorrow. but—contrast The sun
is shining brightly, and we are going to the beach. and—two ideas
1. The sky is gray, and it is going to rain.
2. We want to see that new movie, but not tonight.
3. Rudi wants to be a doctor, so he is taking a number of science courses this
semester.
4. The doctor can see you Monday, but you have to be here no later than 8:00 a.m.
5. I don’t know how to dance, nor do I intend to learn.
6. Maritza doesn’t have enough money for the trip, yet she really wants to go.
7. My sister just bought some dishes and glasses for her new house.
8. I wish you a lot of luck, for I know you will need it.
9. The diplomat can’t speak Russian nor Italian.
10. Jason ordered the part for his car, but it hasn’t come in.
11. We have a test in an hour, and we have to study a lot now.
12. The Howard family is going away for the holidays, but they have not made
reservations yet.
13. The team has bought uniforms, helmets, and gloves.
14. Go now and pay later.
15. I will study chemistry or algebra in the fall, but not both.

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 Parts of Speech: Interjections
Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about interjections as the last parts of speech. It provides the
conceptual as well as technical frameworks of interjections to identify their
classification and uses in English sentence. The lecture counts on the definitions,
uses and examples.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this unit, they should be able, among
other things, to;
1. Define the part of speech known as interjections.
2. List the most common interjections.
3. Show the relationship of interjections with other related words in a sentence.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through interjections.

Introduction

Nowadays, students just know interjection as just separate and independent

unit. They said that interjection is the simplest of parts of speech because we just
have to look at the exclamation mark in the end of words, phrases or sentences to
know that it is an interjection but that students did not know that interjection is not as
simple as they thought. Interjection has kinds, classification, function, form, meaning
and etc. So in speaking English, we have to pay attention in using interjection. In fact,
in conversation sometimes students use utterances that grammatically have no
connection with the previous or next sentences. They use it to express their feeling or
perform a certain sense, it is called interjection.
1. Definition of Interjection

Interjections are words, group of words, sounds or filled pause used to express
strong feelings, emotions, sudden sensations, mental state, attitude, communicative
intention and fill a pause in a conversation on the part of the speaker when he
encounters suddenly events that cause some emotions. They are words or sounds
thrown into sentences to express some feeling and state of the mind. Interjections can
stand alone as a separate unit or be added to a sentence. When added to sentence, the
interjection does not change the meaning of the sentence, and are usually followed by
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exclamation marks (when the emotion is strong). When woven into a sentence, the
interjection usually change or affect the meaning of the sentence, they are usually
followed by commas (when the emotion is mild). It is worth to mention that
interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or Ah! They have no real
grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in
writing.

Furthermore, interjections are sudden outcry or exclamation

introduced into a discussion, usually without grammatical connection with
the sentences surrounding it. That is why they are the easiest part of speech to
find in a sentence. They are straightforward and simple to use because they are not
related to any other word in the sentence. In daily conversation, consciously or
unconsciously people always involve interjection in it. Historically, nevertheless,
they are often entirely ignored, or at best, regarded as being extremely
marginal, anomalous, and grammatically peripheral to the language
system itself which is relatively noticeable in modern grammars. See the
following examples for more clarification.
 Aha, it is there. Here we say this interjection when someone finds something
spontaneously.
 Wow! Did you see that she wrote in her e-mail message?
 Oops! I forgot to send the attachment.
 Gracious! It sounds quite good.
 Oh! I could not catch it.
 My goodness! That is so funny, amazing and interesting.

 Interjections = Ignites = "Ignites the message with an exclamation of

emotions"
 The word "interjection" means "inserting or putting between."
 Since interjections are properly linguistic elements, with rich semantic
structures. However, whilst the grammarians agreed that since they have real
semantic structure; interjections are classified as part of speech.

2. Characteristics of Interjections

Interjections are one of the eight parts of speech. As one of the part of speech,
interjections have certain characteristics which can make it easier to recognize them.

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  Interjections often serve no purpose except to express emotion or to get the
attention of other people. They are used in private conversation and informal
writing. They are usually not used in business letters and formal writing.
 Interjections usually have a position in the beginning of a sentence, but it is also
possible to have them in the very end of a sentence.
 Interjections are independent that can stand on their own as utterances.
 Interjections are context-bound linguistic signs.
 Interjections tend to be phonologically anomalous.
 Interjections do not normally take inflections or derivations. They are also
morphologically anomalous.
 Do not overuse interjections. Include only one if you want to make your point.

3. Kinds of Interjections

3. 1. Primary Interjections

Primary Interjections are little words or non-words which can stand on its
own. Primary Interjections may be made up of sounds and sounds sequences that are
not found in other parts of the language such as tut-tut, Psst!, Sh!, and etc. They
consist of one word and they do not enter into syntactic constructions of the language,
they form a fairly a closed set of words. Primary interjections are words that cannot
be used in any other sense than as an interjection. Furthermore, their scale extends
from spontaneous onomatopoetic ad hoc formations to conversational lexical items
of foreign origin. One of the defining features of a primary interjection is
that it is a linguistic sign “which is not homophonous with another lexical
item that would be perceived as semantically related to it”, or perhaps
“which is not homophonous with other lexical items whose meaning would
be included in its own meaning, that is, in the meaning of the interjection.
These interjections tend to be phonologically and morphologically
anomalous because they are non-productive words or items in the sense that they
do not inflect and are not movable between different word-classes. For example,
Ouch!, Wow!, Gee!, Oho!, Oops!, etc. Example in sentence:
 Oho, I have another cake! Wow!
 You look extraordinary today Ouch!
 This plant hurts me Oops!

3. 2. Secondary Interjections
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 Secondary Interjections are those words which have independent semantic
values but can be used conventionally as utterances by themselves to express a
mental attitude or state. These interjections are fixed unit derived from words
or phrases mainly nouns, noun phrases, imperative that have developed
pragmatic meaning related to subjectivity or discourse structuring. The
examples of secondary interjections are alarm calls and attention getters like Help!
Fire! Careful!, etc. Swearing, oaths, pious wishes, greeting formulas and taboo words
like damn! Hell!, Heavens!, Christ! And other emotively used words such as Shame!
Bother! …….…... it is worth to note that both types of interjection are syntactically
independent, in that they can constitute an utterance by themselves, and are only
loosely integrated into the grammar of the clause containing them. Examples:

 It is very heavy bag. Help!

 The dangerous terrorist is there. Fire!
 Careful! The car is going to crash.
4. Punctuation Guides for Interjections
Strong interjections such as "Good," "Hey," "Hooray," "Ouch," and "Wow" are
punctuated with an exclamation point (!). The first word following the exclamation
point is capitalized because it is the first word of the next sentence. Example: "Hey!
What are you doing out there?" "Hey" is a strong interjection and is followed by an
exclamation point.

Weaker interjections such as "Ah," "Alas," "Oh," and "Well" are followed by a
comma and become part of the following sentence. The word after the comma is not
capitalized (unless it is the pronoun "I" or a proper noun) because it is a continuation
of the sentence. Examples: "Oh, what a beautiful day!" "Well, I am not surprised."

5. The Most Common Interjections

aw! goodness! oops! well! ah!

bravo! gracious! ouch! whoops owe some!
dear me! gosh! rats! wow! oh boy!
ouch! hey! really yeh! super!
yuck! oh! ugh! yes! never!
oh my oh my God! ah! sorry! god grief!
goodness! shut up! thank God! yups! no way!

Summary

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 Interjections are little words or non-words which can stand on their own and have
their own word class. They can be inserted randomly into any sentence.
 Interjections are conventionalized vocal gestures (or more generally linguistics
gestures) which express a speaker's mental state, action or attitude or reaction.
 Interjection may also be directed at someone to acquire a desired reaction, for
example to stop an action or to serve communicative intentions more broadly.
 Interjections do not have any particularly well-defined relationship with the rest of
the sentences. In fact, when diagramming sentences the interjections are best
ignored. However, they are not difficult to spot. In writing interjections are often
separated from the rest of the sentence by the punctuation mark. So they that
they do not bear grammatical relationships to other phenomena in
language.
 Interjections are not used in the academic language. They are used only in the
personal and private language forms.

Exercise 1

Direction: Find out the interjection in each sentence.

1. Oh! What shall I do now?
2. Alas! She is no more.
3. Ah! They have left me alone.
4. Hush! The baby is sleeping.
5. Bravo! You deserve this prize.
6. What! Is he again late?
Exercise 2

Direction: Read and Underline the interjections in the following sentences.

Check your answers in the answer key.
1. Wow, did you see that jet!
2. Oh no! He lost the puck.
3. Ouch! That hurts.
4. No! Don’t touch the brake.
5. Yuck, I hate boiled cabbage.
Exercise 3
Direction: Suggest an appropriate interjection for each of the following
sentences in the space provided. Many suggestions are possible.
1. . ………..! I smashed my hand with the hammer.
2. …………, all right, Ann.

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 3. ………… ! We have finally beaten that famous football team!
4. ….............. take it easy, Stephan!
5. .…..……., I think we better look over this case immediately.
6. . …..……. I forgot to take out the bag this morning.
7. ……..…… ! The tickets for his scene are incredibly expensive!
8. ……..….... ! You did so well in tonight’s school play!
9. ……..…… ! You have no freedom to say that to him!
10. . …………, now I see what you are trying to do.
11. . …..…… I am not very interested on that idea.
12. .……..….., what did Ann say about her tryout?
13. ………..... ! Does your foot still hurt from the accident?
14. …………. ! Get away from my house, John!
15. . ,……….. this drink is absolutely delicious!

Exercise 4: Mixed Parts of Speech

Direction: Identify the part of speech of every word in each sentence.

1. We jogged quickly through the dark woods.

2. Most of the students listened politely.
3. She was giving a short but interesting lecture.
4. We bought a very small quantity of food yesterday.
5. The wind was cold, but the sun was really warm.
6. This book cost six dollars.
7. Sheila and he were talking to her when it happened.
8. The American fishermen caught two salmon for lunch.
9. Turn at the lights and go two blocks west.
10. Eric and they learned very quickly.

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 Parts of Speech: Parts of the Sentence
Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about parts of the sentence. It provides the conceptual as well as
technical frameworks of the parts or constituents of a sentence. The lecture counts
on the ranks scale of the constituents of a sentence such as clauses, phrases, words
and morphemes from higher units to smaller units.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed the unit of English sentence, they
should be able, among other things, to;
1. Define the term sentence.
2. List the kinds of English sentence.
3. Recognize the different structure of English sentence.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through clauses,
phrases, words and morphemes.

Introduction

Now after a detailed study of the various important parts of speech we move on to the
study of sentence parts or constituents. The grammar of a language can be described
in terms of these six units which are hierarchically organized from the smallest unit to
the largest unit as follows:

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 The main categories or levels of English sentence are:-
First Level ➔ morpheme or Sounds
Second Level ➔ Words
Third Level ➔ Clauses
Fourth Level ➔ Phrases
Fifth Level ➔ Sentences
Sixth Level ➔ Paragraphs

The main parts of grammar we are concerned with in this chapter are the parts or
constituents of the sentence: clauses, phrases, groups, words and morphemes. For
example, a clause is made up of smaller units like phrases and groups, which are in
turn made up of words. It is worth to note that a morpheme is part of a word, a word
is part of a group or phrase, and a group or phrase is part of a clause. Although the
clause is the highest grammatical rank, it may combine with a second or more clauses
to from a clause-complex. Note that a sentence and a clause-complex are not
necessarily the same since a sentence may consist of one clause only, or several
clauses.
1. The Morpheme
Morphemes are each of the individually meaningful units found in words. In turn,
morphemes are not further divisible into smaller units of meaning. This is why a
morpheme is often defined as the smallest meaningful unit of linguistic analysis, as
shown in these words: over•re•act•ed, re•mark•able, im•possible, ir•regular, play•s
play•ing ………………………….
Morphemes are parts of words and are the smallest grammatical units. In English,
there are three main types of morphemes: root, inflectional and derivational. See
the table below for more details.
Root Morpheme Inflectional Morpheme Derivational Morpheme
It is about a word They provide information They allow you to shift
which consists of a about things such as tense, word class to another.
root morpheme only. voice in the verb group and Examples: general =
science number in the noun group. generally
released = release + ed explore = exploration
class = class +s

2. The Word

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 Words are the free units of meaning that belong in the vocabulary of a
language, typically any of the elements listed in a dictionary “the sign of an idea”.
This definition views words as dictionary entries or lexemes and is acceptable as a
general principle, as shown in these words: speak, John, street, cake, do
……………………………………in short, words are independent units. They are
divided into some classes according to how they work within phrases, clauses and
sentences. These divisions are called as Parts of Speech or Word Classes.
Furthermore, words are either primitive or derivative as shown in the table below.
class Explanation
Primitive or Primitive or Radical word is one in no way derived from
Radical word another in the same language; as, mind, faith.
Derivative word A Derivative word is one formed by joining to a primitive
some letter or syllable to modify its meaning; as, re-mind,
faith-ful.
A Compound word A Compound word is one formed by uniting two or more
primitive or derivative words; as, man worship, Anglo-
Saxon.

3. The Phrases or Groups

Traditionally speaking, a “phrase” is defined as “a group of words that does not
contain a verb and its subject and is used as a single part of speech.” A phrase is a
combination of two or more words. This definition entails three characteristics:
1. It specifies that only a group of words can constitute a phrase, implying that a
single word cannot;
2. It distinguishes phrases from clauses; and
3. It requires that the groups of words believed to be a phrase constitute a single
grammatical unit.
We accept (2) and (3), but must revise and reject the idea (1) which says that single
words cannot constitute phrases. First, a word and a phrase may play identical
grammatical roles in a clause, as (1) and (2) demonstrate. Consider the following two
sentences:
 (1) Most of the members of the genus avis fly.
 (2) Birds fly.
Reminder
Consequently, the best definition of “phrase” as: a phrase is a grammatical unit,
intermediate between a word and a clause, which may consist of just one word (its
head) or its head and expressions (including other phrases) that modify or
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complement it. This definition retains the traditional distinctions between word and
phrase and between phrase and clause. It adds the requirement that phrases have
heads and allows a phrase to consist of just its head. See the section of clauses for
more details.

3. 1. Group
A group is an extension of a word: a group of words with a particular function in
the clause. A group consists of a head word plus any word which add information to
the head like modifiers. The head usually presents the most crucial information in the
group. There are a number of different types of groups in English, as shown in the
table below.
Type of Group Examples
Noun The classes, those biology classes, those two biology classes we
attended last week.
Verb took, had taken, would have taken
Adverb quickly, more quickly, much more quickly
Conjunction even if, as soon as, almost as soon as
Preposition right behind, immediately in front of

4. The Clauses
A clause consists of a group “collection” of words which contains a subject
and a verb. A clause contains only one subject and one verb. A clause may form part
of a sentence or it may be a complete sentence in itself. Clauses are divided into two
types just as follows:
4. 1. Independent Clause
Independent clause functions on its own to make a meaningful sentence. A
main clause is a group of words that contains a verb and a subject which makes
complete sense on its own. A main clause can form a complete sentence on its own.
They appear like regular sentences most of the time and are also called as the
principal or main clause. An independent clause can also be part of a multi-clause
sentence. An independent clause has a subject and a predicate which are the 2 main
parts of a sentence. A predicate adds information about the subject. If the clause
could stand by itself, and form a complete sentence with punctuation, we call the
clause an independent clause. For example, I want to buy a cup of coffee, but I
don’t have enough money. Now in this sentence, there are two clauses and both are
independent clauses because they make sense if used as a separate sentence on its
own. That is, both ‘I want to buy a cup of coffee’ and ‘I don’t have enough money’

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can function as separate sentences. The following expressions are all are independent
clauses:
 The teacher explains the lesson.
 We wore our shirts.
 The sun was scorching.
4. 2. Dependent Clauses
The clause that can't stand independently by itself is called "Dependent clause". It has
a subject and a doing a verb, but they have a subordinate conjunction placed in
front of the clause. In other words, the dependent clause is dependent upon another
clause--it can't make a complete sentence by itself, even though it has a subject doing
a verb. A dependent clause cannot function on its own because it leaves an idea or
thought unfinished. It is also called as a subordinate clause. Here are some examples
of dependent clauses:
 After I arrived home, I prepared my meal. (dependent clause: "After I arrived
home") (independent clause: I prepared my meal)
 When I revised well my lesson, I got good average. (dependent clause: "When
I revised well my lesson") (Independent clause: I got good average.)
 You will succeed if you work hard. . (Independent clause: "if you work hard")
(Dependent clause: you will succeed.)

Grammar Point: How do we recognize clauses?

A clause usually expresses a single idea. It is a group of words which seem to go
together and it contains a main verb. Furthermore, it is quite easy to identify clauses
in a sentence if the sentence contains only one clause: the capital letter at the
beginning of the sentence signals the beginning of the clause and the full stop at the
end of the sentence indicates the end of the clause.
5. Sentence

Traditionally, grammars define a sentence in such terms as ‘the complete

expression of a single thought’. Modern studies avoid this emphasis, because of the
difficulties involved in saying what ‘thoughts’ are. An egg can express a thought, but
it would not be considered a complete sentence. I shut the door, as it was cold is one
sentence, but it could easily be analyzed as two thoughts. Some traditional grammars
give a logical definition to the sentence. The most common approach proposes that a
sentence has a ‘subject’ (=the topic) and a ‘predicate (= what is being said about
the topic). Thus, English sentence for many people ‘begin with a capital letter and
end with a full stop’ (or some other marks of punctuation).
A sentence is the basic unit of written English communication. A sentence is a
collection of words assembled in such an order that they present a complete thought
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or idea. A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a punctuation mark.
Sentences are utterances that have a minimum structure of the subject (S) and
Predicate (P) and the intonation shows that the utterances are already complete with
meaning the type of punctuation mark terminating the sentence indicates the kind of
sentence. A sentence construction is a collection of words that convey sense or
meaning and is formed according to the logic of grammar. A simple sentence is made
up of two parts, a subject and a predicate. Every complete sentence contains two
parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about,
while the predicate tells us something about the subject.

Important reminder:
 Morphemes are the “minimum lexical units” and basic elements in words.
↓
 Words are “minimum meaningful lexical units”.
↓
 Phrases are “grammatically & semantically incomplete”.
↓
 Clauses are “Grammatically incomplete, but semantically complete”.
↓ ↑
 Sentences “Grammatically and semantically complete”.
6. Sentence Kinds
Generally, there are three types of sentences from structural point of view, that is to
say depending on the number and types of clauses that are used in a sentence. These
are: Simple, Compound, Complex and Complex Compound sentences.
6. 1. Simple Sentence
A simple sentence consists of a single independent clause; a clause contains a
single verb (or predicate). The subject consists of the subject itself and the
enlargement of the subject through modifiers. The object consists of verb,
complement, and object, modifiers of the object or adverbial extension. It also has
only one independent clause and states one idea. It may contain other parts of speech
such as modifiers or preposition phrases. It may also contain a compound subject or a
compound verb. The following are examples of simple sentences:
 The teacher explains the lesson.
 Ann washed the dishes.
 Stephan assembles a new grill.
 The prices have gone down.
 He was standing at the train station.
Each of these sentences contain only one verb, but you can see that a verb itself can
consist of a single word (as in explains, washed and assemble) or of more than one
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word (as in have gone and was standing). The clauses just cited here are called
sentences because they stand independently as simple sentences; if they were
incorporated into other sentences, they would be called clauses. In English, the
central element in a clause is the verb; each clause--and therefore each simple
sentence--contains just one verb. Furthermore, the simple sentences are classified into
declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory.

6. 2. Compound (Coordinate) Sentences

A sentence which consists of two or more co-ordinate clauses is called a
Compound Sentence. It has two or more independent clauses combined by a
connecting, coordinating word, conjunction, comma and semicolon. It should be
noted that an independent clause is a clause that has a subject and verb and forms a
complete thought. The compound sentence does not have any subordinate or
dependent clause.
Sentences with clauses of equal importance are called compound sentences.
The connecting words are called conjunctions. When clauses are combined to form a
single sentence we generally reverse the word sentence for larger structure and refer
to the structures that make it up as clauses. Here two clauses can be joined to make a
coordinate sentence, as in these examples:
 Karim assembled the new grill and Joe cooked the hot dog.
 Stephan bought a new coat but he didn’t wear it often.
 She went to the kindergarten and found the children there.
 The doctor examined the patient and prescribed him some drugs.
 They looked at the poor widow and she started crying.
 She tried hard but failed in his attempt.
The clauses in coordinate sentence hold equal status as parts of the sentence;
neither is part of the other one and each could stand by itself as an independent
sentence. The table below represents the structure of a coordinate sentence and
illustrates the equivalent status of the clauses (called coordinate clauses). We use the
label big (S) for both clauses who united to constitute the whole compound sentence
and small (s) for each coordinate clause in it; CONJ stands for conjunction.

(S) Sentence
Whole Compound Sentence
Independent Clause 1 + Independent Clause 2
(s) Sentence Conj (s) Sentence
Independent Clause or Independent Clause or
Simple Sentence Simple Sentence
1. Karim assembled the new grill. and 1. Joe cooked the hot dog.
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2. Stephan bought a new coat but 2. He didn’t wear it often.
3. She went to the kindergarten and 3. She found the children there.
4. The doctor examined the patient and 4. They prescribed him some drugs.
5. They looked at the poor widow. and 5. She started crying.
6. She tried hard. but 6. She failed in his attempt.
When the independent clause from column A is united with the independent clause
in column B by the conjunction the together they form a compound sentence.

6. 3. Complex Sentence
A sentence which consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate or
dependent clauses is called a Complex Sentences. In this sentence one clause is
independent and it is called the main clause. The other clause or clauses forming part
of the complex sentence is dependent and it is called a subordinate clause (s). The
main clause contains the main verb and is not dependent on the other clauses (s) for
its meaning. The subordinate clause expresses an idea which is dependent on the
main idea. A subordinate clause (s) is/are less important than the main clause.
Sentences with clauses of unequal importance are called complex sentences. The
conjunction used to combine the clauses of a complex sentence is called subordinate
conjunction. It explains the relationship of one clause to the other. The clause her
uncle put the gifts in the car can be incorporated into another clause to produce
sentence she did not suspect a party until her uncle put the gifts in the car. In each
of the following examples, the bold portion is a clause that is incorporated (or
embedded) into another clause:
 She didn’t suspect a party until her uncle put the gifts in the car.
 When she went there, I found the baby sleeping.
 If you respect my instructions I will help you.
 Although Ann has some suspicions, she found the exam very easy.
Complex sentence sometimes is introduced by subordinators. In most of the examples
given, the embedded clause is introduced by a word that would not occur there if the
clause were standing as an independent sentence: words like until, when, if and
although. When a clause is embedded into another clause, it is often introduced by
such subordinator. Subordinators serve to mark the beginning of an embedded
clause and to help identify its function in the sentence.

6. 4. Complex Compound Sentence

A complex-compound sentence is made from two independent clauses and one or
more dependent clauses. To master the Compound-complex sentences, one has to
master the simple sentences, compound sentences, and complex sentences first. See
the sentences below:
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  Although I like to visit Algiers, I haven't had enough time, and I haven't met
any transport means to go there. The grammatical analysis of this sentence
would suggest that the different clauses are as follows:
 Independent clause is I haven't had enough time
 Independent clause is I haven't met any transport means to go there.
 Dependent clause is although I like to visit Algiers ………………………..

Important Note
Complex sentences help you combine ideas in an interesting way. When you use
them with other sentence types in your writing, the variety helps you avoid
choppiness and dull repetition. Each sentence type has a set number of clauses:
 Simple sentences have one independent clause.
 Compound sentences have at least two independent clauses.
 Complex sentences have one independent clause and at least one dependent
clause.
 Compound-complex sentences have at least two independent clauses and at
least one dependent clause.

7. Paragraph

Paragraph is a distinct section of a piece of writing. In other words, a paragraph is

a sentences or a group of sentence which conveys one main idea. Paragraphs help the
writer to organize his thoughts during the writing process. It is also used to section
out a larger piece of writing and thereby making it easier to read as well as
understand
A good paragraph is made up of a key sentence (or a topic sentence), relevant
supporting sentences and a closing sentence (or a transition sentence). So the
beginning of a paragraph conveys the main idea or topic of the paragraph. And the
core content is usually in the middle of the paragraph while the ending of a paragraph
either provides a shift to the next paragraph or a conclusion on the topic discussed
within the paragraph. While organizing ideas and writing a paragraph, one should
keep in mind the following points:
1. Ensure that the paragraph has a topic sentence.
2. Make sure that the supporting sentences are in line with the topic sentence and
don’t stray from the main idea.
3. Ensure that a proper closing sentence is there at the end of the paragraph.
Summary

The grammar of English language can be described in terms of a number of units

which are hierarchically organized from the smallest to the largest are as follows:

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 Morpheme: as the smallest meaningful unit of linguistic analysis, as shown in
these words: over•re•act•ed, re•mark•able, im•possible ………………………….
 Word: as the free units of meaning that belong in the vocabulary of a language, as
shown in these words: language, business, visit …………………………...………
 Phrase: as one word or more that belongs or belong together and fulfill one
specific syntactic function, as shown here: the man, the old man ………………….
 Clause: as a collection of words that has a subject that is actively doing a verb.
They are of two kinds: Independent Clause which could stand by itself, and form
a complete sentence with punctuation. Dependent Clause that can't stand
independently by itself and is has a subject doing a verb.
 Sentence: as the largest and most complex unit of grammatical description since it
does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself. Although there are
larger stretches of language.
 Compound Sentence: as composed of two or more co-ordinate clauses. It has two
or more independent clauses combined by a connecting word.
 Complex Sentence: as composed of one main or independent clause and one or
more subordinate or dependent clauses.
 Complex Compound Sentence: as made from two independent clauses and one
or more dependent clauses. To this point, the syntactical and grammatical analysis
is over. What is beyond these construction such as paragraphs and texts, these
cannot be properly assigned a grammatical structure and must be analyzed using
specific descriptive tools which are the subject matter of other linguistic branches
like text grammar or discourse analysis.
 Paragraph: Paragraph is a distinct section of a piece of writing. In other words, a
paragraph is a sentences or a group of sentence which conveys one main idea.
 Essay: it is a group of paragraphs.
Exercise 1
 First, underline the main verb in each clause in the sentence.
 Second, circle any conjunction and /or punctuation which suggest clause
boundaries.
 Third, use the symbol // to mark the clause boundaries include the
conjunction in the second or third clause.
1. Children are nor born with standards froe valuating behavior, social skills or
moral values.
2. As I have suggested, the non-addicted parent is involved in a co-dependent
relationship with the addicted child.
3. Over this period, the population in Algeria decreased twice while the population
in the whole of France increased thrice.

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 4. If we conceptualize caring as a finite set of caring behaviors, then caring can be
examined in the traditional scientific way, even though this approach may not be
acceptable in some circles.
5. This space constraint has led to a number of problems and these do not seem
capable of being resolved although everyone is willing to be involved.

Exercise 2

Underline the prepositional phrases in the following sentences.

1. The interest rate in Algeria fell from 25 per cent in 2013 to 20 per cent in 2020.
2. Disposable annual incomes rose by 3.2 per cent between 2020 and 2022.
3. Algerians consumers have begun to spend more money in luxury items than in
essential good.
4. Throughout this decade, consumption has been steadily growing.
5. Consumer credit card access has led to higher spending in the retail sector.
6. The government is optimistic about Algerians economic future.

Exercise 3

Underline and circle the noun groups in the following sentences. Remember that
a noun group may consist of a single noun.

1. Several policies have been set by the government, at all levels, to assist low
income households.
2. The lowest nutrient intake value have been found among those people who had
never attended school or gone beyond primary school.
3. Because e the agar solution tends to evaporate during subsequent incubation,
the edges of the coverslip were sealed to the slide with paraffin.
4. One of the policies produced by the Waverly Municipal Council aimed at
retaining the function of boarding/lodging houses as low income
accommodation and controlling the establishment of tourist accommodation
was gazetted in the Waverly Local Environmental Plan in 1985.

Exercise 4

 Underline the verb groups in the following text.

 Circle the head verb in each verb group.
 Use these verb groups “and the other cues like punctuation and conjunction”
to locate the clause boundaries in sentences with more than one clause.

If we look at any structure of any cell, we can see a nucleus; the nucleus is the cell
controlling center and directs the cell activities. Without it a cell will die. The
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instructions for the cell activities are contained in the chromosomes. Chromosomes
can be seen under a light microscope when a cell is dividing. On biochemical analysis
we discover that chromosomes are composed of proteins and nucleic acid DNA.
DNA contains coded chemical instructions and directs the growth, differentiation and
functioning of a cell. Each type of organism has particular number of chromosomes
in each of its nuclei.

Exercise 5

Change the following words to the word class indicated. Mostly this will require
you to use a derivational morpheme.

1 different (adjective)
2 cell (noun)
3 regulate (verb)
4 description (noun)
5 model (noun)
6 respiration (noun)
7 measure (noun)

Articles: Indefinite Article

Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about the English indefinite article. It provides the conceptual as
well as technical frameworks of English indefinite article to identify their
classification and uses in English sentence. The unit provides the definitions,
conventions, uses and non-uses of English indefinite article.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed the unit of indefinite article, they
should be able, among other things, to;
1. Define the term English articles.
2. List the main aspects of form of English indefinite article.
3. Be familiar with the basic use and omissions of English indefinite article.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through indefinite
articles.

Introduction into Articles

Articles are small words that are often used at the beginning “before” of a
noun word or a noun phrase. In English language, it is widely agreed that there are
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three kinds of articles. These articles are indefinite and definite beside zero. The three
kinds are as follows:

 “The” is known as the Definite Article or Definite Singular

 “A” or “An” is called the Indefinite Article or Indefinite Singular
 “0” or “no article” is referred to as Null article, Zero Article or Indefinite
Plural

In order to use articles properly and correctly, students have to understand the
meanings of the following two concepts English nouns "see the unit of nouns and the
table below for more details" and definiteness versus indefiniteness or "specificity".

1. English nouns

Type of the Noun Quality Examples

Countable  Have plural  bird, birds
 Must have a determiner in singular  abird
 In plural, it is with or without a
 birds, the birds
determiner
Uncountable  No plural  Happiness
 Usually no determiner  equipment
Singular  No plural  The moon
 Need a determiner  A day
Plural  No singular  Clothes, scissors
Collective  Either singular or plural verb  The public,
Proper  Start with capital letter  London, John
 Specific and particular

2. Definiteness versus Indefiniteness

Definiteness is always compared and contrasted with the term indefiniteness.

They are the features of noun phrases, distinguishing between definite noun phrases
and indefinite noun phrases. So the definite noun phrases are specific and identifiable
in a particular context while the indefinite noun phrases are not specific and not
identifiable. In short, a definite noun phrase is a noun phrase referred to a particular
individual in a specific reference way indicating that both the speaker /writer and the
hearer/ listener know what is talked about while an indefinite noun is a noun phrase
referred to an individual in a general context way indicating that the speaker does not
identify the things or people and the hearer does not know or share any detail about
the thing or people being spoken about.

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 Definiteness is associated with the knowledge shared by the speaker /writer and
the listener / hearer. English articles, which can determine the features of noun
phrases, are seen as the prototypes of definiteness and indefiniteness criteria. The
table below illustrates that there are four possible conditions involved for the term
definiteness and indefiniteness in this discussion.

Matrix of Definiteness and Indefiniteness

Do the speaker and his listener Know specifically what is being referred to?
Speaker /Writer Listener /Reader

Definite Can I use the car in the park? Yes Yes

Indefinite I saw a funny looking dog Yes No
today.
Indefinite I heard that you once wrote a No Yes
booklet about business.
indefinite I need to buy a new belt in No No
that huge market.

3. Definition of Articles

Broadly speaking, English article is one kind of determiners. Determiners are

words which specify the range of reference of a noun in two ways: making the noun
definite "the book" or making the noun indefinite "a book". Strictly speaking,
English Article is a word which points out a person, place or thing spoken of. In
other words:

 The Definite "Specific" Article "the" points out some particular person, place
or thing being referred to as definite. Or it "identifies" modifies a specific noun or
a noun that the reader / listener is already familiar with. In short, the definite
article restricts the noun and narrows it down to one specific thing.
 The Indefinite "Non-Specific" Article "a" and "an" points out any person,
place or thing being referred to. Or it modifies a general noun or a noun that the
reader / listener is not already familiar with. In short, indefinite article is not
referring to a specific thing but to a general idea.

Grammar Points
 Words: they are sentence elements which affect the meaning of some related
words in sentences. Here they affect nouns because they act as adjectives.

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  Small or Little words: they are among the smallest words in English language
either in spelling or sound forms.
 Grammatical words: they play more the grammatical function in sentences
more than the semantic function.
 Adjectives: they have the same role as adjectives since they belong to
adjectives. So they restrict the application of a noun in a sentence by adding
something to its meaning.
 Determiners: articles are words used to identify what people are talked about in
the discourse. So they are words which specify the range of reference of a noun
as definite or indefinite.

4. The Indefinite Article "a / an"

"A" and "an" as the indefinite article does not add too much to the meaning of a
noun it is referring to. They are like a weak form of the word "one". The basic idea
for the indefinite article is that they are used when the speaker is talking about a non-
specific and non-particular noun that could be any member of the group. If the noun
is singular, countable and non-specific, then you will usually need an indefinite
article. Examples:

 I went to a bank (we do not know which bank).

 Algiers is an interesting city (there are many interesting cities and Algiers is
one of them).
 There is a customer outside (we do not know anything about the customer).
 I’d like to read a book this afternoon. We can infer that the writer is referring to
any book, not a specific book.
4. 1. Form

 The form "a" as an indefinite article word is used before a word beginning with a
consonant, or a vowel with a consonant sound. Examples:
 a man
 a European citizen "but not a European Union"
 a university
 a one-way street
 The form "an" as an indefinite article is used before words beginning with a
vowel sound like "a, e, o, and u" or words beginning with a mute "h" sound. But
when "h" sound is pronounced, the article "an" is not acceptable and it must be
replaced by "a". Examples:
 an apple
 an island
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  an onion
 an hour, an honor
 He is an honest man. The "h" sound is not pronounced.
 That is a hotel. The "h" sound is pronounced.
 The form "an" is also used with individual letters spoken with vowels. Examples:
 an L-plate
 an MP "It should be noted here that when we turn this abbreviation to its
full name we also turn the article into "a" since the sound turns from vowel
to consonant"
 an SOS
 an "X"
 An + acronyms/abbreviations an is used before acronyms/abbreviations
beginning with f, h, I, m, n, r, s, x because each of these consonants has an initial
vowel sound e/a. Examples:
 He is an FBI agent.
 This is an HMT watch.
 He is an NCC officer.
 an + number "an" is used before a number beginning with a vowel sound while
"a" is used before a number beginning with a consonant sound. Furthermore, the
indefinite article is never used with a plural noun. Examples:
 He is an 80- year old man. The first sound of the number 18 is a vowel.
 This is a 5-year old child. The first sound of the number 5 is a consonant.
 This is a pen. (not, a pens)
 That is an apple. (not, an apples)
 A/an + adverb/adjective + noun the choice of "an" or "a" does not always
depend on the initial sound of the head noun. It depends on the initial sound of
what follows it immediately. It can be an adjective or adverb placed before the
noun. Examples:
 An honest man, "Here the head sound of the honest h is silent."
 An extremely difficult problem "Here the head sound of the word
extremely is a vowel".
 A great artist, "Here the head sound of the word great is a consonant".
 A very amusing story "Here the head sound of the word very is a
consonant".
 Both of the forms "a" and "an" are the same for all Genders "masculine and
feminine". Examples:
 a man
 a woman
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  an actor
 an actress
 Many words that begin with the vowel "u" are preceded by "a" instead of "an"
because the "u" spelling is often pronounced "yu", as in the following words:
 Useful = a useful idea
 Uranium = a uranium isotope
 A/an is an article and therefore belongs to the class of determiners. Being a
determiner, its position is before the adjective.
 a good book
 an intelligent girl

4. 2. The Main Uses of the Indefinite Article "a" / "an"

However, they have several common uses. The most common uses of them are as
follows:

 "A" or "an" is used only before a singular noun which is countable. The idea of
singular and countable noun means that there is more than one item, person, place
or thing of their kinds and it refers to any one among these groups of items and
things. The noun being referred to through indefinite article represents no
particular person or thing in the sense that this noun is used just as an example of a
class of things "any one member of a class". Examples:
 My brother's married to a teacher. "any teacher"
 They live in a flat. "Any flat, what is important here is that they live in a
kind of house which is a flat and not a big house".
 He bought an ice-cream. "The ice-cream is not specific in terms of color,
quantity, quality".
 A car must be insured. "All cars / any car must be insured". "It could be any
car with the group of cars."
 A child needs love and support. "All children or any child needs this love
and support".
 "A" and "an" is used to refer to the case when the singular countable noun is
mentioned for the first time when the listener does not have any particular or
specific image of the noun. It is worth to mention here that when "a" or "an" has
been used with a noun when it is first mentioned, the article changes to "the" when
the same noun word is mentioned later on the second, third, … time. Examples:
 A simple computer serves many purposes. The simple computer is used to
do calculations, drawings and son on. "first reference takes the indefinite
article"

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  A penguin is a small black and white bird. The penguin can fly along
distant places.
 The local newspaper printed an article about pet health yesterday. The
article discussed how to protect dogs from diseases. "The speaker refers to
the same article".
 In relationship with the previous situation, the indefinite article is used to refer to
a non-specific or non-particular member of the group. In other words, this
means that they refer to a general statement about the noun being referred to "for
making generalization". Examples:
 I would like to go to see a movie. "Here we are not talking about a specific
movie. We are talking about any movie. There are so many movies, and me as
a speaker I want to see any movie. I do not have a specific one movie in my
mind. So it could be about drama, actions, documentary, politics, business…
The speaker is ready to spend some time watching any movie available in TV.
 My daughter really wants a dog for Christmas. "This refers to any dog. Up to
now we do not know which dog because we have not found the dog. So we are
looking for a dog without any specific or particular color, size, race … but
when we find the dog and we mention it again we must change the article and
use the definite one".
 Somebody calls a policeman." This refers to any policeman. We do not need a
specific policeman; we just need any policeman who is available to help us
save the difficult situation. In short, we are looking for a person who can
represent all the policemen. Once we select a particular policeman, the article
must be changed to the definite article.
 A dog is a common household pet. "This is a general statement about any and
all dogs".
 "A" and "an" is used when we classify or define people and things. When we say
what they are, what job they do, what they are used for and to indicate
membership in a group. They are used with a noun complement. This includes
names of professions, nationality status, religion and names that are used in
descriptions. Examples:
 He is an actor. "profession"
 I am an English language student. "I am a member of a large group
community known as students".
 I am an English language teacher. "I am a member of a large group known
as teachers".
 It is an extremely hot day. "description"
 I'm looking forward to being a grandmother.
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  A glider is a plane without an engine.
 "A" and "an" is used with certain expressions of quantity. Examples:
 A lot of
 A great deal of
 A couple, a dozen
 "A" and "an" is used with certain expressions of numbers. Also before the
expression "half" when it follows a whole number. So the expression "a+ half +
noun" is sometimes possible. Examples:
 A hundred of solidaires
 A kilo and a half kilo
 A half holiday, a half-portion
 "A" and "an" is used with expressions of price, speed, ratio etc. Here, "a" and
"an" have an idea of a percentage. Examples:
 Four times a day "ratio"
 Sixty kilometers an hour "speed"
 10 pounds a dozen "price"
 5 euros a kilo
 "A" and "an" is used in exclamations before singular, countable nouns. But with
the plural form of exclamations expressions no article is used. Examples:
 Such a long queue! Not such a long queues! "incorrect"
 What a pretty girl!
 What a pretty girls! "incorrect"
 "A" alone can be placed before title expressions such as Mr. / Mrs. / Miss +
surname. The indefinite article is used in the sense that the name of a person being
referred to means any person called with the name and implies that he or she is a
stranger to the speaker. But this title expression without "a" article, implies that
the speaker knows the person being referred to or at least knows about his or her
existence. Examples:
 A Mr. Smith the speaker does not know Mr. Smith.
 A Mrs. Smith
 A Miss. Smith
 Miss. Smith with article means that the speaker knows Miss. Smith.

4. 3. Omissions of the Indefinite Article "a / an"

 The indefinite article is not used before plural nouns. "A" or "an" as indefinite
article has no plural form. This kind of article does not have a plural form because
the meaning of the article itself refers to one and the latter one is singular. As it
was mentioned before that the indefinite article is the weak form of word "one".
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 So the plural form and singular or "a" or "an" are two opposite terms and could
not be used altogether at all. So the plural form of the following words is made
with the indefinite article as follows:
 A dog = dogs
 An egg = egges
 An example = examples
 A teacher = teachers
 The indefinite article is not used before uncountable nouns. These nouns do not
take indefinite article at all because they basically refer to things and items that are
not individual, are not separate singular, are not plural and thought of as quantity
or mass, and therefore, cannot be counted. Because they cannot be associated with
numbers, they do not have a plural form. It is worth to mention that since they
could be described with numbers are in total contradiction with the basic meaning
of the indefinite article which means "one" even they are singular in nature. In
other words, the main meaning of the indefinite article is a kind of division and
separation of an object into small units. Examples:
 I do not want advice or help. "Here the noun advice does not accept any
division."
 I want information.
 He has had no experience in this sort of work.
 But these "nouns uncountable nouns" are often preceded by some, any, no, a little,
or by nouns such as bit, piece, slice, couple + of. When they take these forms they
could be expressed in the plural form. Examples:
 I want a bit of news.
 I used a cake of soap to clean the room.
 I took a grain of sand.
 I wrote in a sheet of paper.
 The indefinite article is not used before names of meals. Generally names of meals
do not take the indefinite articles, except when these names are preceded by an
adjective or when the meal is special and was given to celebrate something or in
some someone honor. Examples:
 We have breakfast at eight. "Only name of a meal"
 He gave us a good breakfast. "Adjective followed by name of a meal"
 I was invited to dinner. "The ordinary invitation at their house"
 I was invited to a dinner given to welcome the new ambassador. "Special
and one dinner"

4. 4. "A" or "An" and "One"

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 We can use either "a /an" or "one" when counting or measuring time, distance,
weight etc. so we can use either for the singular. Examples:
 1 euro = a or one hundred dinars
 1 kilometer = a or one thousand meters
 1 copybook = a or one hundred pages
 But there are some cases where "a" and "one" are not replaceable. Examples:
 The rent is 100 euros a week. "The article "a" before the noun week is not
replaceable by one.
 One shotgun is no good. "I need two or three".
 One can be used before "day / week / month etc." or before the name of the day or
month to denote a particular time when something happened. Examples:
 One night there was a terrible storm.
 One winter the snow fell early.
 One day a telegram arrived. "at some past time"
 One day you'll be sorry you treated him so badly. "At some future tiime and
date"
 "A" or "an" and "one" as pronoun. One is the pronoun equivalent of "a" and "an".
The plural of "one" is "some". Examples:
 Did you get a ticket? Yes, I managed to get one.
 Did you get tickets? Yes, I managed to get some.

Summary

The indefinite article can only be used for singular nouns. A noun is indefinite if it
does not refer to something specific. “A” is used before a consonant sound (e.g. a
uniform), and “an” is used before a vowel sound (e.g. an hour). The indefinite article
is used before. The two tables below represent the uses and omissions of the
indefinite article.

Uses of the Indefinite Article

N Uses Examples
1 Indefinite article ‘a’ is used before a a cow, a desk, a house, a one eyed
singular countable noun beginning with a man, a university boy
consonant sound.
2 Indefinite article ‘an’ is used before a an elephant, an umbrella, an aero
singular countable noun beginning with a plane, an orange, an applicant
vowel sound.
3 Indefinite article 'a' 'an' is used with an MA, an MP, an MBBS, an HA,
English alphabets and abbreviations when an FM, an LLM
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 they are separately read out.
4 The indefinite article is used with the A serpent is not a dangerous
singular noun that can be counted: reptile.
5 It is also used before a noun even if the He is an intelligent boy.
noun is preceded by an adjective:
6 Indefinite article 'a' 'an' is used when a The nation is looking for a new
noun belongs to a group/community, president from its population.
profession and expresses the meaning ‘a Noam Chomsky is a linguist.
kind of’ even though they are uncountable Bill Gates is an entrepreneur.
nouns
7 a singular noun which is mentioned for A uniform is necessity if you are
the first time a student.
8 the first mention of something which is A piece of information
part of a whole a molecule of oxygen
9 what a thing or person is description and My son is a doctor.
profession, nationality The sun is a star.
10 classification when the noun is a member The president of the nation is a
from a class or group that it belongs to university teacher.
11 generic reference for representation A mother knows her child.
12 'A' 'an' is used when talking about prices, I can type 50 words a minute.
quantities and rates. He was driving at 50 miles an
hour
13 a measurement, rate or expression of three times an hour
frequency this meeting is an hour long
14 exclamation in which the noun is “What an awful shock!”
indefinite and singular “That’s a pity!”
15 The form .a. is used in the sense of .per.:Potatoes sell at three rupees a
kilogram.
16 It is used in exclamations before singular What a fine weather!
countable nouns:
17 It is used with Mr./Mrs./Miss followed by A Miss Sharma called up when
surname to indicate that the person you were away.
referred to is a stranger to the reporter:
18 It is used in expressions using .so. and Have you ever met so great a
placed between the adjective and the musician?
noun:

Exercise 1

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Instruction: Insert either the Indefinite Article "a" and "an" or Zero article "0"
in the Space provided whenever it is Necessary with Justification.

1. My friend is …1…….English teacher who knows a lot about English

pronunciation system. We can ask him about……2…. vowels of English.
…3…….vowels are very important sounds for good pronunciation.
2. ……4…….child needs support and love from his parents. Generally, it is known
that ……5……children need such love and support for their future personality.
3. …5… penguin is a small black and white bird. The penguin can fly along distant
places and due to this quality one of famous edition houses is named as penguin.
4. I would like to go to the cinema to see …7…..movie. …8………movies are
useful in leisure time.
5. There are any interesting banks here. I need…9…..bank to get...…10…credit for
my project.

Exercise 2

Instruction: Insert a or an in the blank spaces in the following sentences:

1. ……………… elephant is a very strong animal.

2. He had always hoped that his son would go to…………..university.
3. Italy is…………....European country.
4. I shall be back in less than……………..hour.
5. Is there…………...hospital in this town?
6. Everyone respects……………..honest person.
7. By……………..united effort we may achieve success.
8. I like to give……………..useful present.
9. I understand he is to marry…………..heiress.
10. ……………. honor was conferred on him for his services to his country.
11. . We stayed at…………….hotel in the center of the town.
12. It is ……………...great honor to be invite to such a gather.
13. The door was opened by………………....servant.
14. ………………....honorary secretary is one who is not paid for his services.
15. He was carrying……………....heavy load.

Exercise 3

Instruction: Complete the following sentences by inserting in the blank spaces

the words or phrases given in brackets, either with or without the article a or an
(whichever you think correct). If you insert a or an, make sure you put it in the
right place.

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 1. Paris York is…………..(large city)
2. Bernard Shaw was…………...(famous English dramatist)
3. Ice is…………...frozen water)
4. We have had……………..(very tiring journey)
5. I have never known such...................(hot weather)
6. Have you ever seen so…………….....as that? (tall man)
7. I have never heard such……………..(absurd story)
8. We shall get…………...next year. (longer holiday)
9. It gives me……………...to do it. (pleasure)
10. He took…………...over the work. (great care)
11. My younger brother is…………....(student)
12. He hopes to become…………….when he has finished his course. (teacher)
13. Algeria is…………...country. (very large)
14. Ann's ………….. ambition is to be...(engineer)
15. I had never been in so…………....before. (large house

Article: Definite Article

Description of the Lecture
This unit is concerned with English definite article. It provides the conceptual as
well as technical frameworks of English definite article to identify its classification
and role in English sentence. The emphasis is put on the definitions, conventions,
examples, uses, and non-use situations.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed the definite article unit, they should be
able, among other things, to;
1. Define the term English definite article.
2. Be familiar with the basic aspects of form of the English definite article.
3. List the main conventions of uses and non-uses of English definite article.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through English
definite article.

Introduction

"The" as a definite article "the commonest article" usually means something like
"the speaker know which the speaker mean" in the sense that it describes something
specific that is known to the writer / speaker and the reader / listener. For example, if
John needs to drive the car of his father somewhere, he might say, "may I use the

131
car?" John uses the definite article "the" because he himself and his father know
which car John is referring to "the father's car". So the definite article is used before a
noun "singular, plural, and uncountable" when listener / reader knows or can easily
see which particular person, place or thing the speaker / writer is talking about. In
short, the definite article is used in the sense that the thing or people that are talked
about presumed to be known to the speaker and his listener. In conclusion, if you
believe your reader or listener knows exactly what you are referring to, and then you
will usually need the definite article in front of a noun. Examples:

 I bought a company last week. The company produces engine parts (you have
just mentioned the company, so you both know which one).
 Can I ask a question? (There are many questions; can I ask one?)
 Can you repeat the question, please? (The question that you asked).

1. Form

 "The" as definite article is the same for the singular and plural forms. Examples:
 The boy = the boys
 The house = the houses
 The situation = the situations
 The case = the cases
 "The" as definite article is the same for genders. Examples:
 The boy
 The girl
 The days
 "The" is normally pronounced /ði: /before a vowel sound and /ðə/ before a
consonant sound. The choice between /ði: / and /ðə/ depends completely on
pronunciation, not spelling. We pronounce /ði: /before a vowel sound, even if it is
written as a consonant. Examples:
 The hour of = /ði: aʊə…….………../
 The MP of = /ði:em pi: …….………../
 And we pronounce /ðə/ before a consonant sound, even if it is written as a vowel.
 The university = /ðəju:……….………../
 The one-pound coin = /ðəwʌn…….………../
 The European Union = /ðəju ……….………../

2. The Main Uses of the Definite Article "The"

 When the object or group of objects is unique, extraordinary or considered to be

unique in a given setting in which both the speaker and the listener know it or
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 share it. So it is used before a noun describing a person, place or thing unique of
their kinds" as a common facts". Uniqueness quality refers to the state of being
of the person, place or thing to be the only one of its kind. The definite article is
used in this sense because the noun being referred to is the only one around us. It
is worth to be noted here that this quality of the noun is treated as equivalent to a
superlative adjective. In this construction the means 'the best, the only, or
precisely', so it has a heightening effect on the noun it modifies. So the listener
may know which one we mean because there is no choice or there is only one in
our setting or part of the world. So this reference to an item is understood by all
speakers and listeners in the same way and image. Examples:
 The earth planet revolves around the sun once every 365 days. "There is only
one earth and only one sun in our solar system". It is worth to note here that
the other similar objects like the sun outside our solar system do not belong to
our description. So the article here is applied only to what is within our solar
system.
 People used to think the earth planet was flat.
 Do you trust the government?
 The president declares plenty of economic reforms.
 I saw the lion at the zoo of Algiers. "Here, we are talking about a specific
noun –lion-. Probably there is only one lion of its kind in this particular zoo".
 I saw the female lion at the zoo of Algiers. "Here, we are talking about a
specific noun – female lion-. Probably there are two lions but only one female
lion of its kind in this particular zoo".
 This is the place for our picnic.
 He is the authority on the subject.

Again, you have to be sure that your reader or listener has exactly the same
context or situation in mind that you are thinking or referring to; otherwise, he
or she will be confused by your use of the definite article. There must be a
shared setting, context, situation and experience between the speaker and
listener.

 It is used before a noun which has become definite as a result of being

mentioned for the second, third, fourth time. When the noun is mentioned for
the first time it could be indefinite for the listener and the latter may ask for more
clarifications but when we refer back to the noun which has been mentioned
before, the listener may know which one we mean because we have mentioned it
to them before. So here "the" is used when counting nouns for the second and
subsequent references to the same noun. This item could be explicitly referred to,
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 or implied. In short, when a noun is mentioned again, i.e. when it refers back to a
noun mentioned already it takes the definite article. This is called an anaphoric
function of the word "the". It is worth to be noted here that the anaphoric
function means the use of a word that refers to or replaces another word used
earlier in a sentence. Examples:
 She is got two children: a boy and a girl. The boy is fourteen and the girl is
eight.
 So what did you do then? They gave the money straight back to the policemen.
"We could suppose that the listener has already heard about the money and the
policemen."
 This is an old palace. People believe that the palace was built 1000 years ago
by the emperor. The noun word palace in the second part of the example has
become definite as a result of being mentioned for the second time since it was
mentioned before and described as an old palace with an indefinite article.
 A man knocked on my door, the man was bleeding.
 The definite article is used before singular and plural nouns when the noun is
specific or particular. The signals that the noun is definite, that it refers to a
particular member of a group which are both known by speaker and listener.
Sometimes, speakers may put modifiers, qualifiers, and quantifiers to indicate
precisely who or what the speaker is referring to. In short, it is used before a noun
made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause. This idea refers to a
modifying word, phrase, or clause follows the noun and makes it clear with
specific, place or thing you are referring to. But not every noun that is modified in
this way is definite; it depends largely on the situation and on what you can
reasonably expect your listener to know about. Examples:
 The man you met yesterday. "The modifier word –yesterday- made the noun
word –man- more specific and particular".
 The dog that bit me ran away. "Here, we are talking about a specific dog. Not
any dog but only the dog that bits me".
 I was happy to see the policeman who saved my cat. "Here, we are talking
about a specific policeman. Even if we do not know the policeman, it is still a
particular because it is the one who saved the cat. So I sorted out this policeman
out of the all".
 The boy that I met yesterday.
 Would you pass me the sugar? The sugar that is on the table.
 The place where I met him.
 It is used before a superlative, ranking adjectives, ordinal and ordinal
numbers and forms to show order or number" which make the noun word identity
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 specific. We usually use "the" with superlatives because there is normally only
one best, biggest, individual or group of things in such a context. So it is clear
which one we are talking about according to both the speaker and listener. For the
same reason, we usually use "the" with first, second, next, last, same and only
used as adjectives and pronouns. Examples:
 I just saw the most popular movie of the year. "There are many movies, but
only one particular is the most popular among the group of movies. Therefore,
we use the".
 The day I got my BAC is the best day in my life. "There is only one day which
is the best. Here that day is specified and selected among all the days of my
whole life".
 The first week of the 2018 year. "Ordinal number"
 I am the oldest one among my brothers and sisters in my family.
 We went to the same school.
 Can I have the next pancake?
 It is used before a noun which becomes definite by reason of locality, location
and setting. The latters can represent only one particular thing which is
understood clearly by the speaker and his listener from the setting and situation
that they both mean. Here the definite article is used in the sense that the context
or situation makes the noun's identity clear in the mind of the speaker and listener.
 Ann is in the garden. "The garden of the house"
 Please pass me the wine. "The wine on the table"
 The postman gave me the letter. "The postman of our village"
 The teacher asked the student to close the door. "You would use the definite
article because it would undoubtedly be clear to both of you which door you
were referring to, it must be the door of the classroom."
 The definite article "the" is used before some proper nouns of geographical
"place" names. Examples:
 Names of ranges of mountains and hills. The Himalayas, the Alps ……………
 Names of rivers, channels, oceans and seas: the Nile, the Pacific Ocean, the
Red sea, the Amazon, the Mississippi ………………………………………….
 When we describe or refer to the points on the globe: the equator, the North
Pole ……………………………………………………………………………..
 When we describe or refer to the geographical areas: the Middle East, the
West, the Farthest East ……………….………………….…………………..…
 When we describe or refer to deserts, forests, canals, gulfs, peninsulas: the
Sahara, the Persian Gulf, the black forest, the Amazon Green Rainforest, the
Iberian Peninsula ……………………………………………………………….
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  When we describe or refer to groups of islands: the Azores, the Maldives, the
West Indies ……………………………………………………………………..
 When we describe or refer to names consisting of "noun + of + noun": the
Gulf of Minco, the Cape of Good Hope ………………………………………..
 When we describe or refer to most hotels "the Grand Hotel" …………………
 When we describe or refer to most cinemas and theatres "the Play House" ...
 When we describe or refer to most museums and art galleries "the British
Museum" ……………………………………………………………………….
 It is used before the names of countries and states that look plural, including
countries that end in "s" or have some of the following words: united, union,
republic, kingdom, and so on. Examples:
 The Philippines
 The United States of America
 The Republic of Algeria
 The United Kingdom
 The European Union
 The Netherlands
 "The" as a definite article is used before a noun whose identity is a common
knowledge or can be easily inferred. In this construction "the" denotes a person's
title, rank, or profession etc. Examples:
 The president of Algeria will give a speech tomorrow. Here both the speaker
and his listener must have full details of the president of Algeria in terms of
his name, history, characters, personality as their common knowledge.
 The Prime Minister will apply the instructions very immediately.
 The last prophet changed the world.
 The postman decides to bring to correspondence to the old people.
 "The" is used before the names of holy/great books. It is worth to note here that
the is not used before the name of a book when it appears before the name of the
author in the possessive case i.e., before name + 's. Examples:
 the Koran
 the Bible
 the Gita
 I have read the novel of Animal Farms. (Not, the Animal Farms)
 "The" is used also before names of musical instruments, used with the verb "to
play". In addition, to refer to names of choirs, orchestras, pop groups etc. as
well as names of newspapers and magazines. Examples:
 I play the guitar every day.
 She plays very well the chess set.
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  He used to play the piano when he was at school.
 The Philadelphia Orchestra
 The Times declares the decision of the president.
 "The" is used with the meaning "the well -known". After a name, an identifying
expression with "the" is often used to make it clear that a person, thing, place
referred to is "the well-known one". Examples:
 She married Richard Burton, the actor.
 I would like you to meet Cathy Parker, the novelist.
 They attended the first meeting with Donald Trump, the president.
 "The" is used before names of newspapers. Examples:
 The Hindustan Times
 The Times of India
 The New York Times
 The Washington Post the Dawn
 "The" is used before names of inventions: Examples:
 The telephone
 The microscope
 The wheel
 The steam engine
 Who invented the telephone? (Not, telephone)

3. Omissions of the Definite Article "The"

 It is omitted before abstract nouns which are used in a general sense but when
these nouns are used in a particular and specific sense they take again the definite
article. Examples:
 Men fear death. "Death is an abstract noun used in general way in the sense
that the noun word refers to all the men of the world"
 The death of the Prime Minister left his party without a leader. "Here the noun
death is an abstract noun used in a particular way. Here death is restricted only
to one particular and specific person who is only the Prime Minister. It is
worth again to mention here that that particular Prime Minister must be
inferred from the setting as an Algerian, French, Japanese …………………..".
 People nowadays like democracy.
 Women love to attend parities.
 Cats like fish.
 It is omitted after a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective. In short,
the presence of the possessive case and apostrophe implies the absence of the

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 definite article and the vice versa is true. When you rephrase the expression of the
possessive case then you must add the definite article before the noun. Examples:
 The boy's uncle = the uncle of the boy
 It is my blue book = the blue book is mine
 The teachers' notebook = the notebook of the teacher
 It is their point of view = the point of view is theirs
 Before names of games and sports. Examples:
 Football is my favorite game.
 I played basketball yesterday.
 He plays gulf.
 It is also omitted before names of meals. Examples:
 The scots have porridge for breakfast.
 I have a nice dinner every week.
 It is omitted before parts of the body and articles of clothing, as these normally
prefer a possessive adjectives. Examples:
 Raise your right hand.
 He took off his coat.
 Put your finger on the icon.
 They nod and shake their head interchangeably.
 It is also omitted before the following names "home, church, bed, court, school,
college, university, hospital, prison, school, work, mosque, amphitheater,
synagogue post office, farm, factory, shop, market, hotel, town
………………..………". It is worth to mention that these kinds of words do not
take the definite article when they are used for their only one primary purpose. In
addition, they do not take additives and descriptors in this sense.
 I go to hospital to be cured. "No definite article because the noun hospital is
used for its primary purpose and here we can omit the purpose because it is
understood and implied".
 I went to university yesterday to study. "Primary purpose"
 My friend was in prison because he did not pay a fine. "Primary purpose"
 He is on his way to work. "Work as a place of work –primary purpose-"
 We go to town sometimes to buy clothes. "It means the town of the speaker"

But, when we use the previously listed nouns and other similar nouns for their
secondary purpose, they take the definite article. It is worth to mention again that
these kinds of nouns do take the definite article since they are used for their many and
different secondary purposes. In addition, they need additives and descriptors.

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  I went to the church to see the stained glass. "Secondary purpose because I
did not go to the church to exercise the primary purpose for which the church
is established which is praying."
 He goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures. "Secondary purpose"
 They visited the court to see the splendid architecture. "Secondary purpose"
 I went to the university to see the chancellor about a financial deal.
"Secondary purpose"
 My mother visited the home of my sister.

Important Note: Names like "home, church, bed, court, school, college,
university, hospital, prison, school, work, and town" are used with and without the
definite article as follows:
Primary purpose = without article Secondary purpose = with article
 I go to school to study  He goes to the prison sometimes to
mathematics. give lectures.
 To go to mosque for pray.  I joined the national bank for training.

Summary

The definite article “the” is used when both the writer and the reader know the
specific person, place, or thing(s) being referred to. When using the definite article,
the context of the sentence in question will contain information already shared in an
earlier part of the piece. For example, when we read the sentence, “I really enjoyed
the book,” we can infer that the specific details of the book have already been
mentioned in a previous sentence. So a noun is definite if it refers to something
specific (either singular or plural) that is known to both the writer and the
reader. The two tables below represent the uses and omissions of the definite article.

Uses of the Definite Article

N Use Example
1 Before a unique person, place, or The moon of the Earth turns around the
thing. There is only one example earth planet once times a month.
of it in a given situation. The president of Algeria is ill.
2 Before something that becomes I attended a lecture yesterday. The lecture
definite when it is mentioned for was very useful.
the second time There is a child going in that street. The
child is Marry.
3 Before a superlative adjective The best idea is mine.

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4 before an ordinal number to The third unit is useful.
indicate positions like first, The second prize was won by John.
second
5 before the name of a rivers, The Nile river is very large.
regions,
6 before the name of a musical She plays the piano.
instruments
7 before plural names of countries The Philippines nation is productive.
8 Before an adjective used as a The rich people are intelligent.
noun. It is used before singular The dog is a faithful animal.
adjectives or nouns when they are
used to represent a class of objects
or persons:
9 before organizations, institutions The world health organization
and bodies
10 very well people and things The financial crisis of 2008 was sharp.
11 before the names of Newspapers the Washington Post, the Republica,
12 a decade or century The 1990s and The 15 century
13 before a currency The dollar stands steadily against the
euro.
14 before a scientific categorization The giraffe is the tallest of all animals.
15 before the names of directions and the south, the North Pole, the east, the
poles west, etc.
16 before the names of periods of the modern Age, the stone Age, the
history Victorian age, etc.
17 before the names of holy books the Ramayana, the Bible, the Quran, etc.
18 before a noun modified by a The boy, who is in a black coat, is a
‘phrase’ or ‘clause’: university student. I like the pen which is
made in Nepal.
19 before special meals The birthday party, the wedding party etc.
I liked the dinner served by Smith.
20 before parts of day the morning, the afternoon, the evening,
etc
21 before the names of scientific the telephone, the television, the
innovations computer, the radio, etc.
22 before the names of political the Congress, the CPN-UML, the Forum,
parties the Labor Party, the Communist Party, etc
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23 before the names of the parts in the kitchen, the bedroom, the study room,
the house: the dining room, the toilet, etc.
24 before the name of the historic The Second World War ended in 1945.
events and buildings: The White House is situated in
Washington D.C.
25 before the names of ships, trains the Mary Celeste, the Titanic, the Buddha
and aero-planes: Air, etc.
26 It is used before a noun that has The boy that got the prize.
been made definite by the addition The girl in red
of a phrase or a clause: The man I met yesterday is a bureaucrat.
27 It is used before nouns like The French defeated the English on the
English, French, German etc. to battlefield.
denote people belonging to the
country concerned:
28 It is used to denote the purpose I went to the college to enquire about my
(other than the normal one) son's progress at studies.
behind the visit to a hospital,
college, bed, temple, prison,
market, office etc.: secondary
purpose (But if the visit is for the
usual purpose for which these
places exist, then the definite
article will not be used: After the
accident, the injured were taken to
hospital.)
29 It is used before he names of The Ministry of Information &
government departments. Also Broadcasting,
some business houses, hotels, The Grand Hotel,
banks etc. incorporate the in their
names:

Omission of the Definite Article

N Omission Example
1 It is not used with the names of countries, His house is in Hyde Park Street.
towns, streets and proper names:
2 It is not used before abstract nouns when Love is the theme of this movie.
these are used in a general sense: (But Honesty is the best policy.
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 when an abstract noun is used in a
particular sense, it is preceded by the
definite article: The animosity between
the two brothers is well-known.)
3 It is not used with collective nouns like Our actions must benefit
mankind, society, labor etc.: humanity.
4 It is not used with proper nouns: Churchill was the first Prime
Minister of Britain.
I met Mohan at the station.
5 It is not used with the names of metals, Gold is a costly metal.
materials, games, diseases etc. when There is craze for cricket among
these are referred to in a general sense: the youth of this area.
6 It is not used before plural nouns when Mangoes grow in plenty in this
these are used in a general sense: (But area.
when used in a particular sense, the must Lions have been seen in this
be used: The mangoes on this tree are forest.
ripe.)

Exercise 1

Instruction: Insert either the Definite Article "the" or Zero Article "0" in the
Space provided whenever it is Necessary with Justification.

1. The local newspaper printed an article about pet health yesterday. ……1….
article discussed how to protect dogs from diseases.
2. My grandmother lives in ……2…..first floor. The first floor is …3……best floor
to live for old people.
3. I went to……4….. church to see the stained glass meanwhile I meet many
people come to ……5….church to worship God.
4. ……6….death of the president left the country without a leader. All human
beings fear …7……..death.
5. The boy's ……8…… uncle takes care of his family every day. ……9……uncle
of the boy is a famous doctor in the country.
6. When I share my breakfast with my family on the same table I asked them to
pass me …10….sugar.

Exercise 2

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Direction: Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with the word or
words given in brackets at the end. Us either the plain noun, or the noun
preceded by the (whichever you think is correct).
1. In Austria the people speak………....(German)
2. ……………. is spoken in many countries. (English)
3. ………….. have been a sea-faring people for many centuries. (English)
4. Can you speak…………….? (French)
5. …………. are a very musical nation. (Italians)
6. Many great ships cross……………..(Atlantic Ocean)
7. …………….. is a very large country in …………...(India, Asia)
8. We arranged to meet outside ………..…..(Woolworth's)
9. His uncle is manager of …….…..in this town. (Hong Kong Bank)
10. He came for an hour, but stayed all………...(evening)

Exercise 3

Instruction: Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with the noun
given in brackets at the end. Insert the before the noun wherever you think it
necessary.

1. He was found guilty of theft and sent to ……….. .. for six months. (prison)
2. My son will be old enough to go to …………. .next May. (school)
3. I must go to .................to see the headmaster. (school)
4. My wife has gone to ……………...to visit a sick friend. (hospital)
5. He is very ill, and has to go to ………………..(hospital)
6. Mr. Smith and his family generally go to ………..on Sunday morning. (church)
7. John is ill, so he cannot go to …………....(school)
8. The vicar has gone to ……….to inspect the damage done by the gale. (church)
9. I feel tired, as I went to …………..late last night. (bed)
10. In Britain many people do not go to ………....on Saturday morning. (business)
11. I no longer go to …………....on Saturdays. (office)
12. I have not been to……………..for several months. (cinema)
13. Some of the visitors came by...............others by...(train, bus)
14. Are you going to India by………..or by………..? (sea, air)
15. We sail tomorrow on………………..(Dunbar Castle)

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 Articles: Null and Mixed Articles
Description of the Lecture
This unit is about English null and mixed articles. It provides the conceptual as well
as technical frameworks of English zero article to identify its classification and uses
in English sentences. The lecture brings together the definitions, rules, conventions,
and uses of the null article.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed the unit of null article, they should be
able, among other things, to;
1. Define the term zero article.
2. Be familiar with the basic use and conventions of zero article.
3. Compose sentences through English zero article.

Introduction

In some cases, articles are not necessary to use in sentences. There are two
specific instances in which articles are not required prior to the noun word being
referred to. This kind of usage is also referred to as the null article.

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1. The Main Uses of the Zero "0"Article

The most common uses of the null article are as follows:

 The "0" article is used when we first mention a plural noun. So when we want to
talk about a category or group of plural nouns in a general sense, we use no
article. It is worth to not here that the use of the "0" is governed by the following
three conditions that must be established.
 The noun must be in plural not singular.
 The noun must be the first word in the sentence or statement.
 The noun must be used in a general sense not in a particular sense.
 Cats can be great pets. "The word –cats- is with "0" article because it used in a
plural, the first word and general way".
 Lions are the strongest animals.
 Teachers are knowledgeable and wise people.
 The cats in the pet store are expensive. "The same word –cats- is used in a
plural form but specific so it takes the definite article".
 The lions at the Zoo of Paris are the strongest animals.
 The teachers of our university are knowledgeable and wise people.
 A family of bluebirds lived outside my window. The birds chirped happily
that morning.”
 The "0" article is used when we first mention an uncountable noun. So when
we want to talk about a category or group of uncountable nouns in a general
sense, we use "0" article. It is worth to be noted here that the "0" article is used
in the same sense and conditions as with plural nouns. To better understand
this concept, consider the word dollar and the word money. While both
describe the same thing, we could write “I wanted a dollar” but not “I wanted a
money,” because only dollars can be counted individually. Examples:
 Sugar is dangerous food to health.
 Water is colorless.
 Milk is an essential ingredient for making cake.
 The sugar in the table is dangerous food for health.
 The water of this lake is colorless.
 The Milk of my goat is an essential ingredient for making cake.
 We also use no article before abstract nouns such as feelings, emotions,
thoughts, imaginations, ideas ……………… Examples:
 A person's future success depends on education. "The word education is
an abstract noun which does not take any article".
 Patience is virtue.
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  The silence is golden.
 The long absence makes the heart grow fonder.
 Proper nouns include people’s names, names of cities and states, and names of
companies do not take articles, because of their high level of specificity. The
idea of specificity is close in meaning to the idea of general sense. In this
respect, both nouns do not take articles.
 New York
 France
 John does like cake.

4555555

Important Reminder: The zero "0" article is used with plural countable nouns and
with uncountable nouns to refer to a representative of the class of things. So this
article has something in common with the indefinite article. Or we can consider that
this form is the weak form of the indefinite article. Consider the main differences
between the three articles.
indefinite Article Definite Article Zero Article
 A library is a place  The library is a place  Libraries are places
where you can find where you can find books. where you can find
books. (This means (This views the library as a books. (This means
that any library is a particular type of place, that all libraries are
place where you can representative of a category places where you
find books). of buildings such as can find books).
 A tiger is a university buildings).  Tigers are dangerous
dangerous animal.  The tiger is a dangerous animals. (This means
(This means that any animal. (It means that all all tigers. Have this
individual tiger is tigers are dangerous. Tiger quality).
dangerous). as a generic category).

146
Summary

We do not need an article when:

N Uses Examples
1 before uncountable and abstract nouns used Wisdom is better than riches.
in a general sense
2 Before plural countable nouns used in a Children usually rush about
general sense

3 Before the names of countries, people, Paris is the capital of France

continents, cities, rivers and lakes
4 Before the names of meals Mother is cooking lunch.
5 Before the names of languages They speak French at home.
6 Before school, college, university, church, His dad is still in hospital.
etc. when are used for primary purpose.
7 Before the names of diseases, games, colors My favorite color is white.
and possessive pronouns.
8 Before the names of days and months. Saturday is the holiday in
Nepal.

Macro Summary to Articles

The use of articles "a", "an", and" the" can depend largely on the four paired noun
qualities. These four qualities are as follows:

 Countable nouns versus non-countable nouns,

 Definite versus indefinite,
 First reference versus subsequent mention, and
 General versus specific.

The Definite Article versus Indefinite Article

Countable versus Uncountable Nouns
 The indefinite article "a" / "an" are used if the noun word being referred to can
be counted while the definite article "the" when the noun word cannot be
counted. So the definite article always refers to something which is general
while the indefinite article refers to something which is individual.
 This gives an idea about the two main parameters for the choice of articles
which are first, the "Noun word itself": this depends on the type of the noun
word whether it is plural singular countable, uncountable, and collective and so
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 on. Second, "the types of reference of the noun phrase": this depends on the
meaning of the noun word which is the most important parameter. The type of
reference could be specific or general.
 Compare the indefinite and definite articles in the following pairs of sentences.
The Indefinite Article The Definite Article
 I ran into a post. "How many posts  I ran into the water. "How many
did you run into? Just one. Therefore, waters did you run into? The
use, a" because this article it is question does not make any sense
individual in nature. because water is non-countable.
 I ate a piece of cake. " One piece" Therefore, use, the"
 I saw an eagle." One eagle"  I ate the rice." Non-count noun"
 I saw the milk spill. "no count noun"
Definiteness versus Indefiniteness Nouns
 The Indefinite Article "a"/"an" signals that the noun word modified is
indefinite, referring to any member of a group. These article is used with
singular nouns when the noun is general, the corresponding indefinite quantity
word some is sued for plural general nouns. Note that this article is used to
indicate membership in profession and so on. In short, it is used in the sense that
the speaker and listener do not share a mutual or idea about the modified noun.
 The Definite Article "the" is used before singular and plural nouns when the
noun word being referred to is particular and specific. The as a definite article
signals that the noun is definite, it refers to a particular member of a group. In
short, it is used in the sense that the speaker and listener do share a mutual
image or idea about the noun being referred. Compare the indefinite and definite
articles in the following pairs of sentences.
The Indefinite Article The Definite Article
 I am a teacher of English.  I am the teacher of English.
 A dog "any dog, there is no specific  The dog of my uncle. "It refers to that
dog or no particular dog is specific dog".
concerned".  The coffee in my cup is too hot to
drink. "The coffee is a non-countable
noun which is made more specific by
a limiting modifying phrase".
First Reference versus Sub-sequent Mention
The Indefinite Article "a"/ "an" is used to introduce a noun word when it is
mentioned for the first time in a piece of writing or speaking while the definite
article is used afterward each time you mention that same noun. Compare the
indefinite and definite articles used in the following sentences.
The Indefinite Article The Definite Article
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1. An interesting offer of business was 1. An interesting offer of business was
made to a young man. The interesting made to a young man. The interesting
offer was greatly attracted the young offer was greatly attracted the young
man. man.
General versus Specific
The "a", "an", and" the" can all be used to indicate that a noun being referred to
refers to the whole class to which individual countable nouns belong. This use of
articles is called generic, from the Latin word meaning "class". Compare the
indefinite and definite articles in the following pairs of sentences.
The Indefinite Article The Definite Article
 A tiger is a dangerous animal. "Any  The tiger is a dangerous animal. "All
individual tiger" tigers, tiger as a generic category"
 A mobile phone is a prime example  The mobile phone has revolutionized
of how technology has changed our communications of today. Here, it
lives. Here, it refers to any one refers to all the members of a class.
member of a class. Or it means a Or it means the entire class of things.
representation of the class of things So all the tigers as one group are
.So only one tiger as one individual concerned with this quality without
from all tigers is concerned with any exception.
this quality.

Exercise 1
Insert either the Indefinite Article "a" and "an" or the Definite Article "the" or
Zero article "0" in the Space provided whenever it is Necessary with
Justification.

1. …1….lions are …2.....strongest animals in the planet. …3….lions at the Zoo of

Paris eat a lot of meat every day.
2. ……4…….milk is …5….....essential ingredient for making cake.
……6……..milk of my goat has a special taste when I used it for making cake.
3. They visited …7…… university to discover the splendid architecture of the
building. We asked for……8…….student to explain us the splendid architecture.
4. I was happy to see …9…..policeman who saved my dog last week.
……10……policemen are very helpful people in society.

Exercise 2
Select the correct article in the following sentences.
1. Did you bring ………….. (a, an, the) letters?
2. The helicopter landed on …………. (a, an, the) helipad.

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 3. The recipe calls for ………… (a, an, the) liter of milk.
4. Rahim was excited about crafting …………… (a, an, the) origami duck.
5. I would love to consult one of ……………. (a, an, the) faculty members.
6. The way the organization treats its staff is such …………. (a, an, the) shame.
7. Have you been to …………… (a, an, the) food street in Algiers?
8. Can I have ………….. (a, an, the) fork please?
9. What ………….. (a, an, the) incredible performance by the band!
10. She will be back in ………….. (a, an, the) hour.
Exercise 3
Directions: Fill in the blank with the appropriate article “a”, “an”, or “the”, or
leave the space blank if no article is needed.
1. I want ………….. apple from that basket.
2. …………….. church on the corner is progressive.
3. Miss Lin speaks …………… Chinese.
4. I borrowed ……………. pencil from your pile of pencils and pens.
5. One of the students said, " ……………. professor is late today."
6. Eli likes to play …………. volleyball.
7. I bought ……………. umbrella to go out in the rain.
8. My daughter is learning to play …………… violin at her school.
9. Please give me …………… cake that is on the counter.
10. I lived on …………… Main Street when I first came to town.
11. Albany is the capital of ………….. New York State.
12. My husband's family speaks ………….. Polish.
13. …………… apple a day keeps the doctor away.
14. ……………. ink in my pen is red.
15. Our neighbors have…………… cat and …………….. dog.
Exercise 4
Fill in the blanks with a/an/the/0 wherever it is necessary.
1. She is ............ untidy girl all the time especially in her class.
2. He scored ............ highest marks in the national final examination.
3. June is ............ first month of the summer season.
4. Robert, watchman of our village, has gone ............ home recently.
5. Which is ............ nearest railway station from this small village?
6. ............ Nile is ............ sacred river for ............Egyptians along history.
7. Let's discuss ............ problem seriously to overcome them.
8. I first saw...... Himalayas......year ago but I have not climbed...... Mount Everest.
9. I was driving my new Ford car at 180 km ............ hour.
10. ........... sky is overcast in this spacious city.
11. She is ............ poorest girl of the class.
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 12. I bought ............ pen, ink pot and ............ pencil in order for my drawings.
13. Don't make ............ noise when you are studying.
14. Draw ............ map of Algeria and then locate your city of residence.
15. ............ cat is ............ animal that lives with humans.

Exercise 5
Try this exercise, putting a/an/the in the blanks. If there should be no article,
then place a 0 in the blank. Use a table to write your answers with justification.
Mr. Smith was …. (1) ….. very fastidious person. He lived four …. (2)….
streets away from our house, in …… (3) ……big house with ….. (4) …… beautiful
garden. Having taken early retirement from his …… (5)…… job as …… (6) …….
button counter, he now had plenty of time to worry, and this he did very successfully.
He often spent sleepless nights trying to figure out how he could successfully cook
both sides of …… (7) ……. omelet without it breaking, or how he might achieve
better access to …… (8) ……. tins at ……. (9) ……. back of his cupboard…….
(10)…… most of his home was exceptionally neat and tidy, but several loose cables
behind ……. (11) ……… television set bothered him, and he never quite knew what
to do with ……… (12) ……… empty plastic bags.
Then, one day, his life changed, and he began to experience some relief from
his anguish. It seemed that other people underwent similar mental trials, for …… (13)
…… new catalogue appeared on his doorstep. ….. (14) ……… catalogue contained
solutions for many of his problems, and for others which had not yet given him any
cause for concern. There was ……. (15) ……. set of three egg timers, for example,
shaped like ……. (16) ………. chickens and designed to emit …….. (17) …….
clucking sound at ……. (18) …….. end of three, four and five minutes respectively.
In this way he could cook …… (19) …….. eggs to suit each of his friends
individually, and then keep them warm with …….. (20)…….. specially designed
covers which went with the timer, marked ‘3’, ‘4’ and ‘5’ for identification purposes.
And ……. (21)……… catalogue contained many other wonderful ideas, such as
……… (22) ………. toaster which could be adjusted to produce different degrees of
brownness on ……. (23) ……… four slices toasted simultaneously and …….. (24)
…….. photo frame that rotated pictures at ……. (25) …….. touch of ……. (26)
……..invisible button, so that visiting relatives would never be offended by not
seeing their pictures on display, unless, of course, they all turned up together – Mr
Smith eventually solved this problem too by ordering four frames.

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 Ordinary Auxiliaries: The Auxiliary “To be”
Description of the Lecture
This introductory unit is about English ordinary auxiliary “to be”. It provides the
conceptual as well as technical frameworks of “to be” to identify its meanings and
conventions in English sentence. The emphasis of the current unit is put on the
definitions, forms, uses, and variations of “to be”.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed the unit of “to be”, they should be
able, among other things, to;
1. Define the term English auxiliaries.
2. Define the first ordinary English auxiliary “to be”.
3. Introduce the forms of the English auxiliary “to be”.
4. List the uses and conventions of English auxiliary “To be”.
5. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through the forms of
“to be”.

Introduction

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 The verb is the prominent part of speech. It is the most used words in all
English statements. It is not possible to construct or find any English sentence
without the presence of the verb including auxiliaries. Auxiliary verbs are among the
grammatical elements that play important roles in the construction of grammatical
units particularly clauses and sentences. They (auxiliaries) sometimes require the
presence of lexical verbs to function within verbal groups; however, that does not
deny their significance as grammatical sentence elements. Despite their syntactic
dependency, auxiliaries enjoy high frequency as far as the use of sentence elements is
concerned. So, it is worthy to note that, the auxiliaries although require lexical verbs,
have semantic indispensability and sometimes some of them function as main verbs
in sentences and convey effective meanings on their own as ordinary verbs.

1. Definition of Auxiliary Verbs

Basically speaking, an auxiliary verb is used to add further functional, syntactic

or grammatical content to the information expressed by another verb. Auxiliary verbs
as those verbs that are used to form negatives, questions and tenses on one hand, and
used to express various moods and mental attitudes like hope, expectation, possibility
and futurity (modal) on the other hand. Auxiliary verbs almost always appear
together with a main verb, and though there are only few of them, they are among
most frequently occurring verbs in English language. Auxiliary verbs are also called
helping verbs. The primary auxiliary verbs are to be and to have, and other major
auxiliaries include shall, will, may and can. There are also numerous other lesser used
verbs such as do, must ought to, used to and dare. Examples:

 I am writing the book.

 He has done the work.
 He will be there in less than one minute.
 Would you help me to fulfill this homework?
 Can you open the door?
 Did you visit New York last holiday?
 Do you like chocolate?
 They must get there on time

2. The Auxiliary Verb “To be”: Forms and Uses

“Be” or “to be” is an important verb that has a multitude of uses in English. It
can be used as a main verb that stands alone in all its tenses including be, to be, been,
am, are, is, was, were, wasn’t, was not aren’t, are not, weren’t and were not. When
used as an auxiliary verb, be is a tense auxiliary and it always paired with another

153
verb to create a complete verb phrase. It can be singular or plural, present or past.
Negative sentences are formed by adding the word “not”. Examples:
 Jerry is messy. Is = action verb
 Although he is always complaining about his accidents, Jerry fails to pay
attention. is = auxiliary verb
 Jerry is going to be doing extra laundry for the rest of his life. to be = auxiliary
verb
2. 1. Form

The forms of the auxiliary “to be” refers to those are plenty changes and
modifications that can occur to the English the auxiliary “to be” when it is used and
arranged into different sentences in order to make “to be” correct, meaningful and
functional I sentences. All the forms and changes that it can take are as follows:

 Infinitive Form: to be
 Base Form: be
 Simple Present Form: am, is, are,
 Simple Past Form: was, were
 Present Participle Form: being
 Past Participle Form: been

2. 2. Uses of the Auxiliary Verb “to be”

 The auxiliary verb to be is used to form continuous active tenses like present
continuous tense, past continuous tense, present perfect continuous tense, past
perfect continuous tense, future continuous tense and future perfect continuous
tense. So due to the auxiliary “to be” the speaker and the listener could recognize
that the action is in progress, an idea of a plan or program in the near future, or
ongoing as opposed to state. In such a case, progressive be is always followed by
the gerund present participle form of the verb. So the auxiliary verb “be” is used
with a “present participle” to form the progressive aspect. Examples:
 He is working at the university.
 They will be satisfying by the good answer.
 I am leaving for home tomorrow.
 They have been learning French all the day.
 She is learning English grammar with her best teacher.
 She was carrying out her umbrella.
 The pupils have been walking along the river.
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 The Formation of the Passive Voice of the Verb. In addition, it is used to construct
all the passive voices in all tenses. “To be” is inserted before the main verb, which
then the main appears in the past participle. So “to be” has role to distinguish the
voice of the verb whether it is active or passive, and henceforth, it expresses
clearly the relationship between the subject and the object of the verb. So the
auxiliary verb be is used with a past participle to form the passive voice;
 They were travelled over the country.
 I was given a free ticket for the football match.
 He was followed by the car.
 He is being followed.
 This slogan has been published by the whole nation everywhere.
 The letters are being typed.

 “Be + infinitive” is used to convey order or instructions This is rather

impersonal way of giving instructions and is chiefly used with the third person.
When used with you it often implies that the speaker is passing on instructions
issued by someone else. Examples:
 No one is to leave this building without the permission of the police. “This
construction indicates that no one must leave the building so it is an order”.
 He is to stay here till the return. “He must stay”.
 She is to find their way to the station. “They must find their way”.
 Stay here, Tom. The speaker himself is ordering Tom to stay.
 You are to stay here. The speaker may be merely conveying to Tom the wishes
of another person
 “Be + infinitive” is also used to convey a plan in future This construction is
used in newspapers and in newspapers headlines the verb be is often omitted to
save space since the latter is important in newspapers. Examples:
 She is to be married next week.
 Our examination is to start next week.
 The expedition is to start in a due time.
 The first semester exam is to take place one week later.
 The president is to visit this town as soon as possible.
 The prime minister is to make a statement tomorrow.
 The director is to sign the contract next month.
Or
 She to marry next week.
 Our examination to start next week.

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  The first semester exam to take place one week later.
 The president to visit this town as soon as possible.
 The prime minister to make a statement tomorrow.
 The director to sign the contract next month.
 The construction “was /were + infinitive” This construction can be used to
express an idea of destiny. Examples:
 He received a blow on the head. It did not worry him at the time but it was to
be very troublesome later. “Through time it turned out to be or proved
troublesome”
 He made great efforts to succeed in the final exam. At the time of the exam he
was to fell ill and could not go to pass the exam.
 They said goodbye to each, little knowing that they were never to meet again.

 The construction “Be about + Infinitive” is used to express the immediate future.
The word “just” can be added to this construction to make the immediate future
event more immediate and precise. The “past form” is also possible in such a
meaning as well as the expression “be on the point of + gerund”. Examples:
 They are about to start. They are just going to start or they are on the point of
starting
 He is about to give a speech. Immediate future
 They are just about to leave.
 He was just about to dive when he saw the shark. Past form
 Be as an Ordinary Verb is normally used to denote the existence of, or to give
information about, a person or thing. It should be noted that the idea of existence
could be available by the construction “Be + Adjective”. Examples:
 Tom is an engineer.
 Malta is an island in the south of Europe.
 The dog is in the near rainforest.
 The roads were rough and narrow in this marginal city.
 Be as an Ordinary Verb is also used to express physical or mental conditions.
 I am cold. Physical condition
 They will be happy. Mental condition
 Tom is being foolish. The speaker is showing this quality
 You are being stupid. The subject is deliberately acting in this way.
 Be as an Ordinary Verb is again used for age, size, weight, and price.
 How load are you? = I am ten years old.
 What is your weight? = I am 65 kilos or I weigh 65 kilos
 How much is this melon? = It is one dollar.
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Summary

“Be” belongs to a group of English verbs which have certain special grammatical
(syntactic) properties that distinguish them from other verbs. This group consists
mainly of verbs that are auxiliaries– verbs that add grammatical meaning to other
verbs. “Be” may also be referred to by other names, such as "special verbs. The
principal distinguishing properties of “Be” in this special group are as follows:
 Subject–auxiliary inversion: it can participate in what is called subject–
auxiliary inversion, i.e. they can swap places with the subject of the clause, to
form questions and for certain other purposes. For example, inversion of subject
and verb is possible in the sentence.
 Negation: They undergo negation by the addition of not after them. For
example, one can say they are not nice, but not *they like not to sing.
 Continuous Tense: I am doing the work.
 Passive Voice: The work was finished in time.
 Principal Verb: He was a teacher.

Exercise 1

Direction: Put one of the forms of the auxiliary verb “to be” in the provided
space in the following sentences with justification.

1. My teacher……1…..now speaking about the topic of chemistry for first year

engineering student at the Harvard university.
2. In Edinburgh, all the visitors …2….claiming about the bad conditions of the
streets and hotels in the middle of the week vacation.
3. My uncle will …3…..travelling to fulfill his sacred pilgrimage the next Tuesday
this time. He decides to take with him his beloved mother to share him the trip.
4. My suitcases …4……missing during the presentation of the seminar today
somewhere in the amphitheater.
5. All my close friends and fellows have …5…….learning English language
courses all the night before the exam.
6. The visitors have ………6……. walking along the Nile River.

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 7. The first terms exams will have ……7…..postponed till the next week during
the bad weather conditions.
8. The traffic circulation had…..8……witnessing so much disorder during the
peak hours today.
9. The deans of the university …….9……. troubling about the students' strikes the
whole week last month.
10. They …..10….. learning French syntax with her best teacher all the night.

Exercise 2

Direction: Put one of the forms of the auxiliary verb “to be” in the provided
space in the following sentences with justification.

1. The new terms vocabulary ……1….copied into her notebook (by the student).
2. Stephan was ….2…….. talked into buying a new car (by the salesman).
3. The bubbling pot ….3…. seasoned (by the chef) with star anise.
4. The onions ….4….. chopped and the ginger is grated.
5. All of the cherries on the tree …5….. + ….. eaten by the crow.
6. Several tourists would have ……. .6……… bitten by monkeys in Phuket.
7. The suitcases …7…… being stolen by the thief yesterday.
8. I will have ….8…….. told the truth recently.
9. She was …..9………taught to be punctual (by her parents)
10. The scholar’s references..….10……diligently checked before the exam.

Exercise 3

Direction: Put one of the forms of the auxiliary verb “to be” in the provided
space in the following sentences with justification.

1. No one ……1….. to leave this house without the permission of the owner of the
house.
2. The administration of the university decides that the first semester exams
……2……. to take place one month later.
3. He received a blow on the head. It did not worry him at the time but it
…...3……. to be very troublesome later.
4. My friends were walking on the seaside. He ….4…… just about to dive when
he saw the shark.
5. The roads …5…… always rough and narrow in this marginal city.
6. The girl is lost in this huge busy city. At the afternoon she feels that he must go
back home. She …6…… to find their way to the station.
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 7. The students will ……very fine after they finish their first term exam with good
scores.
8. They made very great efforts to succeed in the final exam. At the time of the
exam they all ….8…… to fell ill and could not go to pass the exam.
9. You ….9…….to stay here.
10. There has been the full preparation for the inauguration party. The Prime
Minister ….10…… about to give a speech.

Exercise 4

Direction: Fill the spaces in the following sentences by inserting the correct form
of be with, where necessary, the past participle or present participle or perfect
infinitive of the verb in brackets.

1. They are cutting down all the trees. The whole countryside ……….“ruin”
2. He ordered that all lights ………….………..“extinguish”
3. How long you ……….……….here
4. My flat was full of dust because the old house just opposite. “pull down”
5. He asked where he ……..it. “Put” I could told him to put it on the mantelpiece.
6. It …………..……difficult to read a newspaper upside down use negative
7. You ……………… here till I return. That is an order. “stay”
8. He suggests that prominent people …………....…..to contribute. “ask”
9. Even if you …………..…..to go on your knees to him I do not think that it
would make him change his mind.
10. I …..….on a catering course when I leave school. My parents have arranged it.
“Go”
11. What is happening now? The injured man …….……..out of the arena. “carry”
12. It is better …………..………too than too late.
13. I wish you …………..……..here. I miss you very much.
14. Why did you leave him behind? You ………..………him with you. Those
were your instructions. “Take”
15. She is learning Italian. She ……….……..by a professor from Milan. “Teach”
16. I know I ………..……..half an hour late yesterday but I ….…………….half an
hour early tomorrow. I would rather you ……….…………..punctual every day.
17. It is impossible ……………………….right every time.
18. He ………..here by seven but now it is nine and there is no sign of him. “Be”
19. They decided that voting papers …………….………to all members. “Send”
20. There ………………………eggs for breakfast tomorrow?

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 Ordinary Auxiliaries: The Auxiliary “To have”
Description of the Lecture
This unit is about English auxiliary verb “to have”. It provides the conceptual as
well as the technical frameworks of “to have” to identify its meanings and
conventions in English sentence. The pedagogical procedures of this unite counts
on the theory and practice about “to have”.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this unit, they should be able, among
other things, to;
1. Define the second English auxiliary “to have”.
2. Introduce the basic forms and uses of the English auxiliary “to have”.
3. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences with “to have”.

Introduction

“Have” is an important verb that can stand alone in all its tenses, including has, have,
having, had, and hadn’t or had not. It is usually used to denote ownership, and it can
160
also be used to discuss ability or describe appearance. “Have” is also a very popular
substitute for the verbs “eat” and “drink.” For example: “Let’s have dinner.”
When used as an auxiliary verb, have is always teamed up with another verb to create
a complete verb phrase, making it easy to differentiate between uses. Examples:
 Jerry has a large coffee stain on his shirt. Has = action verb
 Jerry has bought a new shirt to replace the one that was ruined earlier. Has =
auxiliary verb; bought is a past participle that competes the verb phrase.
 Jerry should have been more careful! Have = auxiliary verb; phrase “should
have been” expresses time and evaluates Jerry’s actions.
1. Form

The forms of the auxiliary “to have” refer to those are plenty changes and
modifications that can occur to the English the auxiliary “to have” when it is used and
arranged into different sentences in order to make “to have” correct, meaningful and
functional in sentences. All the forms and changes that it can take are as follows:

 Infinitive Form: to have

 Base From: have
 Simple Present Form: have, has
 Simple Past Form: had
 Present Participle Form: having
 Past Participle From: had

2. Uses of the Auxiliary verb “to have”

 “Have” as an auxiliary is used with the past participle of the main verb to form
perfect tenses or aspects like present perfect, present perfect continuous, past
perfect, past perfect continuous, future perfect, future perfect continuous and
perfect conditional. The main idea of have within these tenses is to describe
completed action. So the grammatical construction of this use is “have or has +
past participle of the main verb”. Examples:
 I have done my job.
 They had had their job done before they left their house.
 She has revised all the lessons.
 They will have been revising their lessons all the night.
 I would have worked on this exercise.
 They had found the answer before the young boy.
 The construction “Have + Object + Past Participle” can be used to express more
neatly sentences of the type I employed someone to do something for me.
Instead of saying I employed someone to solve the exercise for me we can say I
161
 had my exercise solved. In order to preserve the meaning so we must keep this
order of words otherwise the meaning will be changed. This idea is understood
through the examples below:
 I employed some to clean my car. We can say instead: = I had my car
cleaned.
 I got a man to sweep my chimneys. We can say: = I had my chimneys swept.
 I hired your car to travel to the city. We can say: = I had your car travelled to
the city.
 I found someone to cut my hair. We can say: =I had my hair cut.

 The construction “Have + Object + Present Participle” is often used with a

period of future time. Also, it can also be used in the past, present, and the
interrogative. Examples:
 I will have you driving in three days. = as a result of my efforts, you will be
driving in three days. Period of future time
 He had them all dancing. = he ought /persuaded them all to dance. Past form
 I have them all talking to each other. = I encourage/persuaded them all to talk
to each other. Present form
 Will you really have her driving in three days? Interrogative form

 The construction “Had Better + Bare Infinitive” is another form. Had here is an
unreal past, the meaning is present or future. This form is used as follows:
 It is worth to mention that the negative form is formed with the word not after
better.
 This construction again is usually contracted after pronouns and after in speech
is sometimes so unstressed as to be almost inaudible.
 In addition, this construction is not normally used in the ordinary interrogative
form, but is sometimes used in the negative interrogative as an advice form.
The construction you had better is a very useful advice form.
 It is worth to mention also that this construction is unchanged with the first or
third person in indirect speech while it can be changed or remain unchanged
with the second person. See the examples below:
 I had better ring him at once / tomorrow.
 I had better tell him the truth.
 I had better pass the exam.
 You had better not miss the last bus. It would be unwise to miss it or I advise
/warn you not to miss the bus.
 Had not you better ask him first? Negative interrogative

162
  You had better fly. It would be best for you to fly, or I advise you to fly

3. Have as an Ordinary Verb

 Have meaning “possession” and “suffer” from pain, illness, disability. Examples:
 She has a red car.
 They have had this house for fifty years.
 Have you got a headache?
 He has a weak heart.
 Have is conjugated with do for habitual actions.
 Do you often have headache? No, I do not have.
 When there is not this idea of habit, then “have not –got”- /“have you –got”-
forms are more usual in Britain, whereas other English-speaking countries
“notably Americans” use to do forms here also. So an American might say in
this case:

Where an Englishman would probably Where an Englishman would probably

say, say,
 Can you help me now?  Can you help me now?
 Do you have time?  Have you got time?
 Do you have the information?  Have you got the information?

 “Have” can also be used to mean the following terms:

 “Take” a meal, food, drink……………………………...……………………….
 “Give” a party, entertain …………………………………………..…………….
 “Encounter” difficulties, troubles …………………………………………..…..
 “Experience”, enjoy, usually with an adjective. Examples:
 We have dinner at 10 o'clock.
 They are having a festival next week.
 Did you have difficulties with the taxes?
 I hope you will have a pleasant trip with your friends.
 “Have” when used as above obeys the rules for ordinary verbs in the sense that it
is never followed by “got” and its negative and interrogative forms are formed
with “do” and “did”. Furthermore, it can be used in the continuous tenses.
 I am having dinner next week.
 They are having fifty people for the party next Tuesday.
 How many sessions do you have this week?

163
  Marry has breakfast in morning, but Stephan does not.
 Will you have some courses?
 Have you got time for the sport?
 I am having a pleasant time

Summary

“Have” belongs to a group of English verbs which have certain special grammatical
(syntactic) properties that distinguish them from other verbs. This group consists
mainly of verbs that are auxiliaries– verbs that add grammatical meaning to other
verbs. “Have” may also be referred to by other names, such as "special verbs. The
principal distinguishing properties of “have” in this special group are as follows:
 Subject–auxiliary inversion: It can participate in what is called subject–
auxiliary inversion, i.e. they can swap places with the subject of the clause, to
form questions and for certain other purposes. For example, inversion of subject
and verb is possible in the sentence they are nice (becoming have they made
cake?).
 Negation: They undergo negation by the addition of not after them. For
example, one can say they have not nice, but not.
 Present perfect tense: I have done the work.
 Principal verb: He has a car.

Exercise 1

Direction: Put one of the forms of the auxiliary verb “to have” in the provided
space in the following sentences with justification. Pat attention to the verbs
between brackets.

1. When I arrived at the party of my uncle, Lucy ……1… already gone home by
her new car. She did not know that I was invited to the same party.
2. Marry …..2……. breakfast in every morning with her family at the garden of
the house, but Stephan does not.
3. The young boy …3……. “finish” their first term exam so far. The exam took
them all their precious time since last month with preparation, revision and
session's attendance.
4. The teacher asked the pupil who put his head on the table. Did you ……4……a
headache? You can leave the room if yes.

164
 5. I employed Mr. John to clean my new car. I made a long trip to Paris and before
I started my trip I...…5…… my car “clean”.
6. All the ministers would …..6…… arrive at the Presidential House before Mr.
President to listen the famous annual speech.
7. Ann...…7…... “get” her Doctor Degree from Harvard University before she
became a famous lecturer at Harvard 2 University.
8. My friend ….8……..this house for thirty years. He got it from his grandfather
when he became adult.
9. You …..9…….better not miss the last bus. It would be unwise to miss it or I
advise you not to miss the bus.
10. As a result of my work and fatigue, I want to …10…… my brother….10 ……
my car when we want to go back home. Consequently, I will ……11…….my
brother “drive” in four hours as long as the trip.
11. I …………12…………..my lesson “write”. That is why I invite my class mate
to my room.
12. I cannot read French language so I ……13………..the documents “translate”.
My nephew is helping with the translation into English language.
13. The visitor …..14…... them all “sing”. The visitor did his best to persuade all
the invitees to take part in the dancing evening at the grand hotel.
14. You …..15…… better “fly” this evening to Paris. It would be best for you to fly
to Paris for the entertainment of tonight. I advise you to attend the interesting
entertainments tonight. They are very useful for your family.
15. My father ….16……a nice blue car. The car is very exceptional since it is the
only one produced by its kind from the General Motor factory.

Exercise 2

Direction: Put the correct form of have into the following sentences. Use am
having, is having, etc., as a future form.

1. We ……………….. Some guests in for dinner next night.

2. You …………………a good trip yesterday?
3. Do not disturb him, he ………………..a rest.
4. We ………………..lunch early tomorrow.
5. How many lessons he ………………..a week? He usually ……………four.
6. You ………………..earthquakes in your country?
7. What time do you ……..……….breakfast? We usually ……………..it at 8.00.
8. What you …………….for breakfast? We ……………….toast and coffee.
9. Why you ……………………a cooked breakfast? It is too much trouble.
10. Why were they making such a noise? They ………………. an argument.
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 11. You ………………….a thunder some yesterday?
12. Come in, we ……………..a debate.
13. You ……………..a cup of coffee? Yes, please.
14. We …………….a meeting tomorrow to discuss safety precautions.
15. The tree just missed the roof, we ……………….a very lucky escapes from it.

Exercise 3

Direction: Fill in the spaces by inserting the correct form of have. Use am, is, are
having as a future form. Get can be used instead of have.

1. I ……………………..my house painted. That is why there is all this mess.

2. My hair looks dreadful, I think I ……………………..it set tomorrow.
3. The attic was dark so last year we …………………..sky light put in.
4. The dead tree is dangerous. I ………………………..it cut down tomorrow.
5. We ……………just ………..central heating installed. The house is warm.
6. I cannot read Greek so I …………………………..the documents translated. My
nephew is helping with the translation.
7. …………..you ………..the film developed or did you develop it yourself?
8. Why ……………………..he ………………………..all his shoes specially
made? He says that he has to because his feet are different sizes.
9. ………you ………………..your milk delivered or do you go to the shop for it?
10. If you hate cleaning fish why….you ……them cleaned at the fishmongers?
11. How often …………………you …………………….your brakes tested?
12. I am afraid it is rather draughty but I …..…..that broken pane replaced tomorrow.

Exercise 4

Direction: Fill in the spaces by inserting the correct form of have, the past
participle of the verb in brackets and, where necessary, a pronoun.

1. Your ankle is very swollen. You would better ……….it ……………..x “ray”
2. Your roof is leaking, you should …………….it …………………… “repair”
3. The trousers are too long, I must ……………………… “shorten”
4. No one will be able to read your notes. I know, I ………them ………… “type”
5. That is a good piano but you should ……………it ………………..“tune”
6. Why do not you……………….the document ……………….? “photocopy”
7. He did not like the color of the curtains so he …………………..………. “dye”
8. He went to a garage to ………………………………the puncture. “mend”
9. His arm was broken so he had to go to hospital to ………………………. “set”
10. The battery is all right now. I …...just ……………….it. “recharge”

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 11. It is a beautiful photo. I am going to ……………………… “enlarge”
12. Be careful of those knives. I ………………just ……………………. “sharpen”

Exercise 5

Direction: Rewrite the sentences using a have + object + past participle

construction and omitting the words in bold type. One example answer is given

 Example: I employed a teacher to discuss the exercise. = We say I had my teacher

discussed the exercise.
1. I pay a space to service my articles.
2. The tap keeps dripping so I must send for a number to see to it.
3. I paid a watchmaker to clean my watch.
4. An artist is painting her portrait. She …………………
5. The arranged for the police to arrest the man.
6. He paid a lorry driver to tow the car to a garage.
7. They are employing builders to build a garage.
8. I pay a window cleaner to clean my windows every month.
9. I went to an oculist and he tested my eyes for me.
10. The old gypsy is telling Tom fortune. Tom ………………………
11. I asked the fish monger to open the oysters for me.
12. I went to a jeweler and he pierced my ears for me.

Ordinary Auxiliaries: “To Do”

Description of the Lecture
This unit is about English auxiliary verb “To do”. It provides the conceptual as well
as the technical frameworks of “To do” to identify its meanings and conventions in
English sentence. The unit counts on definitions, forms, uses, examples and
exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this unit, they should be able, among
other things, to;
1. Define the third English auxiliary “to do”.
2. Introduce the basic forms, conventions and uses of “to do”.
3. Use “to do” to construct correct, meaningful and functional sentences.

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Introduction

“Do” can be used as an action verb that stands alone in all its tenses, including to
do, do, does, done, did and didn’t, doesn’t or did not . When used as an auxiliary
verb, do is always paired up with another verb to create a complete verb phrase. In
some cases, it is used to add emphasis: “I did put the garbage out!” Do is often used
to form questions and negated clauses. It is also used in elliptical sentences, where
the main verb is understood and is omitted as a result. For example:
 “He plays piano well, doesn’t he?” or “They all had dinner, but I didn’t.”
 Because he spills things so often, Jerry does more laundry than most people.
Does = action verb
 Jerry didn’t put his coffee in a cup with a lid. Didn’t = auxiliary verb
 Jerry doesn’t always spill things, but it happens a lot. Doesn’t = auxiliary verb
1. Form

The forms of the auxiliary “to do” refer to those are plenty changes and
modifications that can occur to the English the auxiliary “to do” when it is used and
arranged into different sentences in order to make “to have” correct, meaningful and
functional in sentences. All the forms and changes that it can take are as follows:

 Infinitive Form: to do
 Base From: do
 Simple Present Form: do, does
 Simple Past Form: did
 Present Participle Form: doing
 Past Participle From: done

2. Uses of to Do

 The auxiliary “to do” is used in questions formation. The presence of an auxiliary
(or copular) verb allows subject–auxiliary inversion to take place as it is required
in most interrogative sentences in English. If there is already an auxiliary or
copula present, do-support is not required when forming questions. This applies
not only in yes–no questions but also in questions formed using interrogative WH
words. Examples:
 He will laugh. → Will he laugh? (the auxiliary will inverts with the subject
he)
 She is at home. → Is she at home? (the copula is inverts with the subject she)
 When will he laugh? WH question words
 However, if there is no auxiliary or copula present, inversion requires the
introduction of an auxiliary in the form of do-support. See the examples below:
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  I know you. → Do I know you? (Compare: Know I? which is incorrect)
 He laughs at me regularly. → Does he laugh at me regularly? (Compare:
Laughs he? which is incorrect)
 She came home yesterday. → Did she come home yesterday? (Compare:
Came she home? which is incorrect)
 In negated questions, the negating word not may appear either following the
subject, or attached to the auxiliary in the contracted form n't. That applies both to
do-support and to other auxiliaries. Examples:
 He does not work.
 He did not work.
 Why are you not playing? / Why aren't you playing?
 Do you not want to try again? / Don't you want to try again?
 The above principles do not apply to wh-questions when the interrogative word is
the subject or part of the subject. Then, there is no inversion and so there is no
need for do-support. Examples:
 Who lives here?
 Whose dog bit you?
 The verb have, in the sense of possession, is sometimes used without do-support
as if it were an auxiliary, but this is considered dated. The version with do-support
is also correct. Examples:
 Have you any idea what is going on here?
 Do you have any idea what is going on here?
 (Have you got any idea of what is going on here? – the order is similar to the
first example, but have is an auxiliary verb here)
 With not for Negative Constructions: in the same way that the presence of an
auxiliary allows question formation, the appearance of the negating word not is
allowed as well. Then too, if no other auxiliary or copular verb is present, do-
support is require. Examples:
 He will laugh. → He will not laugh. (not attaches to the auxiliary will)
 She laughs. → She does not laugh. (not attaches to the added auxiliary does)
 In the second sentence, do-support is required because Modern Idiomatic English
does not allow forms like she laughs not. The verb have, in the sense of
possession, is sometimes negated thus. Example:
 I haven't the foggiest idea.
 Most combinations of auxiliary/copula plus not have a contracted form ending in -
n't, such as isn't, won't, etc. The relevant contractions for negations formed using
do-support are don't, doesn't and didn't. Such forms are used very frequently in

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 informal English. It is worth to mention again that Do-support is required for
negated imperatives even when the verb is the copula be. Examples:
 Do not do that action.
 Don't be silly like that.
 However, there is no do-support with non-finite, as they are negated by a
preceding not:
 It would be a crime not to help him (the infinitive to help is negated)
 Not knowing what else to do, I stood my ground (the present participle
knowing is negated)
 Not eating vegetables can harm your health (the gerund eating is negated)

 The auxiliary “to do” is used in negative inversion. The same principles as for
question formation apply to other clauses in which subject–auxiliary inversion is
required, particularly after negative expressions and expressions involving only
(negative inversion). Examples:
 Never did he run that fast again. (Wrong: Never he did run that fast again.
*Never ran he that fast again.)
 Only here do I feel at home. (Wrong: Only here feel I at home.)

 The auxiliary “to do” is used for Special Emphasis. In such case, do-support may
appear for pragmatic reasons. The auxiliary generally appears for purposes of
emphasis, for instance to establish a contrast or to express a correction. Here it is
possible to use the construction “do or did + infinitive” in the affirmative when
we which to add special emphasis. It is chiefly used when another speaker has
expressed doubt about the action referred to. Emphatic do can also be used with
imperatives, including with the copula be. Examples:
 You did not see him. I did see him. (The form “did” is strongly stressed in
speech. This is more emphatic than the normal way as I saw him.)
 Did Bill eat his breakfast? Yes, he did eat his breakfast (did emphasizes the
positive answer, which may be unexpected).
 Bill doesn't sing, then. No, he does sing (does emphasizes the correction of the
previous statement).
 Do take care!
 Do come in.
 As with typical do-support, that usage of do does not occur with other auxiliaries
or a copular verb. Then, emphasis can be obtained by adding stress to the auxiliary
or copular. Note that (Some auxiliaries, such as can, change their pronunciation
when stressed; see Weak and strong forms in English.) Examples:
 Would you take the risk? Yes, I would take the risk.
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  Bill isn't singing, then. No, he is singing.
 “Do” is used for elliptical Sentences to avoid repetition of a previous ordinary
verb. The table below represents the different situations where “to do” is used to
avoid repetition.
Case Examples
In short agreement and  Ann talks too much. Yes she does. No, she
disagreement. does not.
 They did not go. No, they did not. Yes, they
did.
 She knows English very well. Yes, she does.
No, she does not.

In addition  She likes tomato and so I do.

 They live in the Hyde Park but I do not.
 She does not drive but I do.

In question tags  She works here. Does not she?

 They did not meet you. Did they?
 He plays well, doesn't he?
 You don't like Sara, do you?

“Do” it used in short  Do you study? Yes, I do.

answers to avoid repletion  Do you meet him? No, I do not.
of the main verb.  Did you visit your mother? Yes, I did.

 The construction “do + imperative” is used to make a request or invitation more

persuasive. Examples:
 Do come with us. This expression is more persuasive than come with us.
 Do make little efforts
 Do help us, please.

3. “Do” as an Ordinary Verb

 “Do” is like be and have. It can be used as an ordinary verb. The verb do (with its
inflected forms does, did, done, doing) can be used in negative and interrogative
in the simple present, continuous forms and past with do /did. Examples:
 I do not do. Do you do? Do not you do?
 He does not do. Does he do? Does not he do?
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  I did not do. Did he do? Did not he do?
 What are you doing? I am doing my exercises.
 Like other non-auxiliary verbs, do cannot be directly negated with not and cannot
participate in inversion so it may itself require do-support, with both auxiliary and
lexical instances of do appearing together. Examples:
 They didn't do the laundry on Sunday. (did is the auxiliary, do is the main
verb)
 Why do you do sport? (the first do is the auxiliary, the second is the main
verb)
 How do you do? (a set phrase used as a polite greeting)
 The expression “How do you do?” is said by both parties after an introduction.
Originally this was an enquiry about the other person's health. Now it is merely a
formal greeting. Examples:
 How do you do John?
 Fine, thanks and you

Summary

One of the most striking characteristics of Modern English is the importance of

the auxiliary DO. In the absence of any other auxiliary, it is used in subject-inversion,
in negation, in emphatic polarity, in short answers, and in tag questions, as shown by
the following pairs of examples where a sentence containing DO is contrasted with
one containing another auxiliary, HAVE.
 (1) Have they finished?
 (2) Did they finish?
 (1) They haven't finished.
 (2) They didn't finish.
 (1) They HAVE finished!
 (2) They DID finish!
 (1) They have.
 (2) They did.
 (1) They have finished, have (not) they?
 (2) They finished, did (not) they?
Auxiliary DO is often called `periphrastic' DO because it has no meaning
independent of the meaning of the construction concerned; the only reason for using
auxiliary DO in Modern English is because the syntax requires an auxiliary and no
other auxiliary is needed by the sentence's meaning. DO as an auxiliary fills the gaps
where non-auxiliary verbs are not allowed and where other auxiliaries are not needed.

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Exercise 1

Some auxiliaries when used in certain ways make their negative and
interrogative according to the rule for ordinary verbs, i.e. with do. Sometimes
either form is possible. Make the sentences (a) negative and (b) interrogative,
using do/does/did.
1. They have eggs for breakfast.
2. He needs a new coat.
3. He used to sell fruits.
4. They have to work hard.
5. She does the housework.
6. He needs more money.
7. He had a row with his boss.
8. She had a heart attack.
9. Her hair needed cutting.
10. He does his homework after supper.
11. She has a singing lesson every week.
12. She had to make a speech.
13. He does his best.
14. He has to get up at six every day.
Exercise 2

Some auxiliaries when used in certain ways make their negative and
interrogative according to the rule for ordinary verbs, i.e. with do. Sometimes
either form is possible. Make the sentences (a) negative and (b) interrogative,
using do/does/did.
1. The children have dinner at school.
2. She dared him to climb it.
3. You did it on purpose.
4. He has his piano tuned regularly.
5. He dares to say that!
6. They had a good time.
7. The drink did him good.
8. My watch needs cleaning.
9. He had an accident.
10. You had your house painted.
11. She used to make her own clothes.
12. You do the exercises.
13. He had difficulty in getting a job.
14. He dared to interrupt the president, did he
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Exercise 5: Mixed Auxiliaries Exercise

Direction: put in the space provided with one form of the forms of the all the
three auxiliaries in the following sentences with justification.
1. What …………… the children doing when you last saw them? (was, were, are,
did, been)
2. Marry ………… always wanted to try skydiving. (was, doesn’t, has, is, have)
3. Where ………… you go during your June holiday? (were, been, are, did, does)
4. Why do you think he ……….. call you like he said he would? (didn’t, is, hasn’t,
has been, have)
5. Mr. Ann ………. going to be upset when he hears what you did. (will, don’t, is,
didn’t, has)
6. John ………. want to go to the movies; he wants to stay home instead. (doesn’t,
isn’t, wasn’t, hasn’t, was not)
7. I ………… appreciate his comments. They weren’t funny. (did, have, been,
didn’t, haven’t)
8. I really like fish but I ……….. care for chicken. (weren’t, been, don’t, is, was)
9. Where ………… you going when I saw you yesterday? (were, was, is, do, did)
10. Dad …………. called yet; he’s late as usual. (are, were, has, hasn’t, wouldn’t)

Exercise 6: Mixed Auxiliaries Exercise

Direction: Choose the correct auxiliary verb.

1. Andy ……….. working on his homework the whole day.
2. Samantha …………make dinner with her grandma in the kitchen.
3. The friends ………… going to South Africa.
4. ………….. your father work in this huge building in the center of the city?
5. ………… you want to come to my house later to see you?
6. Mike ………… like pet animals very much.
7. The poster …………. hanging on the wall of the kitchen.
8. Where …………. your family like to eat their dinner every morning?
9. ………….. your brother playing soccer this weekend in the school yard?
10. John ………….. watching television anymore in this new university.
11. His family …………. go to parties all the time.
12. Tom and Smith …………. planning a vacation to Paris for this summer.

Exercise 7: Mixed Auxiliaries

Direction: Fill in each blank space with the correct auxiliary verb as it is given:
1. ……………… he as mean as people say? a) Is b) Does c) Has
2. ………….. he know how to cook well? a) Is b) Does c) Has
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 3. …………. you upset? a) Are b) Do c) Have
4. ………… you told her yet? a) Are b) Do c) Have
5. ………. they ever been here before? a) Are b) Do c) Have
6. …………… that a good movie? a) Is b) Does c) Has
7. ………… she in love with Marco? a) Is b) Does c) Has
8. ………. you stopped smoking? a) Are b) Do c) Have
9. ……….. you play tennis on weekends? a) Are b) Do c) Have
10. ……….. your grandmother live in Spain? a) Is b) Does c) Has

Exercise 8: Mixed Main Verbs and Mixed Auxiliaries

Direction: Fill in the correct form of MAKE, DO, HAVE or GET in the space
provided with justification.
1. ……………a seat. I'll ……………… you a cup of coffee.
2. I wasn't able to sleep because someone was …………….. noise in the basement.
3. I offered to ……………….. the dishes, but she didn't let me.
4. I told her that she had to ………………. more exercise.
5. I must go now because I have to …………… some work……………….
6. I ………………. lost on my way here, so that's why I'm late.
7. It's no use ……………. angry. You must learn to control your temper.
8. I must ……………….. my car repaired. It's got a flat tire.
9. The teacher ……………. us write 300 lines as punishment.
10. I couldn't ……………. any business with him because he isn't trustworthy.
11. After I ……………..up at 6.15, I ………….. a shower and then …………some
breakfast for my husband and me.
12. It's late and she isn't home yet. I'm starting to ………………….. worried.
13. I told her it was her turn to ………………… the shopping this week.
14. What are we ……………… for dinner tonight?
15. I'm sorry. You didn't pass. You …………….. too many mistakes.
16. My mother was very ill last week, but she is …………….. better.
17. I have to …………….. my hair …………… today. There's a ball tonight and I
want to look my best.
18. It's …………… rather cold. Don't you think we should head back to the house?
19. I usually ………… along rather well with my sisters. They don't ………… any
trouble when they're here.
20. We're ……………… married next August.

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 English Modals: May and Can
Description of the Lecture
This unit is about English modals “may and can”. It provides key idea about “may
and can” such as definition, meanings. The pedagogical procedures count of the
unit counts on theory, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed the unit of “may and can”, they should
be able, among other things, to;
1. Define English modals “may and can”.
2. Be familiar the basic forms of “May and can”.
3. Be familiar the different meanings and uses of “may and can”.

176
 4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through “may and
can”.

Introduction

In English grammar, modal verbs belong to the larger category of auxiliary

verbs. Therefore, they share some grammatical characteristics with the auxiliary
verbs. English modal verbs are a special group of verbs that help to give a special
meaning to a full verb and help to express the accurate mood of the information
hidden within the utterance. They have many specific features that differentiate them
from full verbs. Thanks to them the full verb indicates the right type of modality that
is: ability, duty, obligation, possibility, suggestion, feeling, opinion, advisability or
arrangement and the seeker /speaker is able to express a large scale of various smaller
or bigger changes in temper as well differentiate one’s state of mind.

1. Definition of Modal Verbs

A modal verb is a special type of verb functioning as an essential linguistic

device when the insertion of which into a non-modal environment help to create a
different understanding of the whole utterance. A modal verb is an auxiliary verb that
can be used to change the grammatical mood of a sentence. The key way to identify a
modal verb is by its defectiveness (they have neither participles nor infinitives).
Modals are used to express various moods and mental attitudes of the speaker or
writer. Modals are otherwise called "modal auxiliary", "helping verb", "supporting
verb", or "secondary auxiliary" and they primarily mark modality. The modal verbs
are auxiliary verbs that provide additional, special and specific semantic meaning or
change the meaning when used with the main verb in the sentence. Modal auxiliaries
are auxiliary verbs that lend different shades of meaning to the main verb to which
they are attached.

The main idea of modals is that we do not normally use them to say that
situations definitely exist or that particular events have definitely happened. We use
them, for example, to talk about things which we expect, which are or are not
possible, which we think are necessary, which we want to happen, which we are not
sure about, which tend to happen, or which have not happened. So the use of modals
is imprecise. Further clarification to this is, the use of various modal verbs to give the
ideas of possibility, impossibility, necessity, willingness, certainty, uncertainty,
expectation ……………. See the table and examples below for more details about the
structure of sentences with modals:

Subject Modal Verb Infinitive without to Complement

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 I, we, you, she, can, could, may, go To sleep
he, might, will, would, drink Some water
It, john, Ann, shall, should, ought to, eat Some food
Stephan, Maria must, need, used do Some exercise

 He may arrive at any time.

 She could be in London or Paris.
 I think you ought to see a lawyer.
 You may have told me Frances was ill.

2. Principal Features of Modals

They are the rebels of English verbs because they don’t follow the
standard rules of the rest of the thousands of verbs we find in English.
This type of verbs has certain principal features in which it significantly differs from
the full verb and also from its relative, the primary auxiliary verb. Those features are
listed below.
 Both auxiliary and main verbs carry tense information and participate in the same
syntactic constructions,
 Modals are not inflected in the third person in the sense that there is no subject-
verb agreement. Modal do not accept conjugation. They do not have "s" in the
third person singular. Consequently, they do not change form "have only one
form". Modal verbs are generally only used in the present tense in English but we
don’t add an -s in the third person singular. See the examples below:
 She may know his address.
 He must learn the lesson.
 They should see the doctor very soon.
 They function as auxiliary verbs: they modify the meaning of another verb,
which they govern. This verb generally appears as a bare infinitive “the base form
of the verb alone”, although in some definitions a modal verb can also govern the
to-infinitive (as in the case of ought).
 Modals are used with the base form of the verb to create verbal phrases.
 Modals do not take an auxiliary in questions, negatives, tags and short answers are
made without do. They are negated by the addition of “n’t” or “not”. They are not
added to “don’t” as other verbs. These are called anomalous finites because they
are different in some way from what is normal. Examples:
 Can you swim? Yes, I can.
 She must not finish the work.
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  He should not be doing that, should he?
 I cannot swim in this cold sea.
 They are inverted with the subject to form a question without using “do”. For
example, the interrogative sentence is “Should I do it?” but not “Do I should do
it?”
 Modals are always used with main verbs "except for short answers and question
tags". The main verb is used in the infinitive without "to". Ought is an exception.
See the examples below:
 I must water the flowers.
 I may not be working tomorrow.
 They have the syntactic properties associated with auxiliary verbs in English,
principally that they can undergo subject–auxiliary inversion (in questions, for
example) and can be negated by the appending of not after the verb.
 Modals are defective in the sense that they do not have non-finite forms. Modal
verbs do not have infinitives or participles, and they do not normally have past
forms "though would, could, should and might can sometimes be used as past
tenses of will, can, shall and may". Other expressions are used when necessary.
See the examples below:
 I would like to be able to skate. "Not to can skate"
 People really had to work hard in those days.
 However, certain past ideas can be expressed by a modal verb followed by a
perfect infinitive "have + past participle". See the examples below:
 You should have told me you were coming.
 I think I may have annoyed you.
 Modal verbs do not have all tenses. They use other verbs to complete the tenses
such as can is completed by be able to, must is completed by have to …………….
 They can play the piano. = They will be able to play the piano in the future.
 You must come early. = You had to come early yesterday.
 They can’t co-occur. In other words, two modal verbs can’t be used
simultaneously so the correct form is “He may come” or “He will come” instead
of “He may will come”

Important Note
All the modal auxiliaries set the event or state expressed outside of ordinary reality
– they set it in the future, in a hypothetical state, in an inferred state or as possibility
or probability or necessity. We can tell that some of them form present/past pairs:
can/could, may/ might, shall/should, will/ would. It is not that could can refer only
to past time events or states since something like I could go tomorrow clearly refers

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to some non-past event.

3. May and Can for Permission and Possibility

3. 1. Form

May Can
 May for all persons in the present and  Can for all persons in the present
future and future
 Might in the conditional and after verbs  Could for past and conditional
in a past tense  Negative: cannot / could not
 Negative: may not / might not  Interrogative: can I? / could I?
 Interrogative: may I? / might I?  Can is followed by the bare
 May is followed by the bare infinitive. infinitive.

3. 1. 1. May and Can Used for Permission in the Present or Future

A: First Person

 I / we can is the most usual form: see the example below:

 I can take a day off whenever I want.
 I / we may mean "I or we have permission to ……………" is possible:
 I may leave the office as I have finished.
 I / we may or might is a little more usual in indirect speech:
 You may leave when you have finished.

B: Second Person

Here may is chiefly used when the speaker is giving permission. Examples:

 You may park here. It means that I give you permission to park. It does not
normally mean the police or someone else allows you to park or you have a
right to park. This means that all the authority belongs to the speaker in the
sense that the park is a private property of the speaker.
 Can in this case, can be used as an informal alternative to may. But it can also be
used to express the idea of having permission. So to say:
 You can park here. In this case can mean. I, the police, or somebody also allow
or you have a right to park here. Similarly
 You can take two books home with you can mean I allow it, the library allow it.

C: Third Person

May in this case, can be used as in B above when the speaker is giving permission.
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  He may take my car. It means that I give him permission to take it.
 They may phone the office and reverse the charges. It means I give them
permission.

It is worth to mention here that this construction is chiefly used in impersonal

statements concerning authority and permission. Examples:

 In certain circumstances a police officer may = has the right to ask a driver to
take a breath test.
 You cannot eat here in the library. It means that I do not allow, the library does
not allow or it is not the proper thing to do.

3. 1. 2. May /Might for Possibility

 It can express possibility in the present or future. Examples:

 He may / might tell his wife. Perhaps he tells or will tell his wife.
 He may / might emigrate.
 Normally either forms can be used for present for future possibility, might slightly
increase the doubt. In this respect, may increase certainty while might decreases
doubt. You should note that in speech we can also indicate increased doubt by
stressing may /might. Examples:
 Tom may lend you the money. This construction with a strong stress on May
implies that this is not very likely.
 Tom might lend you the money. This construction with a strong stress on might
implies this meaning –I do not think. I think it is unlikely.
 The preterite form “might” is used as a synonym for “may when expressing
possible circumstance (as can could – see above). It is sometimes said that might
and “could” express a greater degree of doubt than “may”.
 May (or might) can also express irrelevance in spite of certain or likely truth: He
may be taller than I am, but he is certainly not stronger could mean “While it is (or
may be) true that he is taller than I am, that does not make a difference, as he is
certainly not stronger.”
 May “can” indicate presently given permission for present or future actions: You
may go now. “Might” used in this way is milder: You might go now if you feel
like it. Similarly May I use your phone? Is a request for permission (might would
be more hesitant or polite).
 A less common use of “may” is to express wishes, as in
 May you live long and happy or
 May the Force be with you

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 May or Might not + Perfect Infinitive is another construction. This construction
is used in speculations about past actions. The word "Might" must be used when
the main verb is in a past tense. In addition, it is worth to mention that might,
not may, must be used when the uncertainty no longer exist. Another idea, might
not may, is also used when the matter was never put to the test. Examples:
 He may /might have left. "It means that it is possible that he went or perhaps
he left".
 He said that she might have missed the train. "After the main verb in the past"
 He came back home alone. "You should not have let him do that, he might
have lost. But he did not get lost; the uncertainty here does no longer exist".
 Perhaps we should have taken the other stream. It might have been quicker.
"this stream has not yet tested"
 It is a good thing you did not lend him the money. You might never have got it
back.
 "May /might" can be used in conditional sentences instead of will /would to
indicate a possible instead of a certain result. Examples:
 If he recognizes you he will stop. ""Certain"
 If he recognizes you he may stop. "possible"
 The preterite form would is used in some conditional sentences, and as a past
form of future will as described above under Past forms. (It is sometimes replaced
by should in the first person in the same way that will is replaced by shall.) Other
uses of would include:
 Expression of politeness, as in I would like... (For “I want”) and would you (be
so kind as to) do this? (For “Please do this”).
 Expression of habitual aspect in past time, as in Back then, I would eat early
and would walk to school.

Summary

May and might are usually interchangeable, but may seems to be stronger or shows
more emphasis. Might is ordinarily used for a future time in a noun clause after a
past-tense verb.
Possibility
For Present or Future Time For Past Time
May /might + simple form Examples: May have /might have + past participle
 She may change her mind before  The boys may have tried to call you
she leaves. yesterday.
 She may be able to go later.  I might have left my keys at home.
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 Andrea thought that she might  May not and might not express lack of
transfer to another university this possibility or probability.
fall.  I may not go to the party after all.
 He said he might have to move to  They might not be able to visit us this
Chicago next year. year.

 May and might are not ordinarily used in questions unless may asks for
permission to do something. Examples:
 May I see that photograph? (asks permission)
 He may be here at 5:00. Is he likely to be here at 5:00?

Exercise 1

Insert the correct form of may/might where to be allowed form is possible with
justification.

1. It ……………………….snow, you would better take a coat.

2. He said that it ………………..…………..snow.
3. We …………………..………as well stay here till the temperature improves.
4. …………………….…..I borrow your umbrella?
5. You ………………….……….tell me. I think I have a right to know.
6. Candidates ……………………not bring textbooks into the examination room.
7. People convicted of an offence ……………………..-have a right- appeal.
8. If he know our address he …………………..………….come and see us.
9. …………………………..i come in? Please do.
10. When he was a child he ……………..-they let him- do exactly as he liked.
11. I think I left my glasses in your office. You …………….…….ask your secretary
look for them for me. –request-
12. He ……………… be my brother – I admit that he is-but I do not trust him.
13. I ……………….……….never see you again.
14. He …………….…….be on the next train. We ………………….as well wait.
15. If we got there early we ……………………………get a good seat.
16. The police ……………….-have a right to- ask a driver to take a breath test.
17. You ought to buy now, prices …………..………….go up.
18. I will wait a week so that he …………….…………have time to think it over.
19. He is not going to eat it, I …………………………as well give it to the dog.
20. You ……….………….at least read the letter. –I think you should-

Exercise 2

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Fill in the spaces with the right modal in the following sentences by inserting
either must or may with justification.

1. I want to visit a near new town which has only one main road. I try the first long
one which …1….be the right road while the second short …2….be the right one.
2. It is long time I have not met my student. He……3…….be ill but it is the period
of exam so he …4...be revising.
3. My uncle has a big house in Paris and another palace in New York. All the
people think that he ……5…….be very rich since it is very hard to have such
precious possession.
4. I always go to school by either car or bus. As usual I …….6……travel by car but
since it is broken so I ………7……..use the bus instead.
5. Tom has not answered my call. He ……..8……..be very right now busy
suddenly I see an ambulance in his house so he ……..9……….very ill.
6. He develops his own films by his own means. That ….10..... save a lot of money.

Exercise 3

Fill in the blanks below with either can or could to complete the sentences.
1. I …………. go to the party last night because I was sick.
2. A: ………..Noel cook Italian food? B: Yes, he………………..
3. My sister ……………swim last year, but now she……………...
4. They ………….. go shopping yesterday because the store was closed.
5. A: ………….. you read when you were four years old? B: Yes, I………………
6. Ellie ……….. ride a bicycle. She rides it to school every day.
7. I’m very tired, so I ………….. go out to the park to play.
8. A: …………you see the moon last night? B: No, I…………...
9. When …………… I talk to you about the company report?
10. Most dinosaurs walked on land, but some ………….. fly or even swim.
11. Excuse me, I ……………. hear you right now. The music is too loud.
12. I …………. drive a truck when I was only sixteen years old.
13. Douglas hit the tree because he ………..stop his car.
14. How many hot dogs ……………. you eat at one time?
15. I …………… read without my reading glasses. Where are they?

Exercise 4

Put in 'can' / 'can't' / 'could' / 'couldn't'. If none is possible, use 'be able to' in the
correct tense.
1. ……………..you swim when you were 10?

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2. We ……………. get to the meeting on time yesterday because the train was
delayed by one hour.
3. He …………… arrive at the party on time, even after missing the train, so he
was very pleased.
4. He's amazing. He ………….. speak 5 languages including Chinese.
5. I…drive a car until I was 34, then I moved to the countryside so I had to learn.
6. I looked everywhere for my glasses but I …………find them anywhere.
7. I searched for your house for ages. Luckily, I …………find it in the end.
8. She's 7 years old but she…..read yet – her parents are getting her extra lessons.
9. I read the book three times but I ………….. understand it.
10. James …………. speak Japanese when he lived in Japan, but he's forgotten
most of it now.
11. I …….understand the chapter we had to read for homework. It was so difficult.
12. I ………….. lift this box – it's too heavy! Would you help me?
13. Lucy …….make it to our meeting after all. She's stuck in traffic at the moment.
14. John ……….. play tennis really well. He's champion of his club.
15. Unfortunately, I really …… sing at all! No-one in my family is musical either.
16. When the car broke down, I was really pleased because I … solve the problem.
17. Julian ……….. play excellent golf when he was only ten.
18. My grandmother ……….. use a computer until last month. Since then, she's
been taking lessons at the library.
19. I ………..open this window. I think it's stuck!
20. Gill …………. play the piano. She's never studied it.

English Modals: Must and Have to for Obligation

Description of the Lecture
This unit is about the modals “Must and Have to”. It provides the conceptual as
well as technical frameworks to identify their classification and uses. The unit
counts on definitions, forms, uses, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this unit, they should be able, among

185
other things, to;
1. Define the modals “Must and Have to”.
2. Be familiar the basic forms and uses of “Must and Have to”.
3. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through the modals
“Must and Have to”.

1. Form

Must Have to
 Must is a modal  Did not have to for habitual and single
 Negative: must not actions in the past and is more generally
 Interrogative: must I? used
 The past tense is supplied by  Had not –got- to for single actions
had to  Have to in the affirmative expresses
 Must takes the bare infinitive obligation
 Must expresses obligation and  Have to in the negative expresses absence
emphatic advice of obligation. Also by need not and do
not need

2. Differences between must and have in the Affirmative

Must Have to
 Must expresses obligation imposed  Have to expresses external
or internal by the speaker: obligation:
 Mother: you must wipe your feet  Small boy: I have to wipe my feet
when you come in. every time I come in.
 Speaker Authority: second person  External Authority: second person
 Mother: you must wear a dress.  You have to wear uniform, do not
 Employer: you must use a you?
dictionary.  You have to work very hard, I
 Third Person: Here must is chiefly suppose.
used I written orders or instructions:  Third Person: When we are merely
 Passengers must cross the line. stating or commenting on another
 Staff must be at their desks by person obligations we use have to:
9.00.  In this staff even the senior staffs
 First Person In the first person the have to be at their office by 9.00.
difference between must and have to  First Person In the first person the
is less important and very often either difference between must and have to
form is possible. But must is better is less important and very often either

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 for urgent obligation. form is possible. But have to is better
 Typist: I must /will have to buy a for habits.
dictionary.  Typist: I must /will have to buy a
dictionary.

3. Must and Had to

 The modal must expresses obligation or necessity: You must use this form; We
must try to escape. It can also express a confident assumption, such as in It must
be here somewhere.
 When used with the perfect infinitive (i.e. with have and the past participle), must
expresses only assumption: Ann must have left means that the speaker confidently
assumes that Ann has left. To express obligation or necessity in the past had to or
some other synonym must be used.
 The formal negation of must is must not (contracted to mustn't). However the
negation effectively applies to the main verb, not the modal verb or modality: You
must not do this means that you are required not to do it, not just that you are not
required to do it. To express the lack of requirement or obligation, the negative of
have to or need can be used: You don't have to do it; You needn't do it.

4. Affirmative Obligation in the Past: Had to

Here the distinction between the speaker authority and external authority cannot be
expressed and there is only one form, had to.

 You had to pay duty on that, I suppose. External authority

 I ran out of money and had to borrow from Tom. Speaker authority

5. Must is used for Deduction

The idea of deduction could be understood better with the following examples.

 He has a house in London and another in Paris, so he must be rich.

 I have had no sleep for 48 hours. You must be exhausted.
 He develops his own films. That must save a lot of money.
 I keep meeting him on the bus. He must live nearby.
 The police are stopping all cars. They must be looking for the escaped
prisoner.
 He must have taken sleeping pills last night. He did not wake up till lunch
time.

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  I waited under the clock. So did I, but I did not see you. We must have been
waiting under different clock.
 It was a head collision, but the drivers were not hurt. They must have been
wearing their seat belts.

6. Must for Deduction Compared to May /Might

The difference is best seen by these examples:

 Imagine that we have three keys on a ring and we know that one of the three
keys opens the cellar door. We might begin by picking one key and say:
= This may or might be the key. We use may or might because perhaps this is
the key.
 But after trying two keys unsuccessfully, we will pick up the third key and say:
= This must be the key. = We use must because no other choice remains.
 I wonder why Tom has not answered my letter. He may or might be ill. Here we
use may /might perhaps Tom is ill. But there are still other possibilities such as:
= He is away.
= He is too busy.
= His phone does not function.
 But imagine that Bill has never any visitors. If an ambulance stops at this door
the neighbors will say:
= Bill must be ill. Here they use must because this is the only possible
explanation of the arrival of the ambulance.
 Similarly, when considering a past action: we say
= He may have come by train. Perhaps he came by train. But there are other
possibilities:
 He might have come by taxi.
 By bus
 By plane
 By feet and so on
= But when we say:
 He must have come by taxi implies that he had no choice. There was no other way
of making this journey.

Important Note: Deduction

In English modal verbs as must, have to, have got to, can’t and couldn't are used to
express deduction and contention. We use modal verbs to state how sure we are
about something. Examples:
 You're shivering – you must be cold.
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  Someone must have taken the key: it is not here.
 I didn't order ten books. This has to be a mistake.
 These aren't mine – they've got to be yours.
 It can't be a burglar. All the doors and windows are locked.

7. With must and have to, we normally have the impression that the obligation is
being or will be fulfilled.

 This is particularly the case with the first person but quite often applies to the
other persons too. With ought /should we do not necessarily feel that the
obligation is being or will be fulfilled. Quite often, especially in the first person,
the reverse is the case. Examples:
 If a driver says, I ought to/should go slowly here; it is a built up area he usually
implies that he is not going to go slowly. If he really intended to go slowly he
would say, I must go / I have to go slowly here.
 Similarly, if someone says, we must have a party to celebrate your engagement,
his friends are reasonably confident that there will be a party. But if he says, we
should have a party…. It is not so certain that the party will take place. His tone
or expression might indicate that it will not be possible.
 Should is often used to describe an expected or recommended behavior or
circumstance. It can be used to give advice or to describe normative behavior,
though without such strong obligatory force as must or have to. Thus You should
never lie describes a social or ethical norm. It can also express what will happen
according to theory or expectations. Example:
 This should work. In these uses it is equivalent to ought to.

Summary

Probability represents what we guess will happen because of a certain set of

circumstances, but we are not sure of the outcome:
 John hasn’t eaten for 24 hours. One of the ideas that we might guess is that he
must be very hungry. This probability in the present is expressed by MUST BE +
adjective. We can also use must be + [verb + ing]. Examples:
 He must be looking for a restaurant.
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  Rita has spent the whole day in the sun. She must be sunburned.
 Stuart is drinking his third glass of water. He must be thirsty.
 Look how dark it is outside. It must be raining.
 Terry’s laughing a lot. He must be having a good time.
Past probability guesses at a logical conclusion about a situation in the past, but it
does not relate to actions in the present.
 I can’t find my wallet. I must have left it at home.
 Peter received a 65 percent on his test. He must not have studied.
 Mrs. Thomas paid $1.29 a pound for chicken on Monday. Today it costs $1.59
a pound. They must have raised the price.
 Peter didn’t attend the meeting last night. He was probably busy.
 It’s been 10 days since you wrote the check. It has probably cleared by now.
Exercise 1

Fill the spaces in the following sentences by inserting must or the present, future
or past form of have to.

1. She ……….leave home at 10 o'clock every mooring at present.

2. Notice in a picture gallery: cameras, sticks and umbrellas ….. be left at the desk.
3. He sees very badly: he …….wear glasses all the time.
4. I …….do all the typing at my office.
5. You ……..read this book. It is really very interesting book.
6. The children ………..play in the streets till their mothers get home from work.
7. She felt ill and …………leave early.
8. Mr. Pit ………….. cook his own meals. His wife is away.
9. I had not enough money and I ………….pay by cheque.
10. I never remember hi address: I always …………look it up.
11. Employer: you …..come to work in time.
12. If you go to a dentist with a private practice you ………pay him quite a lot of
money.
13. Father to small son: you ……….do what your mother says.
14. My neighbor's child ……….. practise the piano for three hours a day.
15. Doctor: I cannot come now. Caller: you ………..come: he is terribly ill.
16. English children ………..…stay at school till the age of 16.
17. In my district, there is no gas laid on. People …………….use electricity for
everything.
18. Notice above petrol pump: all engines ……….switched off.
19. Mother to daughter: you ……….come in earlier at night.
20. The shops here do not deliver. We …………….carry everything home ourselves.
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Exercise 2

 Must + perfect infinitive is used for affirmative deductions.

 Can't/couldn't + infinitive is used for negative deductions.
 Needn't + perfect infinitive is used for a past action which was unnecessary but
was performed.
Fill the spaces in the following sentences by using one of these forms + the
perfect infinitive of the verbs in brackets.
1. Did you hear me arriving in last night? No I, I ……….. (be) asleep.
2. I wonder who broke the wineglass, it … (be) the cat for she was out all the day.
3. You …… (help) him. You helped him but he did not need help.
4. I had my umbrella when I came out but I haven't got it now. ~ You . . . (leave) it
on the bus.
5. He . . . (escape) by this window because it is barred.
6. I . . . (give) Ј10. Ј5 would have been enough.
7. I saw a rattlesnake near the river yesterday. ~ You . . . (see) a rattlesnake. There
aren't any rattlesnakes in this country.
8. He is back already. ~ He . . . (start) very early.
9. He returned home with a tiger cub. ~ His wife (be) very pleased about that.
10. I bought two bottles of milk. ~ You . . . (buy) milk; we have heaps in the house.
11. I phoned you at nine this morning but got no answer. ~ I'm sorry. I . . . (be) in
the garden.
12. I left my bicycle here and now it's gone. ~ Someone . . . (borrow) it.
13. When she woke up her watch had vanished. ~ Someone . . . (steal) it while she
slept.
14. I've opened another bottle. ~ You . . . (do) that. We've only just started this one.
15. The machine said, 'You weigh 65 kilos,' and I said, Thank you.' ~ You . . . (say)
anything.
16. I told him to turn left and he immediately turned right! ~ He . . . (understand)
you.
17. Perhaps he swam across. ~ No, he . . . (do) that; he can't swim.
18. Do you remember reading about it in the newspapers? ~ No, I . . . (be) abroad at
the time.
19. He . . . (walk) from here to London in two hours. It isn't possible.
20. He was very sick last night. ~ The meat we had for supper . . . (be) good.
21. There was a dock strike and the liner couldn't leave port. ~ The passengers . . .
(be) furious.

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 22. We went to a restaurant and had a very good dinner for Ј3. ~ You . . . (have) a

very good dinner if you only paid Ј3.

23. I have just watered the roses. ~ You . . . (water) them. Look, it's raining now!
Exercise 3

Fill in the spaces with the right modal in the following sentences by inserting
either must or have to with justification.

1. Teacher to student: you ………1……….revise your lessons earlier at exams and

his classmate explains immediately to the student that you ……2…….respect the
instructions of the teacher.
2. I do not get the way to the mosque so I……..3……ask for it but by the way
someone ……..4…..tell me.
3. Rule in a church gate: visitors ………5……….follow the rules of the church.
The visitors argue about the rule and say about themselves that we
………..6………….respect always the rules of the church.
4. The road is full of cars: I ……7……..drive through this lane while a traffic
notice says that drivers ……8……..wait till the green color appear.
5. Pupils…..9…study nine fundamental years and the teachers tell them that you
……10…….make efforts.

Exercise 4
Fill in the spaces with the right modal in the following sentences by inserting
either must or have to with justification. “05 points”

1. Housewives who have a family and children usually ………1…………..do quite

a lot of house work and say every morning to their children: you
……2………….take your school bag before you leave home.
2. Teacher to his student: you ………3……….attend the TDs session otherwise
you fail in the exam. Students speak about themselves and say that we
………4……………….attend lectures regularly.
3. All the buses are full; I ……5…..take a train but a station notice says that
passengers ……6……wait till 8.00.
4. Algerian children ………7……. stay at school 16 and you as a student you
……8……….respect the order.
5. I never remember his house so ……9…….look it up and my friend feel tired and
………10……stop looking.

Exercise 5

192
Complete these sentences with must, mustn’t or the correct or the correct form
of have to.
1. At our school we ……………….wear a uniform.
2. You …………… cross the roads without looking. It’s dangerous.
3. You …………..turn on the central heating. It’s automatic.
4. The exams are next week. I …………… work harder.
5. You …………..forget your umbrella. It’s going to rain.
6. Students…………..listen to the teacher or they won’t understand.
7. You …………..cross the road when the red light is showing.
8. We …………….leave now or we’ll miss the plane.
9. Soldiers ………….. obey orders.
10. Sorry, I…………..go now. I don’t want to be late.
11. Shop assistants …………….. deal with the public.
12. You ……………come with us if you don’t want to.
13. I was late this morning because I ……………. wait a long time for the bus.
14. In Spain, teachers ……………..wear uniforms.
15. You …………….. take food in your room.
16. You …………….use the elevators in case of fire.
17. I ……………wear glasses because I can’t see very well.
18. You ……………… read this book. It’s really good.
19. You……………….go shopping today. We don’t need anything.
20. You ……………. a mobile phone in class.
21. We ……………. feed the animals. It’s forbidden.
22. We ……………. book the tickets before it’s too late.
23. In Spain, teachers …………… work on Saturdays.
24. In Britain you ……………. drive on the left.
25. Every player in a football team ………….. have a number.
26. You ………….. forget his birthday again.
27. Doctors sometimes ………….. work at the weekend.
28. Nowadays in Spain pupils ……………. learn Latin at school.
29. You ……………smoke on public places.
30. My wife ………….. go to work today. It’s a holiday.
31. You …………… shout. I can hear you.
32. We …………. be quiet in the library.
33. You ……………..use a computer on the plane.
34. She …………… come to the dentist’s with me.
35. At a restaurant you …………… pay the bill but you …………eat everything.

Exercise 6
193
Read these sentences and make logical conclusions, using the present or the
future of probability.
1. Tom swam the English Channel last week.
2. John has failed his exams.
3. Hal has lost $500.
4. Nobody wants to help him with his homework.
5. John has a slight fever.
6. There are many dark clouds in the sky. It is 80 degrees outside.
7. There are many dark clouds in the sky. It is 30 degrees outside.
8. Xian and Mai have been going together for five years.
9. He is laughing very hard.
10. Tom is very fat.
11. They spend a lot of money at the butcher’s.
12. The Simpsons own a big car.
13. It is very hot and Jenny and her friends are at the beach.
14. Jose is very sad.
15. It is 8:00 and the play begins at 8:15. We have far to drive.
16. Mel works very hard. He needs more money.
17. They left New York for Madrid last night. They ……………… by now.
18. The director has just offered James a better job.
19. Today is Mary’s birthday. She …………………. old.
20. Jake is giving a speech this afternoon in class.

Exercise 7

Make logical conclusions to these situations in the past. One example is given.

1. Mrs. John was talking with a very distinguished gentleman at the party last night.
He must have been someone very important (He was probably someone
important).
2. What time was it when he arrived? It ……………………………………………..
3. The Handball Team won the lottery last year. They ……………………………
4. Tommy swam the race in record time. He ………………………………………
5. James failed all of his final exams. He ……………………………………………
6. Bob went to New Mexico last week. He …………………………………………
7. They bought a yacht last month. They …………………………………………....
8. Nancy left the party early last night. She …………………………………………
9. Ted and his brother weren’t in class yesterday. They …………………………….
10. Last week Gary saw a movie starring his favorite actor ………………………….
11. There was a large puddle in the yard this morning. It ……………………………
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12. Paul studied very hard for all of his tests and he knew the material well. He …....
13. Val walked 12 miles after her car had broken down. She ………………………
14. I deposited your check in the bank last week. The cashier didn’t say anything to
me today. Your check ……………………………………………………………..
15. What time did you arrive last night? It ……………………………………………
16. How many people attended the lecture on Tuesday? There …………………..…..
17. Where did Cindy and Leo go on their honeymoon? They ………………………..
18. How many times did Louie see that movie? He ………………………….……….
19. How old were you when that picture was taken? I ………………………….……
20. When did they announce the winners? They ………………………………….….

English Modals: Ought and Should for Obligation

Description of the Lecture
This unit is about the modals “Ought and Should”. It provides the conceptual as
well as technical frameworks to identify their classification and uses. The unit
counts on definitions, forms, uses, examples and exercises.

195
 Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this unit, they should be able, among
other things, to;
1. Define the modals “ought and should”.
2. Be familiar the basic forms and uses of “ought and should”.
3. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through the modals
“ought and should”.

1. Form

Ought Should
 “Ought to” is a modal verb.  Should is a modal verb.
 The same form can be used for present  The same form can be used for
and future and for the past when present and future and for the past
preceded by a verb in a past tense or when preceded by a verb in a past
followed by a perfect infinitive. tense. The model could replace
 I ought to write to him today or ought to in the next examples.
yesterday.  Negative: should not
 She said I ought to write.  Interrogative: should I?
 I knew that I ought to have written  Should is followed by the bare
 Negative: ought not infinitive
 Interrogative: ought I?  Should and ought to are used for
 The modal “ought” takes the full obligation, normally have the same
infinitive. Example: ought to revise meaning but should is the more
your lessons. usual form.

2. Ought /should compared to must and have to

2. 1. Differences in use

 “Ought /should” is used to express the subject obligation or duty. Examples:

 You should send in accurate income tax returns.
 You should pass the final exam.
 They are used also to indicate a correct or sensible action. Here, there is
neither the speaker authority, as with must, nor external authority, as with have to.
It is more a matter of conscience or good sense. Examples:
 They should not allow parking here, the street is too narrow.
 This word is spelt wrongly; there should be another -s-.

2. 2. Similarities in Use

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 “Should but not ought” are used in Formal Notices and on Information
Sheets. Here, -must- could be used without change of meaning, but should express
the obligation more gently. Examples:
 Candidates should be prepared to answer questions on ……
 On hearing the alarm, hotel guests should leave their rooms.
 “Ought and should” express advice. But for more emphatic advice must is
better. Examples:
 You ought to /should read this. It is very good.
 You must read. It is marvelous.
 “Ought /should with the continuous infinitive” expresses the idea that the
subject is not fulfilling his obligation or that he is acting foolishly, rashly, or not
acting sensibly and prudently. Example:
 He ought to be studying for his exam. He should not be spending all his time
on the beach.
 “Ought /should with the Perfect Infinitive” is another construction. This
construction is used to express unfulfilled obligation or a sensible action that was
neglected. In the negative, it expresses a wrong or foolish action in the past.
 You ought to have told him that the paint on that seat was wet.
 You should have turned his omelet, he likes it turned.
 They ought to have stopped at the traffic light.

Important Note: Ought to

 “Ought” is used with meanings similar to those of should expressing
expectation or requirement. The principal grammatical difference is that ought is
used with the “to” infinitive rather than the bare infinitive, hence we should go
is equivalent to we ought to go. Because of this difference of syntax, ought is
sometimes excluded from the class of modal verbs, or is classed as a semi-
modal.
 “Ought” to can be used with perfect infinitives in the same way as should (but
again with the insertion of to): you ought to have done that earlier.
 The negated form is ought not, equivalent in meaning to shouldn't (but again
used with to).

Summary

Should and ought to express strong possibility that approaches expectation equals
probability. See the table below:
Probability
for present time for unfulfilled expectations in the past
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should or ought o + simple form should have or ought to have + past
participle
 You should (ought to) receive the  Henry should (ought to) have
package by Wednesday. arrived on the 8:00 train, but he
 The committee should (ought to) be didn’t.
announcing the decision by  You should (ought to) have bought
tomorrow. the car when it was on sale.

English Modals: Need for Absence of Obligation, Dare and Used to

Description of the Lecture
This unit is about the modal “need, dare and used to”. It provides key ideas to
identify their classification and roles. The emphasis is put on the definitions, forms,
uses, and examples. The pedagogical procedures count on theory and practice.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have successfully completed this unit, they should be able, among
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 other things, to;
1. Define the English modals “need, dare and used to”.
2. Be familiar the basic forms and uses of “need, dare and used to”.
3. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through “need, dare
and used to”.

Introduction

The modal need can be an auxiliary and an ordinary verb. As an auxiliary, it is a semi
modal since it has both modal and ordinary verb forms. As a modal, its forms are
need or need not for all persons in the present and future as well as in indirect speech.

1. Need for Absence of Obligation

1. 1. Internal authority versus external authority

Internal Authority External Authority

Need not Does not have
 This construction is used to  This construction is used to express the
express the speaker authority or speaker external authority or advice.
advice. Examples: Examples:
 You need not write me another  Tom does have to wear uniform at
bank. Just change the date and school.
initial it.  We do not have to type our essays but
 You need not do it by hand. I we have to write legibly.
will lend you my machine.  When I am an old age pensioner I will
You need not call me by my not have to pay any more bus fares.
family name. We all use first  Ann has not got to go to this lecture.
name here. Attendance is optional.

1. 2. Need not and Must not in the Present and Future

 “Need not” can be used for present and future. It has the same form for all
persons.
 “Need not” expresses absence of obligation. The speaker gives permission for an
action not to be performed or sometimes merely states that an action is not
necessary. Examples:
 Employer: you need not make two copies. One will do.
 Give them this bank paper: they need not send me e receipt.
 You need not change your clothes. Just come as you are.

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 “Must not” expresses a negative obligation imposed by the speaker or very
emphatic advice. Examples:
 You must not repeat this t any one.
 Notice in shop: staff must not smoke when serving customers.
 You must not leave your car unlocked.
Need not + Perfect Infinitive Did not have /Need to do
 The construction need not + perfect  The constructions do normally
infinitive is used to express an are used to express the state of
unnecessary action which was no obligation, and normally no
nevertheless performed. In other words it action. Examples:
refers to the state of no obligation but  I did not have to translate it
action performed. So it is a waste of time. for him for he understands
Examples: English. I am not obliged to
 I need not have written to him translate because he
because he phoned shortly afterwards. understands and at the same
But I had written, thus wasting my time he does not need me to
time. translate.
 You need not have brought your  I did not have to cut the
umbrella for we are going by car. You grass myself. My brother did
brought your umbrella unnecessarily. it. It implies no obligation
 He need not have left home at six and no action at the same
6.00, the train does not start till 8.00. time.

2. Dare and Need

 The verbs dare and need can be used both as modals and as ordinary conjugated
(non-modal) verbs. As non-modal verbs they can take a to-infinitive as their
complement (I dared to answer her; He needs to clean that), although dare may
also take a bare infinitive (He didn't dare go).
 In their uses as modals they govern a bare infinitive, and are usually restricted to
questions and negative sentences. Examples of the modal use of dare, followed by
equivalents using non-modal dare where appropriate:
 Dare he do it? (“Does he dare to do it?")
 I daren't try (“I don't dare to try”)
 How dare you! How dare he! (idiomatic expressions of outrage)
 I dare say (another idiomatic expression, here exceptionally without negation
or question syntax)

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 The modal use of need is close in meaning to must expressing necessity or
obligation. The negated form need not (needn't) differs in meaning from must not,
however; it expresses lack of necessity, whereas must not expresses prohibition.
 Need I continue? (“Do I need to continue? Must I continue?")
 You needn't water the grass (“You don't have to water the grass"; compare the
different meaning of You mustn't water...)
3. Used to
 The verbal expression used to expresses past states or past habitual actions,
usually with the implication that they are no longer so. It is followed by the
infinitive (that is, the full expression consists of the verb used plus the to-
infinitive). Thus the statement I used to go to college means that the speaker
formerly habitually went to college, and normally implies that this is no longer the
case.
 Used to may be classed among the modals or semi-modals on the ground that it is
invariant and defective in form like the other modals, and can follow auxiliary-
verb syntax: it is possible to form questions like Used he to come here? And
negatives like He used not (rarely usedn't) to come here. More common, however,
(though not the most formal style) is the syntax that treats used as a past tense of
an ordinary verb, and forms questions and negatives using did: Did he use(d) to
come here? He didn't use(d) to come here.

Summary

Modal verbs (modals) are verbs that add the meaning of logical possibility, ability,
necessity, and permission to verbs, which have a degree of strength from stronger to
weaker. Modals come before infinitive verbs and the “to” is removed. Modals do not
need to match their subject in plural agreement, so there is no need to add an “-s” or
“-es” ending to a modal. Modals will often be seen in sentences that are predicting a
future possibility, describing ability, giving advice, making requests, or asking for
permission. The nine most common modals are can, could, shall, should, will,
would, may, might, and must.
 Logical Possibility: Logical possibility modals add a degree of possibility to an
action. “Must” is the strongest modal that implies a possibility will occur while
“could” and “might” imply that the speaker is unsure of the action happening.
Examples:
 The weather report showed a 99% chance of rain, so it must rain.
 The modal is “must.” It is placed before the verb “rain” and indicates
that the writer believes there is a strong possibility of rain

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  You might find an open store after 12:00 AM. The modal is “might.” is
placed before the verb “find” and indicates that the writer believes
there is a low chance the reader will “find an open store after 12:00
AM.”
 Ability: Ability modals add a degree to a subject's ability to do an action.
Examples:
 Pigeons have a special ability; they can recognize themselves in mirrors. The
modal is “can.” It is placed before the verb “recognize” and indicates that the
writer knows that pigeons recognize themselves in mirrors.
 The editor could edit 70 pages in two days. The modal is “could.” It is placed
before the verb “edit” and indicates that the writer knows to a weaker degree
that the editor has the ability to edit “70 pages in two days.”
 Necessity: Necessity modals add a degree of recommendation to an action.
Examples:
 The kids must drink water every day. The modal is “must.” It is placed before
the verb “drink” and indicates a strong recommendation that kids drink water
every day.
 My students should do their homework every night. The modal is “should.” It
is placed before the verb “do” and indicates a weaker recommendation that
students do their homework every night.
 Permission: Permission modals tend to be used in requests. The strength of the
modal will determine how formal a request is by adding a degree of formality to a
question. Examples:
 May I go to the restroom? The modal is “may.” It is placed before the subject
“I” because it is written in the question format (not as a statement as we’ve
seen in previous examples). “May” indicates a strong formality and makes a
request to use the restroom.
 Can you throw me the ball? The modal is “can.” It is placed before the subject
“you” and indicates a more casual request for you to throw the ball.
For better understanding of the previous units, two comprehensive tables, showing
the modal auxiliaries with their various attached meanings is shown below:

Use Modals Examples

Logical Must (Most Certain)  The dark clouds must mean rain today.
Possibility Will  Due to the news, the stock will go
Would down.
Should  The chemical would help the
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 May experiment.
Can  The case should prevent cracking.
Could  This change may improve the results.
Might (Least Certain)  Carelessness can have bad
consequences.
 The charm could protect you.
 I might be tired tomorrow.
Ability Can (Stronger Ability) He can type 34 words per minute.
Could (Weaker Ability) I could assist by interpreting the results.
Shall (Suggestion) Shall we dance?
Necessity Must (Obligation) They must go to work today.
Should (Advice) You should floss every day.
Permission May (Most Formal) May I turn my paper in tomorrow?
Might Might he have some more soup?
Could Could I buy the new model?
Can (Least Formal) Can I go to my friend’s house?

Exercise 1
Use Must not or need not to fill the spaces in the following sentences with
justification.

1. You ………………………..ring the bell, I have a key.

2. Notice in cinema: Exit doors ……….………are locked during performances.
3. You ………………..……….drink this: it is a poison.
4. We ……………….………….drive fast: we have plenty of time.
5. You ……………………………..drive fast: there is a speed limit here.
6. Candidates …………..……………….bring books into the examination room.
7. You ……………………………..write to him for he will be here tomorrow.
8. We …………………………….make noise or we will wake the baby.
9. You ……………….………….bring an umbrella. It is not going to rain.
10. You ……………….………. do all the exercises. Ten sentences will be enough.
11. We ………………………………reheat the pie. We can eat it cold.
12. Mother to child: you ……………………………..tell lies.
13. You …………………..………..turn on the light, I can see quite well.
14. You ………………..………………strike a match; the room is full of gas.
15. You ……………..………………to other candidates during the exam.
16. We ………………………make any more sandwiches, we have plenty now.
17. You ………………………put salt in any of his dishes. Salt is very bad for him.
18. You ………………………….take anything out of a shop without paying for it.
19. You …………………..carry that parcel home yourself, the shop will send it.
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 20. You ……………clean the windows. The window-cleaner is coming tomorrow.
21. Mother to child: you ……………….…………..play with matches.
22. Church notice: visitors …………………walk about the church during a service.
23. I ………………….go to the shops today. There is plenty of food in the house.
24. You …………………..…………smoke in a non-smoking compartment.
25. Police notice: cars ……………………………….be parked here.

Exercise 2
Fill in the spaces with the right modal in the following sentences by inserting
either must not or need not with justification.
1. School notice: students…….1……be late for classes so they
………2……….look to hear again these rules.
2. Students …….3……..forget about their student card meanwhile they
…..4………..show their identity card.
3. You …….5…….travel by the ship since the plane is available and you
…….6………buy the first class ticket.
4. Mother to child: you……7….be late and you……8…..look to justify your
answer if you are late.
5. There are traffic rules. Drivers……..9……..break them and also
……10…….drive fast even they are alone.

Exercise 3

Fill in the spaces with the right modal in the following sentences by inserting
either need not + perfect infinitive or did not have to with justification.

1. We called for a teacher to explain the question. You……1….…“send” for him. I

perfectly understood it.
2. I …………2………… “explain” in French since he could understand and at the
same he never asks me.
3. I brought two candles with me. You ……....……3……………“bring” them;
there is electricity and light.
4. My mother has just phoned my father. You …………4……………. “phone”
him. Look, he is coming.
5. There is no arranged meeting now. My guests ……….. 5…..……….“come”
here as I do not invite them.
6. I ……..…6………“eat” this food and drink. It is not prepared for me and it is
Ramadan day.
7. You………7………“give” him your car. He has his own car so he will not drive
it and keep it in its place.

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 8. You….8.. “help” him. He can do the job alone and does not need your help at
all.
9. I have read another book. You …9………..“do” that. We have only just started
this new one.
10. I did not attend the study day. I ………8……….“participate” since I am not
concerned and not invited.

Exercise 4
Fill in the spaces with the right modal in the following sentences by inserting
either must not or need not with justification. “05 points”

1. Wall notice: students ….1……be late at the exam time so they ……2…….wait
to hear again these order.
2. Drivers ….3…..forget about their driving license and the …..4………..bring
with them their identity card.
3. You …….4…….travel by the sea road since the plane is available and you
…….5……take the first class.
4. Teacher to students: you…6….be late in the exam and you …4…..answer all the
exercises two are enough.
5. There are speed limits. You …..9…..exceed the limits. You also ……10….drive
fast even without limits.

Exercise 5

Fill in the spaces with the right modal in the following sentences by inserting
either need not + perfect infinitive or did not have with justification. “05 points”

1. I ……1.…“write” to him because he phoned shortly. But the call is too late
since I wrote it.
2. I …2…… “translate” since he could understand and at the same he never asks
me.
3. You …3…..“bring” your umbrella for we are going by car. We do not need it.
4. I ……4…... . “cut” the grass. It is not my job and my brother cut it instead of
me.
5. He ……5……“leave” at 6.00 because the car does not move till 10.00. It is a
waste of time.
6. I bought two bottles of milk. You ……6………“buy” milk; we have heaps in
the house.
7. I have just watered the roses. You ……. “water” them. Look, it is raining right.
8. I ……………8…….“enter” the second term exam I got the average last year.
9. We have sent for a doctor. You ..…9………“send” for him. I am perfectly well.
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 10. I have made two copies. You …. “make” two. One copy would have been
enough.

Exercise 6

Choose the correct form: must/have to/mustn't/ needn't/don't have to.

1. You ………. pay a month’s rent in advance. The landlord always insists on it.
2. You ……….complete and return the completed form before Friday, 10th March.
3. In Britain, motor cyclists …………. wear crash helmets.
4. You……….drink alcohol while taking these tablets.
5. You ………… have a license to have children.
6. You………..put out the rubbish. I can do that later.
7. Mr. Brown ……….. work late in the office since he changed his job.
8. Mary has a weight problem. She knows she …… give up fried food if she wants
to lose weight.
9. During the Antarctic expedition the explorers ……melt the snow to get drinking
water.
10. You ……….. all remember to lock the door when you leave.
Exercise 7
Choose the correct form of the verbs: must/can't/may/might.
1. You must be/ can't be very proud of your daughter winning the prize.
2. That play has been such a success. It must be / can't be easy to get tickets to see
it.
3. You must be / must have been parched after carrying those heavy boxes. I must
put the kettle on.
4. We thought you would have visited us when you were in town. I suppose you
must be/ must have been too busy.
5. I'm sure you could pass the examination if you tried. You mustn't be/ can't be
using the proper learning strategies.
6. Why did you work there? You might have enjoyed/ can't have enjoyed working
in such an environment.
7. The shop may be delivering/must be delivering our new suite today.
8. You will have to go over the books again. You might have been concentrating/
can't have been concentrating when you looked at them the first time.
9. I just called the office but I guess they may have/ may be having a lunch break.
10. If you carry those heavy suitcases you must/ might injure yourself.
Exercise 8

Replace the words in bold type by need not or need I or a negative or

interrogative of have to form.
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 1. It is necessary four people to go everywhere by boat in Paris?
2. Will it be necessary for me to sleep under a mosquito net?
3. Most people think that civil servants are not required to work very hard.
4. It was not necessary to swim. We were able to wade across.
5. It is not necessary for you to drive me to the station. I can get a taxi.
6. Our plane was delayed so we had lunch at the airport. But it was not necessary to
pay for the lunch. The airline company gave it to us.
7. Is it obligatory for us to vote?
8. When you were a child were you required to practice the piano?
9. I saw the accident but fortunately it was not necessary for me to give evidence
as there were plenty of other witnesses.
10. Small boy to friend: I will not be necessary for you to work hard when you
come to my school. The teachers are not very strict.
11. They had plenty of time. It was not necessary for them to hurry.
12. Is it necessary for you to take your dog with you everywhere?
13. What time was it necessary for you to leave home?
14. I brought my passport but I was not required to show it to anyone.
15. I missed one day of the exam. Will it be necessary for me to take the whole
exam again?
16. Is it really necessary for you to practice the handball at 15 o'clock?
17. Everything was done for me. It was not necessary for me to do anything.
18. Are English children obliged to go to school on Saturdays?
19. I was late for the opera. Was it necessary for you to wait till the end of the first
act before finding your seat?
20. He repaired my old watch so it was not necessary for me to buy a new watch
after all.

Exercise 9: Mixed Modals

Write a second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first. Use the
words in brackets.
1. Perhaps Mary is doing overtime. (may)
2. I managed to go to university. (able)
3. They should think very well before acting. (ought)
4. It’s forbidden to smoke here. (mustn’t)
5. It’s impossible for you to see it at this distance. (can’t)
6. It is possible that Anne did not see the message. (might)
7. I advise you to study more in order to pass the exam. ( should)
8. She was able to play the piano when she was only four. (could)
9. Perhaps she went home (could)
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 10. I’m sure the bus has left (must)

Exercise 10: Mixed Modals

Complete the conversation between Sarah and her mother.

 Sarah: Mom, (1) ………….I go to the cinema with Susan?
 Mother: No, you (2)………... You (3) ………..study for tomorrow’s test. You (4)
………….be more responsible.
 Sarah: But, mom, you (5).........…at least let me rent a movie to see later on with
Susan?
 Mother: OK, you (6) ……….do that. But you (7) ……….start studying right
now. You (8)………. improve your marks.
 Susan: I (9) ………..like to, but I don’t know if I (10)………….

Exercise 11: Mixed Modals

These sentences are wrong. Correct them.

1. I don't know who gave me this CD. It should have been my uncle.
2. She shouldn't be out so late. Look at her. She mustn't be more than fifteen.
3. They didn't want to come with us at first, but finally we could persuade them to
come.
4. Will you like a cup of tea with your cake?
5. Mary hasn't to work on Saturdays any more.
6. ‘You must have been Anthony's brother. Hello, I'm Roger.'
7. I phoned yesterday and they said he's just left for a two day trip to Malibu.
8. We mustn't have booked seats for the show because the theatre is half empty.
9. I can't have to go to work yesterday so I stayed in bed till lunchtime.
10. You mightn’t have cooked all that food.

Past Tenses: Simple Past Tense

Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about the simple past tense. It explores key elements related to the
208
 forms and uses of the simple past tense. Throughout of the unit students will
become familiar with the relevant theory, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce a general overview of the simple past tense.
2. List the form and uses of the simple past tense.
3. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using either the
simple past tense.

1. Introduction into English Tenses

Tense is a grammatical term. It serves as a marker/indicator of the form of a

verb. Tense of a sentence gives you an idea of the time when the incident mentioned
in a statement takes place. At the same time, it is that critical factor that can most
commonly leads people to mistakes while framing a sentence or while identifying the
time of events or state. There are three basic tenses in English: present, past and
future. For all three of these tenses, there are subcategories. These subcategories are
called aspects. So, aspect refers to the duration of an event within a particular tense.
Aspect describes the action’s degree of progress or completion. So tense tells us
when a particular action began and it is aspect that tells us whether an action was
continuous, completed, or something else. There are four aspects in English which
are as follows: simple, progressive, perfect and perfect progressive. Let’s now take a
look at each of these tenses and aspects in detail:

1. 1. Simple Tenses

The present tense refers to circumstances that exist now, or that have taken
place over a period of time which includes the present. Present tense can also be used
in order to express basic facts or circumstances that are continuous. These verb tenses
are used to express actions in their simplest form. There are three forms of the simple
tense: past, present and future.
Summary of Simple Tenses
Tense Auxiliary Main Verb Example
Simple past ……………. Visited She visited Algiers last week.
Simple present …………. Visits She usually visits Algiers.
Simple future Shall or will Visit She will visit Algiers next week.

1. 2. Continuous Tenses

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The progressive tenses also describe actions in the past, present and future. When you
want to describe actions that continued over a period of time, you use one of the
progressive tenses. This tense is constructed by using some form of the verb to be
(am, is, are, was, were, shall be, will be) plus the present participle of the main verb.
Summary of the Progressive or Continuous Tenses
Tense Auxiliary Main verb Examples
Past continuous Was, were Visiting She was visiting Algiers.
Present continuous Am, are, is Visiting She is visiting Algiers.
Future continuous Will be, shall be Visiting She will be visiting Algiers.

1. 3. Perfect Tenses

The three forms of the perfect tense (past, present and future) are used to express
a single action which has been, or is about to be, completed. The perfect tenses are
often used to show which of two actions happened first. It is built using some form of
the auxiliary to have (has, have, had, shall will have) plus the past participle of the
main verb.
Summary of Perfect or Completed Tenses
Tense Auxiliary Main verb Example
Past perfect Had Visited She had visited Algiers.
Present perfect Have or has Visited She has visited Algiers.
Future perfect Shall have/will have Visited She will have visited
Algiers.
1. 4. Present Perfect Tenses

The perfect progressive tenses are a combination of the perfect tense and the
progressive tense. Perfect progressive tenses are created by using forms of both to
have and to be as auxiliaries. The main verb in the perfect progressive tenses is the
auxiliary have in the tense of the main verb + past participle of the auxiliary to be +
the present participle of the main verb.
Summary of Perfect Progressive Tenses
Tense Auxiliary 1 Auxiliary 2 Main verb Example
Past perfect Had been vising She had been
progressive visiting Algiers.
Present perfect Have, has been visiting She has been
progressive visiting Algiers.
Future perfect Will have been visiting She will have been
progressive
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 visiting Algiers.

2. Conjugation of the Verb

A conjugation is a list of verb forms. It catalogues the person, number, tense,

voice, and mood of a verb. Knowing how to conjugate verbs correctly will help you
match verbs with their subjects, and give you a firmer grasp on how verbs function in
different sentences. Any language has a well-defined syntax of lexicons. The
conjugation of a verb shows various forms it can assume either by inflection or by
combination with parts of other verbs, to mark voice, mood, tense, number, and
person and to those must be added its infinitives and participles. Below is a list of all
English tenses.

Past Tenses Present Tenses Future Tenses

 Simple Past  Simple Present  Simple Future
 Past Continuous  Present Continuous  Future Continuous
 Past Perfect  Present Perfect  Future Perfect
 Past Perfect  Present Perfect  Future Perfect
Continuous Continuous Continuous

3. Simple Past Tense

The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterit tense. We can use
several tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past is the one we most often use.
So to speak, the simple past tense is correct for most actions and states in the past.
There are only a few times when we absolutely need to use other past tenses.

3. 1. Form

 The simple past tense in regular verbs is formed by adding “ed” to the infinitive:
 “To work – worked”
 “To visit – visited”
 “To sign – signed”
 Verbs ending in “e” ad “d” only:
 “To love – loved”.
 The same form is used for all pronouns and persons:
 “I worked, she worked, they worked, it worked”
 The negative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with “did not or didn’t” and
the bare infinitive:
 I did not / didn’t work.
 You did not /didn’t work.
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 The interrogative of regular and irregular verbs is formed with “did + subject +
infinitive”:
 Did I work?
 Did you work?
 Did they visit?
 Negative interrogative: did you not work?

3. 2. Spelling Notes

 The rules about doubling the final consonant when adding “ing” “see the present
continuous lecture” apply also when adding “ed”:
 Admit, admitted
 Stop, stopped
 Travel, travelled
 Verbs ending in “y” following a consonant change the “y” into “I” before adding
“ed”:
 Carry, carried
 Try, tried
 But “y” following a vowel does not change:
 Obey, obeyed
 Play, played

3. 3. Main Uses of the Simple Present Tense

 We use the simple past tense to talk about actions and states which happened and
finished at specific time in the past. In short, it is about actions and states which
we see as dead and completed in the past in which there is any relationship with
the present time. This tense is used with words referring or indicating to finished
times such as “yesterday, three weeks ago, last year, specific point of time in the
past “in 2002”, from March to June, for a long time, in the last century, in the past,
before, ego, …”. It should be further noted that the time of the past action could be
understood through the context”. This kind of actions can be represented
diagrammatically as follows:

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  We passed our BAC exam two years before.
 The Algerian revolution started in November 1954.
 The teacher explained the simple present tense last week.
 I am second year master student and I got my BAC exam before
 I had my breakfast before.
 Last year, I traveled to India.
 Last year, I did not travel to Japan.
 We use the simple past tense for many kinds of past events and situations. The
events can be; short, quick finished actions and happening and longer situations.
Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or
millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can
be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We
use the simple past tense when: the event is in the past, the event is completely
finished and when we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event.
 Here are some short and quick finished events with the simple past tense:
 Peter broke a window last night.
 The car exploded at 9:00 am yesterday.
 We did not hear the telephone.
Past Present Future
+ - - - - - - - - - -
The past action is very The action does exist The action does exist in
short. in the present the future

 The Simple Past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in the
past. Duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for
two years, for five minutes, all day, all year, etc. Here are some long “over
time” events and situations with the simple past tense:
 I lived in Bangkok for ten years.
 I spent all my childhood in Scotland.
 The Jurassic period lasted about 62 million years.
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  The Algerian revolution took more than 7 years.
 The pre-historic took millions of years.
Past Present Future
+ + + + + + ++ - - - - - - - - -
+
The action is in the No relationship with No relationship with the
past and keeps longer the present future
period of time.

 The Simple Past can also be used to describe a habit which happened and
finished in the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it
clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as:
always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, etc. Here are some
repeated actions in the past:
 Regularly every summer, Janet fell in love.
 John was a taxi driver; he drove his car every morning.
 They never drank wine.
 He always carried an umbrella.
Past Present Future
+ + + + + + + - - - - - - - -
This action repeated over No relationship No relationship with the
particular in the past. with the present future

 The simple past tense is used to describe a series of completed action which may
include events in stories and descriptions of past events. Note that when we tell a
story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past continuous tense
to “set the scene”, but we almost use the simple past for the action. This kind of
actions can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 One day the Princess decided that she didn’t like staying at home all day,
so she told her father that she wanted to get a job…..
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  The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It
was cold. The door opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat,
which was very wet, and ordered a drink. He set down ….”
 The simple past tense is used in conditional sentences, type 2 for unreal if-
clauses in the present.
 If I lived near my office I’d be in time for work.
 If I were you I’d pant some trees around this house.
 I f you revised your lessons very well you would succeed in your final test.

Summary

The simple past tense is used for actions happened and finished in the
past. With regular verbs, it is formed by using the base verb with “-ed”.
With irregular verbs, the base verb is not formed with “-ed,” for example,
the simple past tense for the base verb “buy” would be “bought”: singular.
The common way of using the simple present tense is when:
 To describe actions or events completed at a definite time in the past either as
short, long or repeated actions.
 To describe actions or events completed in the past where the time is understood
but not mentioned (typically in narrative).
 To describe series of past actions.
 To describe repeated or habitual actions or behavior in the past (often with
adverbs of frequency).
Exercise 1

Complete these sentences in the Simple Past Tense, using the correct verb form
this list “play, enjoy, watch, listen, talk, phone, stop, walk, travel, like and stay”.
One example is given.
 I watched the late film on TV last night.
1. We really ………………….. the concert last night. It was great!
2. She ………………… with friends in Algeria last summer.
3. Italy ………………… very well in the last World Cup.
4. Her parents ………………….. by train from Shanghai to Moscow.
5. I ………………….. you four times last night but you were out.
6. We …………………. along the beach yesterday. It was lovely.
7. She …………………. the film but she didn’t like the music.
8. The men ………………….. work at exactly one o’clock.

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 9. I ……………………. to the new Sting album yesterday. It’s great.
10. They ………………… to us about their trip to Paris. It was very interesting.
Exercise 2
Complete the man’s statement with the Past Simple form of the verbs in
brackets:
1. Last night I ………… (go) to my favorite restaurant in West Street. I ………..
(leave) the restaurant at about 11 o’clock. It ………….. (be) a warm evening
and I …………….. (decide) to walk along the beach.
2. Suddenly, I …………… (hear) a noise. I ………….. (turn) and ………… (see)
three boys aged about eighteen. One boy ………… (come) up to me and
………….. (ask) me the time. When I …………. (look) down at my watch, he
……………hit) me and I ………… (fall) to the ground. Another boy ……….
(take) my wallet. I ………….. (shout) for help. Then they …………(run) away.
Exercise 3
Fill in the blanks with the Simple Past form of the verbs:
Benjamin Franklin was born (be born) in Boston in 1706. He ……1…… (be)
the fifteenth of the seventeen children of a poor candle maker. He ……2……(go ) to
school only one year. He ……3…… (begin) to work when he was twelve. At the age
of fourteen he …4…… (decide) to be a writer. He……5…. (copy) the great stories
of famous writers and later he …6… (become) the best known writer in his time.
When he …7…….. (be) seventeen, he ……8…… (leave) Boston and …9…
(arrive) in Philadelphia with only a few pennies in his pocket. He …10……… (get)
a job a publisher of a newspaper and ……11……. (retire) from business as a very
rich man at forty-two. Then he ……12………. (spend) the next forty years for his
government. He ……13……. (play) an important role in the founding of the USA.
Franklin …14…… (be) also an important scientist and inventor. He
………15……. (make) electricity from a cloud on a kite string. He ……16…………
(write) one of the first text books on electricity. He ………17……… (invent) a
simple lightning rod and many other practical tools. He ……18……… (make) a
study of water and ………19……. (discover) many principles of hydrodynamics. He
even ………20……… (invent) bifocal glasses when he was seventy-eight and
……21…… (need) them himself.
Franklin ……22…… (do) all these things and many more because he
…23…… (believe) he …24…… (can).
Exercise 4
Fill in the blanks with the Simple Past form of the verbs between brackets in the
following sentences:
1. I (eat)……….. dinner at six o’clock yesterday.
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 2. A: ………….. Helen (drive)………… to work? B: Yes, she ………….
3. My neighbor (buy)………… a new car last week.
4. They (go)……….. to Italy on their last summer holiday.
5. A: ………..they (swim)………… at the beach? B: No, they…………….
6. My family and I (see)………… a comedy movie last night.
7. First, we (do………. exercise, and then we (drink)…………. some water.
8. Suddenly, the animal jumped and (bite)……………. my hand.
9. What time (do)………… you (get up)…………… this morning?
10. The Wright brothers (fly)............. the first airplane in 1903.
11. I think I (hear)………… a strange sound outside the door one minute ago.
12. When I was ten years old, I (break)………. my arm. It really (hurt)…………….
13. The police (catch)………… all three of the bank robbers last week.
14. How many times (do)………. you (read)………… that book?
15. Unfortunately, I (forget)…………. to (bring)…………. my money.

Past Tenses: Past Continuous Tense

Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about the past continuous tense. It explores key elements related to
the forms and uses of the past continuous tense. Throughout of the unit students
will become familiar with the relevant theory, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce a general overview of the past continuous tense.
2. List the form and uses of the past continuous tense.
3. Enable learners to reflect more on the differences between the simple past
and past continuous tenses in terms of form, meanings and uses.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using either the
simple past or past continuous tenses.

Introduction

Progressive tenses always happen over time, so past progressive tense means
that the action happened over a period of time in the past. In this respect, the past
continuous tense describes past events which went on for a particular period or
moment of time. We use it when we want to emphasize the continuing process of the
activity, event, and action or the period of that action. The action started before that
moment but has not finished at that moment.

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1. Form

The past continuous tense is formed by the past tense of the helping verb “to be” +
the present participle of the main verb.

Subject + (was / were ) + stem of the main verb + ing

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I was working I was not working Was I working?
You were working You were not working Were you working?
He/she/it was working He/she/it was not working Was he/she/it working?
We were working We were not working Were we working?
You were working You were not working Were you working?
They were working They were not working Were they working?

2. The Spelling of the Present Participle

 When a verb ends in a single “silent” “es”, this “e” is dropped before “ing”.
 Argue arguing
 Hate hating
 Except after “age, dye, and sing” = ageing, dyeing, singeing
 And verbs ending in “ee” like “see, agree” = seeing, agreeing
 However, when a verb ends in an “e” which is not silent, the final “e” is not
dropped before the ending “ing” is added. Examples:
 To be being
 To see seeing
 When a verb ends is “ie”, the “ie” is changed to “y” before the ending “ing” is
added. Examples:
 When a verb of one syllable has no vowel and ends in a single consonants, this
consonant is doubled before “ing”
 Run running
 Stop stopping
 Verbs of two or more syllables whose last syllable contains only one vowel and
ends in a single consonant in case the stress falls on the last syllable: this
consonant is doubled before “ing”. Examples:
 Admit admitting
 Begin beginning
 But if stress does not fall on the last syllable, the last consonant is not doubled:
 Budget budgeting
 Enter entering
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 Final “L” after a single vowel is, however, always doubled “except in American
English”. Examples:
 Signal signaling
 Travel travelling
 The “Ing” can be added to a verb ending in “Y” without affecting the spelling of
the verb. Examples:
 Carry carrying
 Enjoy enjoying

3. Main Uses of the Past Continuous Tense

 It is used with a point in time “the time is known and important”, it expresses
an action which began before that time and probably continued after it in the past.
So to speak, when we want to say that something was in progress “going on”
around a particular past time or point of time in the past. This kind of actions can
be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 At 8 pm yesterday, I was watching TV.

 I was working at 10 pm yesterday.
 The teacher was explaining the lesson at 0 o'clock.
 It is used chiefly for past actions which continued for some time but whose exact
limits are not known and are not important. It might be expressed
diagrammatically “……….the action …………..” Indicates uncertainty about
times of starting or finishing. Examples:
 It was getting darker.
 I was eating my breakfast.
 He was watching his favorite show.
 The system was weakening from time to time.

John was eating with Mary.

Past Present Future

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 ………+ + + eating + + +………….. - - - - - - - - - - - -
The action of eating existed in the No found in the No presence of the
past but without clear limits. present action in the future

 The past continuous tense is used with the simple past tense for an interrupted
action in the past. We use the past continuous tense to refer to a longer
“background” action or situation; the simple past refers to a shorter action or event
that happened in the middle of the longer action, or that interrupted it. We can join
the two ideas with when or while. So the continuous action is the interrupted one
while the simple past action is the interrupting second action. This kind of
actions can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 I was watching TV at 8 pm when you telephoned me.

 The teacher was explaining the lesson when the headmaster knocked on the
door.
 As I was walking down the road, I saw Bill.
 The Algerian battle took place when All Algerians were fighting the French
colonization.
 The past continuous is used for two parallel actions in the past. When you use the
Past Continuous with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that
both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel. This kind
of actions can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

220
  I was studying while he was watching television.
 While Tina was making dinner, John was fixing the sink.
 Were you listening while he was talking?
Important Reminder:
 We can join these two actions with when:
 I was watching TV when you telephoned.
 Notice that "when you telephoned" is also a way of defining the time [8pm]. We
use:
 While is used with two continuous and simultaneous actions. We usually
use while when we have two continuous actions taking place at the same
time. while + long action (past continuous tense)
 When is used with two single and simultaneous or close together actions.
We usually use when for single actions that happen almost simultaneously
or very close together (one after the other). when + short action (simple
past tense) Consequently, there are four basic combinations.
I was walking past the car when it exploded.
When the car exploded I was walking past it.
The car exploded while I was walking past it.
While I was walking past the car it exploded.

 Verbs which are not normally used in the continuous tenses. The continuous
tenses “past continuous” are chiefly used for deliberate actions. So some verbs
are, therefore, not normally used in the continuous and have only the simple past
tense, the simple form. These verbs can be grouped as follows:
 Verbs of the senses (involuntary actions): feel, hear, see, smell, notice,
 Verbs expressing feelings and emotions; admire, adore, appreciate, desire,
detest, dislike, fear, hate, like, loathe, love, mind, respect, value, want, whish,
 Verbs of mental activity; agree, assume, believe, expect, forget, know,
understand, mean, perceive, realize, recognize, remember, suppose …
 Verbs of possession; belong, owe, possess…
 The auxiliaries; except “be” and “have” in certain uses.

3. 3. Simple Past and Past Continues Tenses Differences

Past continuums tense can be used as an alternative to the simple past tense to
indicate a more casual, less deliberate action:

 I was talking to Tom the other day. (The past continuous here gives the
impression that the action was in no way unusual or remarkable. It also tends
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 to remove responsibility from the subject. In the above example it is not clear
who started the conversation, and it does not matter. Note the contradiction
with the simple past tense; I talked to Tom, which indicates that the subject
took the initiative.
 From four to six Tom was washing the car. (This would indicate that this was
casual, possibly routine action. Compare with:
 From four to six Tom washed the car. (This would imply more a deliberate
action by Tom.)

Summary

The past progressive tense is used for an activity that was in progress
over time or at a specified point in the past. It is formed by using “was,” or
“were” with the present participle of the base verb. The common way of using
the simple present tense is when:
 Action in progress at a particular time:
 Background action (I was sleeping when he arrived).
 Simultaneous action (I was trying to hear what the man was saying. Mary was
waking up while Ann was cleaning).
 Temporary action (may be regular) (We were sleeping in the kitchen during that
cold winter. I was living with my parents waiting for my apartment to be
redecorated.).
 To express an incomplete action (He was reading a book that night. – as opposed
to a complete action – He read a book that night.).
Exercise 1

Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with either the simple or the
progressive form of the past tense of the verb given at the end of each
(whichever you think is appropriate).
1. He………...the room and ……......down in the chair. (cross, sit)
2. When we set out early this morning the un................(shine)
3. As he……………....the road a bus...............him down. (cross, knock)
4. The passenger in the next seat to me……………...a newspaper. (read)
5. He……....and………….his leg as he was alighting from a bus. (slip, injure)
6. My grandfather was seventy-five years old when he……………..(die)
7. When the doctor arrived he realized that the patient …………....(die)
8. The sound of their conversation.............the baby. (waken)

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 9. We were told that the manager could not see us at that moment, a
he………...some letters to his secretary. (dictate)
10. When he took off his hat I noticed that his hairs……………..grey. (go)
11. My husband…………...quite a lot of money for that picture. (pay)
12. At one time it ……...several weeks to get from Britain to America by sea. (take)
13. A schoolboy…………...a purse full of money lying in the gutter. (find)
14. We……………....someone opening the gate. (hear)
15. When we……………..he……………...the lawn. (arrive, mow)
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences with the words in parentheses using the Simple Past or
the Past Progressive with justification:
1. Sally …..1… (eat) dinner last night when someone …2….. (knock) on the door.
2. I began to study at seven last night. Fred …………1………… (come) at seven-
thirty. I ……2………… (study) when Fred …………3…………….. (come).
3. While I ……1……. (study) last night, Fred ……2……… (drop by) to visit me.
4. My roommate’s parents …………1………………. (call) him last night while
we ……………………2……………….. (watch) TV.
5. My mother called me around five. My husband came home a little after five.
When he …1….. (come) home, I ……2….. (talk) to my mother on the phone.
6. Yesterday Tom and Janice ………1………… (go) to the zoo around one. They
………2…… (see) many kinds of animals. They stayed at the zoo for two
hours. While they ………3……… (walk) home, it ….4…….. (begin) to rain,
so they ………5……….. (stop) at a small café and ……6…… (have) a cup of
coffee.
7. Yesterday afternoon I ………1……… (go) to visit the Parker family. When I
……2….. (get) there around two o’clock, Mrs. Parker ……3….. (be) in the
yard. She ……4…… (plant) flowers in her garden. Mr. Parker ……5….. (be) in
the garage. He ……6….. (work) on their car. He ………7….. (change) the oil.

Exercise 3
Put the verb in the correct form: past simple or past continuous.
1. I ………… (dream) when the alarm clock …………. (go off).
2. They …………. (wait) for me when I…………. (arrive).
3. The phone ………… (ring) while I …………… (have) a shower.
4. We ………… (not/go out) last Sunday because it ……….. (rain).
5. I ………… (see) Kim at the party. She ……….. (wear) a new dress.
6. I ……….. (break) a bowl this morning. When I ………..(wash) the dishes it just
………. (slip) out of my hand onto the floor!
7. When he ……. (carry) the table, he ……….. (feel) a sharp pain in his back.
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 8. Sarah ……… (go) down the stairs when the lights ……… (go out).
9. We …….. (watch) TV when someone…….. (come) to the door and ………..
(knock) very loudly.
10. What ………… (you/do) at this time yesterday? Oh, I …… (prepare) the dinner.
11. I …………. (fall) asleep while I ………… (watch) television.
12. At 12:45 yesterday, Mr. Alright………… (see) a client in his office.

Past Tenses: Past Perfect and Past Perfect Continuous Tenses

Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about the past perfect and past perfect continuous tenses. It explores
key elements related to the forms and uses of the given tenses. The pedagogical
procedures of the unit count on the relevant theory, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce an overview of the past perfect and past perfect continuous tenses.
2. List the forms and uses of the past perfect ant and past perfect continuous
tenses.
3. Enable learners to reflect more on the differences between the past perfect and
past perfect continuous tenses.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using either the past
perfect or past perfect continuous tenses.

1. Past Perfect Tense

1. 1. Form

This tense is formed with “had” and the past participle of the main verb:

 Affirmative: I had worked etc.

 Negative: I had not worked etc.
 Interrogative: had I worked? Etc.
 Negative interrogative: had not I worked? Etc.

1. 2. Uses of Past Perfect Tense

 The basic meaning of the past perfect tense is “earlier past”. Common use is to
‘go back’ for a moment when we are already talking about the past, to make it
clear that something had happened at the time we are talking about in the past. It is
used to describe an action completed before a certain moment in the past, usually

224
 a long time ago. If two actions happened in the past, past perfect is used to show
the action that took place earlier. We can use time conjunctions “after, as soon as,
when , once” to talk about two actions or events that happened one after the other
“two consecutive past actions, the first one is in the past perfect and the second
one is in the simple past tense.” The time conjunctions emphasize that the first
action is separate, independent from the second and completed before the second
action started. This kind of actions can be represented diagrammatically as
follows:

 When I arrived at the party, Lucy had already gone home. “We are already
talking about the past, and want to talk about an earlier past”.
 As soon as he had finished his exams, he went to Paris for a month. “one
action caused the other”
 When I had written my letters, I did some gardening. “Not when I wrote my
letter, I did some gardening.”
 All ministers had arrived at the Presidential House before Mr. President
came.
 Before Mr. President came, all ministers had arrived at the Presidential
house.
 He visited the Park Mall at Setif city after he had finished his classes.
 Hundreds of students had waited for the exam when the teacher arrived to the
classroom.
 Ann had got his Master Degree from Harvard University before she became a
famous lecturer at Harvard 2 University.
 I had never seen such a beautiful place before I went to Zurich.
 I did not have any money because I had lost my wallet.
 Had John ever studied German before he moved to Germany?

Important Reminder:
When we have two consecutive past actions, the second one is always in the
simple past and the first action is either in the past perfect tense for a complete
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action or past continuous for a continuing action. So the question of past perfect or
past continuous actions can be answered by the following two parameters:
 The use of reason and logic “concession of past actions”
 The case of chronological order of actions “first action then the second action”
 The absence of interruption for the case of past perfect and simple past tenses.
 The presence of interruption for the case of present continuous tense and
simple past tense.
 The absence of interruption corresponds to the quality of sequential actions.
 The presence of interruption corresponds to the quality of simultaneousness
actions.

 The past perfect is common after past verbs of saying and thinking, to talk about
things that had happened before the saying or thinking took place.
 I told her that I had finished my work. “It joined one past action with
another one in earlier past time.”
 I wondered who had left the door open.
 I thought I had sent the money a week before.
 It is also used to describe unreal events, hopes, and wishes in the past. After “if,
wish, and would rather” we use past perfect to talk about events that did not
happen or unrealized. Here, it is the case of conditional type 3.
 If I had gone to university I would have studied medicine. “But he did not go
to university.”
 I wish if you had told me the truth. “But you did not do it.’
 I’d rather she had asked me before borrowing the car.

Summary

The past perfect tense is used when one past event was completed before
another past event or stated past time. It is formed by using “had” plus the
past participle of the base verb (I, you, s/he/it, we, they had forgotten). The
common way of using the simple present tense is when:
 Expresses a past event/situation occurring before a particular time/event in the
past - used not to express an action in distant past but only in comparison with
another past action. (She had lost her job, so she was working as a waitress.) So
presence of two past actions is a must for the use of past perfect tense.

2. Past Perfect Continuous Tense

2. 1. Form
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  This tense is formed with “had been” + the present participle of the main verb. It
is therefore the same for all persons. Examples:
 I had been working. “Affirmative”
 They had not been working. “Negative”
 Had you been working? “Interrogative”
 Had not you been working? Or had you not been working? “Negative
Interrogative”

2. 2. Main Uses of the Past Perfect Continuous Tense

 The past perfect continuous bears the same relation to the past perfect as the
present perfect continuous bears to the present perfect. This relationship implies
that when the action began before the time of speaking, and continued up to that
time, or stopped just before it, we can often use either form. So we use the Past
Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up
until another time in the past. "For five minutes" and "for two weeks" are both
durations which can be used with the Past Perfect Continuous. Notice that this is
related to the Present Perfect Continuous; however, the duration does not continue
until now, it stops before something else in the past. This kind of actions can be
represented diagrammatically as follows:

 They had been talking for over an hour before John arrived.
 She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of
business.
 How long had you been waiting to get on the bus?
 It was now six and he was tired because he had worked since dawn = it was
now six and he was tired because he had been working since dawn.
 The boy was delighted with his new knife. He had been wanting one for a
long time.
 Using the Past Perfect Continuous before another action in the past is a good way
to show cause and effect. So Past Perfect Progressive is used to report an action or

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 event that happened before a point in the past and whose effects are still visible at
that point (in the past). Examples:
 John had been studying at the Harvard University for full 5 years before he
became a lecturer.
 I had been living in this famous city for 20 years before I moved to Algiers.
 John was tired because he had been jogging.
 Ann gained weight because he had been overeating.

3. Differences between Past Perfect continuous and Past Perfect

 The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses
longer actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:
 Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been
waiting for two hours.

 But there is a difference between a single action in the simple past perfect and an
action in the past perfect continuous.
 By six o’clock he had repaired the machine. “This job had been completed”.
 He had been repairing the machine. “It tells us how he had spent the
previous hour but it does not tell us whether or not the job was completed.”
 Progressive forms generally emphasize the continuation of an activity: we use
simple tenses to emphasize the idea of completion. Compare:
 I had been reading science fiction, and my mind was full of strange images.
 I had read all my magazines, and was beginning to get bored.
 Some verbs are not normally used in progressive forms, even if the meaning is one
for which a progressive form would be more suitable.
 I had not known her for very long when we got married.
 The past perfect continuous does not have the passive form. The nearest passive
equivalent of a sentence such as “they had been picking apples” would be
“apples had been picked”. So the nearest passive equivalent tense is past perfect
passive tense.
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4. Past Continuous vs. Past Perfect Continuous
If you do not include duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since
Friday," many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the
Past Perfect Continuous. Be careful because this can change the meaning of the
sentence. Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect
Continuous emphasizes duration of time before something in the past. Examples:
 He was tired because he was exercising very hard. (This sentence emphasizes
the fact that he was tired because he was exercising at that exact moment)
 He was tired because he had been exercising very hard. (This sentence
emphasizes the fact that he was tired because he had been exercising over a
period of time. It is possible that he was still exercising at that moment or that
he had already finished exercising)

Summary

The past perfect progressive tense is used to indicate actions that ended or will end at
a specified time or before another action. It is formed by using “had” plus “been”
plus the present participle of the base verb (I, you, s/he/it, we, they had been
looking). The common way of using the simple present tense is when:
 It is used to emphasize the duration of a continuous activity that took place before
or up to and including a particular time/event in the past.
 He returned to Vienna where he had been negotiating the oil prices.
 I thought he needed some fresh air.
 He had been sitting there all day.)

Macro Summary to the Past Tenses

When you write a narrative about an event that occurred in the past, you will use the
different forms of the past tense. The different forms will allow you to show the
difference between actions which may be completely finished, continue into the
present, or actions which may have taken place over a period, or duration, of time in
the past. Additionally, you may want to show that events or conditions occurred in a
sequence (first, next, and last) in the past. For example:
 I graduated from college in 2005. Your graduation was a single event. It is
completely over; although you continue to be a graduate, the day you wore your
cap and gown and received your degree is over. Use the simple past tense.
 I was preparing dinner when the phone rang. Each of the events is over. You
prepared the dinner yesterday, and the phone rang yesterday. Show that a
continuing action was interrupted by using the past continuous tense.

229
 I was living in India at the time. I shopped at the outdoor markets every day.
Again, each of these events is over. You no longer live in India, and you no longer
shop in the markets. Use the past continuous tense to show that your life in India
was a duration, or period, of time. During that time you shopped at the markets.
 I had viewed the film before I read the book. Both of these actions happened in the
past. Use the past perfect tense to indicate that one event occurred before the
other.
 I had been looking for my shoes when I found his lost wallet. Again, both of these
actions are past. Use the past continuous tense to show that one action was in
progress when another event occurred.

Exercise 1

Supply a suitable Simple Past or Past Perfect Tense with justification:

1. They …………………. (go) home after they …………….. (finish) their work.
2. She ………………………….. (just / go) out when I called her.
3. My brother …………………………. (eat) all the pie before we got back.
4. He wondered why I ………………………………. (not / visit) him before.
5. She said that she ………………………………. (already / see) the Pyramids.
6. The fire ………………………………………….. (spread) to the next building
before the firemen ………………………….. (arrive).
7. They drank small cups of coffee, after they …………………. (finish) dinner.
8. He told me he …………………………………….. (catch) a young lion.
9. His mother …. (worry) a lot about him before she …… (hear) that he was safe.
10. He …………….. (already / learn) English before he ………………. (leave) for
England, but before he arrived in England, he ………… (forget) some.
11. Mary …………………….. (go) swimming after she ………………… (come)
home. After she ………… (swim), she ………. (call) her friend John.
12. After they ………… (finish) their breakfast, they ………… (leave) for school.
13. Linda ……………. (play) tennis after she ……………… (do) her homework.
14. My father ………………. (water) the flowers after he ………………. (clean)
the car. After he ……..…….. (water) the flowers, he …….…….. (have) dinner.
Exercise 2

Fill in the following sentences by using Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

1. I was tired because I ……………………..……. (type) for a long time.
2. Her boss was very angry with her because she ……. (come) to work very late.
3. I didn’t know about the earthquake because I ………… (not / watch) television.
4. She was too fat because she ……………….. (not / keep) her doctor’s advice.

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 5. I took my car to the garage because the brakes ………..…………. (not / work).
6. She had to go to the dentist because she ………….…. (not / clean) her teeth.
7. He got bad marks because he …………………...…………… (not / study) hard.
8. She wasn’t at home. She ……….…………………. (go) out with her boyfriend.
9. I thought I ………………………..………………… (behave) like a stupid man.
10. He ………………...………….. (study) English) very hard for the last few days.

Exercise 3

Complete the sentences using the past perfect or the past perfect continuous.
1. By the time I got home they …………(eat) all the cake.
2. The room was very smoky. I could tell that my brother …… (smoke) in there all
afternoon.
3. She retired at fifty-five, but she ……. (work) hard all her life.
4. James was very irritable. He ………. (look) for his contact lens for an hour and
he still ……….(not / find) it!
5. I was furious with Tom when he arrived. I ………….. (wait) for him for hours.
6. Harry was sad to sell his car. He………. (have) it for a long time.
7. Mary was covered in white paint. She …….(decorate) the kitchen a1l afternoon.
8. Lucy went into the sitting room. The TV was on. Her brother ……. (watch) it
and…………… (forget) to switch it off.
9. Hattie felt terribly sick. She ………(eat) too many cream cakes.
10. The journey was incredibly long. We …… (travel) for ten hours and we weren't
even half way yet.
Exercise 4

Complete the sentences using the present perfect or past perfect.

1. The park looked awful after the music festival. People …. (leave) litter
everywhere.
2. You …………. (make) a mistake. I am not the person you are looking for.
3. When we arrived at the cinema, the film …………… (already/start).
4. It isn't raining now. It …………….. (finally/stop).
5. I am rea1ly not very hungry. I …………… (just/have) lunch.
6. His apartment was rea1ly dirty. He obviously ………. (not/clean) it for weeks.
7. At last the Board of Directors were ready to announce their decision. They
……….. (make) up their mind.
8. I am so exhausted………….. (really/have) a tough week.
9. The ball hit the back of the net before the goalkeeper ……….. (notice).
10. The CEO didn't speak until he ………….. (hear) a1l the arguments.

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 Present Tenses: Simple Present Tense
Description of the Lecture
This unit is about the simple present tense. It explores key ideas about the forms,
meanings and uses of the simple present tense. Throughout the unit students will
become familiar with the contexts of the simple present. Key content of the unit
includes theory and practice.
Objectives of the lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Define the simple present.
2. List the form and uses of the simple present tense.
3. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using the simple
present tense.

1. Form

The simple present tense is one of two present tenses of English language, and it is
used in various ways. In the affirmative form the simple present has the same form as
the infinitive but adds “s” for the third person singular. It is formed by using the base
verb or the base verb with “-s” or “-es” and can be singular (I listen, you listen,
s/he/it listens) or plural (we listen, you listen, they listen). When the verb is
irregular, be sure to use the proper form of the verb; for example, with the irregular
verb “be,” use the following: singular (I am, you are, s/he/it is); plural (we, you, they
are).

2. Spelling Notes

 Verbs ending in “ss, sh, ch, x, and o” take “es” instead of “s” alone, to form the
third person singular. Examples:
 I kiss he/she/it kisses
 I rush he/she/it rushes
 I watch he/she/it watches
 I box he/she/it boxes
 I do he/she/it does
 When “y” follows a consonant we change the “y” into “I” and add “es” to the
verb: Examples:
 I carry he/she/it carries
 I copy he/she/it copies
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  I try he/she/it tries
 But verbs ending in “y” following a vowel obey the usual rule. Examples:
 I obey he/she/it obeys
 I say he/she/it says
 They play he/she/it plays

3. Main Uses of the Simple Present Tense

 The simple present tense is used for stating general truths, eternal universal
truths, scientific laws and things that are true in general all the time. Here, we
are talking about facts and unchanging situations. The Simple Present can also
indicate the speaker believes that a fact was true before, is true now, and will be
true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is
also used to make generalizations about people or things. This kind of actions can
be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 The earth moves round the sun.

 The earth planet takes the egg like shape.
 I am an Algerian citizen.
 The sun rises in the East.
 The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world.
 Smoking damages your lungs.
 Water becomes ice at 0 degree.
 Light travels faster than sound many times.
 A square has four sides.
 Gravity on the earth makes objects falls down.
 The simple present tense is used to express the idea that an action is regular,
usual, repeated, normal activities and routine duties or events which we do
every frequently and occur at regular intervals. The action can be a habit, a hobby,
a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can also be
something a person often forgets or usually does not do. It is used with adverb or
adverb phrases of frequency to indicate an idea of repetition and regularity.
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 Adverbs of frequency are like “always, usually, never, occasionally, often,
sometimes, every week, every day, twice a year, etc.” This kind of actions can
be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 They drive to the office every day.

 She does not come here very often.
 The news usually starts at 6:00 every morning.
 Do you usually have bacon and eggs for breakfast?
 The simple present tense is also used when we talk about scheduled events in the
near future. This is most commonly done when talking about public transportation
such as plans, arrivals, departures, time-tables, program of events, charts, and
classes. You can’t do this for most future actions; you can only do it for actions
that are scheduled. It’s not necessary to use simple present for scheduled events;
the future tense or present continuous tense are also okay. This kind of actions can
be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 Christmas Day falls on a Monday this year.

 The plane leaves at 5:00 tomorrow morning.
 The bus does not arrive at 8 AM, it arrives at 8 PM.
 When do we board the bus?
 The movie starts at 9 o'clock.

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  The first semester exams take place the next week.
 We use the present simple tense to talk about actions we see as long term or
permanent or regarded as permanent. Here, it is about actions which happen all
the time, in the past, present and future. In the sense that it is not limited to a
particular time. This kind of actions can be represented diagrammatically as
follows:

 John drives a taxi. (It is John’s job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past,
present future.)
 We have two children.
 Most people like trendy clothes.
 In addition, the present tense is used when referring to printed materials, and
when describing events portrayed in a book, film, opera, play, sport events, public
functions, proverbs, sayings or other works of arts. Examples:
 The report presents the information clearly.
 At the end of the film, the hero finds the hidden treasure.
 Actions speak louder than words.
 It is used also to describe a series of actions, when giving information, orders, or
instructions. Examples:
 How do I get to the station?
 First, you go along Victoria Street, then you turn left, etc.
 Simple present when discussing literature. In academic situations, especially when
writing papers, it’s traditional to use simple present as the main tense to tell the
story of a work of fiction like a novel, a play, or a short story, even if the work
itself is written in the past tense. Example:
 Romeo and Juliet tell the tragic story of two young lovers. Two families in the
town of Verona, the Capulets and the Montagues, hate one another. Romeo is
the son of the Montague family and Juliet is the daughter of the Capulets.
Romeo and Juliet meet at a party, fall in love, and secretly make plans to get
married. Soon after the young couple marry, Juliet’s cousin, Tybalt, kills
Romeo’s closest friend. Romeo, in a blind rage, kills Tybalt. This starts a
series of events that ends in the two lovers’ deaths.
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 It is often used instead of “will+ infinitive” in subordinate clauses “conditional
sentences” that refer to the future. . Examples:
 I will phone you when I get home.
 I will warn anybody that touches my possessions.
 If you revise your lessons very well, you will get good marks in the final
exam.
 A description, professional activities and definition. Examples:
 A baker bakes bread.
 A doctor works in a hospital. He examines the sick people. He gives medicine
too.
 Teachers teach in schools. They explain and give homework and correct
students' worksheet.
 An architect is a person who plans a new building.
 The simple present tense must be used instead of the present continuous with
verbs which cannot be used in the continuous “progressive” form. Some verbs are
never or hardly used in progressive forms. Even if the meaning is about an idea of
continuation “just around now”. Many of these non-progressive verbs refer to
state rather than actions. Some of them refer to mental states and emotional
reactions like “know, think, believe, doubt, feel, hate, imagine, like, love, prefer,
realize, recognize, remember, understand, see, suppose, want, wish”, some others
refer to the use of senses such as “feel, hear, see, smell, sound, taste”, some others
are about communicating and causing reactions like “agree, appear, astonish,
deny, look, impress, promise, mean, seem, satisfy, surprise, …”. Examples;
 I am here now.
 She needs assistance right now.
 I like this music.
 I see what you mean.
 They envy to participate in the race.

Summary

The simple present tense is used primarily for actions occurring regularly, or at a set
time in the future. It is formed by using the base verb or the base verb with “-s” or “-
es”. When the verb is irregular, be sure to use the proper form of the verb; for
example, with the irregular verb “be,” use the following: singular (I am, you are,
s/he/it is); plural (we, you, they are). The common way of using the simple present
tense is when:
 To refer to a situation or affairs as natural and factual (Water boils at 100 C.)

236
 To refer to a situation or state of affairs regarded as permanent. (He works in a
bank.)
 To refer to repeated/habitual actions. (I take sugar in coffee. Do you smoke?)
 To discuss what happens in a book, play, movie, story, or an event. (He turns,
shoots, and suddenly realizes he got the wrong target.)
 To express thoughts, feelings, immediate reactions to something at the present
moment (God, he looks awful).
 In news headlines (Serial killer kills his 5th!)
 In explanations and instructions (You take the first turn left and then go straight
ahead).
 With future reference as a part of a fixed schedule (The new semester starts on
January fifth)

Exercise 1

Complete the following sentences by supplying the correct form of the verb
given at the end of each. Use the present tense.
1.........you.............playing football? (like)
2. A teetotaler…………..not ..............wine. (drink)
3. .............the doctor…………...to see your brother every day? (call)
4. ………...you………....tea or coffee? (prefer)
5...........your uncle……….....that house? (own)
6. ...........you…………...to read mystery stories? (like)
7............anyone……......where Susan has gone? (know)
8. How often…….....you…….....to the cinema? (go)
9. ............the cinemas………...on Sunday in your town? (open)
10.Where.............your friend………..when he goes to London? (stay)
11.To which station.............I……….to get a train for Liverpool? (go)

Exercise 2

Complete the sentences by putting in the verbs. Use the present simple. You
have to decide if the verb is positive or negative. Some examples are given.
 Claire is very sociable. She knows (know) lots of people.
 We've got plenty of chairs, thanks. We don't want (want) any more.
2.
1. My friend is finding life in Paris a bit difficult. He............ (speak) French.
2. Most students live quite close to the college, so they ...................... (walk) there.
3. My sports kit is really muddy. This shirt ............................. (need) a good wash.
4. I've got four cats and two dogs. I ........................................... (love) animals.

237
 5. No breakfast for Mark, thanks. He ...............................................(eat) breakfast.
6. What's the matter? You ............................................(look) very happy.
7. Don't try to ring the bell. It .............................................. (work).
8. I hate telephone answering machines. I just....................... (like) talking to them.
9. Matthew is good at badminton. He ......................................... (win) every game.
10. We always travel by bus. We .......................................... (own) a car.

Present Tenses: Present Continuous Tense

Description of the Lecture
This unit is about the present continuous tense. It explores key elements related to
the forms and meanings of the present continuous tense. The pedagogical
procedures of the unit count on the theory, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Define the present continuous tense.
2. List the forms and uses of the present continuous tense.
3. Enable learners to reflect on the differences between the simple present and
present continuous tenses.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using either the simple
present or present continuous tenses.

1. Form

The present continuous “progressive” tense is formed with the present tense of the
helping verb “to be” + the present participle of the main verb. See the following table
with the example verb “to work” for more details.

Subject + (am / is / are ) + stem of the main verb + ing

2. Main Uses of the Present Continuous “Progressive” Tense

 It is used for an action exactly happening right now when we want to say that
somebody is doing something or that something is happening at the moment of

238
 speaking. At this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not
happening now. Here it looks that the speaker is in a direct connection with the
time of the action described. The action or event is in progress and not yet
complete. Common phrases of time are “at the moment, at the present time, and
now”. This kind of actions can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 She is washing her hair now.

 She is not washing her hair now.
 They are attending the conference. (The speaker announces this idea exactly at
the time of delivering the conference.)
 I am eating my lunch. (Right now I am taking my lunch.) see this example in
this diagram below.

 In English, "now" can mean right now, today, this month, this year, this decade,
this century…etc. Sometimes, we use the Present Continuous to say that we are in
the process of doing a longer action which is in progress; however, we might not
be doing it at this exact second. So the present continuous is also used for an
action happening about this time around now but not necessarily and exactly at
the moment of speaking but it is happening just before and just after now, and it is
not permanent or habitual. In this situation, the action is not yet complete but can
be interrupted for a time. Strictly speaking, such interrupted actions are not in
progress at the moment of speaking. This indicates an activity that does not

239
 necessarily continue at the time of speaking. This kind of actions can be
represented diagrammatically as follows:

Examples: (All of these sentences can be said while watching movie with your
friend)

 They are attending the conference. (The speaker announces this idea not
exactly at the time of the conference but during a coffee break where teacher
and his students are expected to come back continue the conference.)
 John is reading a novel. (He is taking his coffee at the time of speaking.)
 I’m very busy. I am redecorating my living-room.
 He is teaching French and Greek. (He may not be doing either at the moment
of speaking.)
 John is studying English this time, but he is not studying right now; he is
eating dinner.
 Sometimes, speakers use the Present Continuous to indicate that something will or
will not happen in the near future. We use the present progressive to say that
something definitely planned or arranged for the near future. When we say
the word “future” we must add or understand from the context or from the use of
the future word the idea of near future arrangement through some time or location
references. Future words include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at
Christmas, etc. we only use the present continuous to talk about the future when
we have planned or arranged to do something before the time of speaking. We
have already made a decision and a plan before speaking. This kind of actions can
be represented diagrammatically as follows:

240
  I am taking an exam in next October. (It implies that I have registered and
entered for it. This implies that the speaker prepared all the reasons for the
exam and what is left is just waiting the right moment for the exam. )
 Bob and Bill are meeting tonight. (It implies that they both have arranged it.)
 They aren’t arriving until Tuesday.
 Are you doing anything tomorrow afternoon? Yes, I am playing tennis with
Ann.
 Non-Progressive Verbs: There are some verbs that tell us about our feelings,
emotions, opinions, relations or about a permanent state. These verbs have several
different names: state verbs, non-action verbs, non-progressive verbs, or non-
continuous verbs; all these names mean the same thing. These verbs are not
normally used in the continuous tenses except in some special cases. It should be
noted here that the continuous tenses are chiefly used for deliberate actions
(actions that the speaker has power over the action.) Some verbs are, therefore, not
normally used in the continuous and have only one present tense, the simple form.
These verbs can be grouped as follows:
1. Verbs of senses (involuntary actions): feel, hear, see, smell, also, notice, and
observe. (When you feel the action is deliberate use them.)
2. Verbs expressing feelings and emotions: (admire, adore, appreciate, desire,
detest, dislike, fear, hate, like,)
3. Verbs of thinking and mental activity: (agree, appreciate, assume, believe,
expect, forget, know, mean, perceive, realize, recall, recognize,)
4. Verbs of possession: belong, owe, own, possess, the auxiliaries, except, be
and have in certain uses.
5. Verbs of liking or disliking:
6. Verbs of appearance:
7. The auxiliaries, except be and have in certain uses and situation.

2. 3. Simple Present Tense and Present Continuous Tense Differences

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 Progressive forms sound more casual and less definite than simple forms because
they suggest something temporary and incomplete.
 I’m hoping you can lend me 50 dollars. (It is less definite than I hope ….)
 What time are planning to arrive? (It is more casual than what time do you
…?)
 I’m looking forward to seeing you.
 A continuous “progressive” form does not simply show the time of an event. It
also shows how the speaker sees the event- generally as an ongoing and
temporary, not completed or permanent. For this reason Grammarians often talk
about progressive aspects rather than the time when the action happen.

Simple Present Present Continuous

 Simple present does not have  Present continuous has duration. It
specific duration. It describes a describes temporary actions. He is
permanent action. He lives in the living in the village (temporary
village (permanent residence) residence.
 The present simple indicates  The present progressive/ continuous
completeness of the event. The refers to an activity which has limited
taxi stops. ( comes to a halt ) My duration. The taxi is stopping.
business runs well for all the (Slowing down). My business is
time. running well. (But earlier it was not.)
 The simple present says about  The progressive is included in the
past present, future. The sun rises present and does not say anything
in the last. about the past or future of the action.
 Impersonal She is having a bath.
 Definite  Personal
 Focus on time  Casual
 Focus on aspect and circumstances

Summary

The present progressive tense is used to indicate an action in progress at the moment
of speaking. It is formed by using “am,” “are,” or “is” with the present participle of
the base verb (I am, you are, s/he/it is, we, they are). The common way of using the
simple present tense is when:
 To express an action taking place at the moment of speaking (I’m trying to hear
what he’s speaking).
 To indicate changes, trends, development, and progress (He is not improving, he
is getting worse).

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 To indicate a temporary situation (She is travelling through Europe).
 With future reference as a part of personal arrangement (I am seeing John
tomorrow).
Exercise 1

Put in the present continuous form of the verb in brackets.

1. Please be quiet. I …………. (try) to read my book.
2. I ………………. (not/use) the computer at the moment so you can use it.
3. Mary is ill so Sue ……………… (teach) her 1essons today.
4. Excuse me, I…………… (look) for a hotel. Is there one near here?
5. ……………..(you/wait) for someone?
6. Jack, you are very careless. You ………..(always/forget) to do your homework!
7. The cost of living ………(rise) very fast. Every year things are more expensive.
8. What……….. (you/do)? I …………..(clean) my shoes.
9. Why………….. (not/wear) shorts? It's so hot today.
10. The neighbors are so noisy! They…………… (always/argue) 1oudly.

Exercise 2

Fill in the blanks in the following sentences with the simple or the progressive
form (present tense) of the verb given in brackets at the end of each.
2. The Italians...............in Italy. (live)
3. Mr. Johnson......................to the office in his car each morning. (go)
4. My aunt…………....with us for a few weeks. (stay)
5. Jack cannot come out to play just now, as he…………....his home-work. (do)
6. We……………..to the seaside for a month every summer. (go)
7. A vegetarian is a person who never……………...meat (eat)
8. An honest person always……………….the truth. (tell)
9. The workmen …………….the road near our house. (repair)
10. My husband will see you in about quarter of an hour; he...............his lunch at the
moment. (have)
11. There are some birds that…………...every year. (migrate)
12. A person who…………..ladies………….. hats is known as a milliner. (sell)
13. That child………....because it cannot find its mother. (cry)
14. My sister and I…………....to the cinema every Thursday evening. (go)
15. The Pyrenees……………...France from Spain. (divide)
16. It was very dull early this morning, but the sun………………..now. (shine)
Exercise 3
Fill in the blanks with Present Continuous or Simple Present tenses:
1. The children ………………………….. (play) outside now.
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 2. She usually ………………………. (read) the newspaper in the morning.
3. I …………………………… (do) my homework now.
4. I ………………………… (eat) my dinner now.
5. ……………………………. (you / want) a pizza?
6. They …………………………….. (watch) TV now.
7. I ……………………………. (not / like) spaghetti.
8. The baby …………………………. (sleep) now.
9. My mother usually…………………. (cook) dinner in the evening.
10. He …………………….. (write) a letter to his pen-friend every month.
11. She ………………………. (not / like) football.
12. Mary ………………………….. (listen) to music now.
13. Tom usually…………… (drink) coffee, but he …………. (drink) tea now.
14. We ………………………. (go) to the disco tonight.
15. . ………………………… (he / go) to work by bus everyday.
Exercise 4
Complete the sentences with Simple Present or Present Continuous tenses:
1. Susan usually …………. (go) to school by bus, but now she …………….. (go)
to school by train.
2. Mary often………….. (read) in bed, but today she is very tired and she
………………. (not / read).
3. The boys usually ………… (ride) their bikes to school. They …………….
…………… (like / ride) their bikes. They ……………… (be) very naughty
boys. They always ……………… (go) to school late. Today their teacher
……………. (be) very angry, because they ………………… (be) late again.
4. Mary ……………….. (like / eat) sweets. Every morning she ………. (have)
coffee with a lot of sweets and chocolate. For lunch she and her friends often
…………….. (eat) sweets or ice-cream. She ……………… (not / like / eat)
fruit or vegetables. She ……………… (eat / never) eggs or cheese. Today she
…………….. (be) sick. She ……………… (sleep) in her room now.
Exercise 5
Complete the sentences with Simple Present, simple past or Present Continuous
tenses:
1. He often ……….. brings …………. (bring) me flowers.
2. …………………………………………. (you / meet) Paul yesterday?
3. Father ………………………………………. (work) in the garden now.
4. What …………………………………………. (you / do) at the moment?
5. Mr. Jones ……………………………….. (paint) his house last month.
6. She ……………………………. (go) to school on foot every day.

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 7. It ……………………….. (be) hot yesterday.
8. The baby ………………………………………… (not / sleep) now.
9. He never ………………………………. (drive) fast.
10. She ……………………………. (leave) Paris in 1987.
11. She always ……………………………….. (go) to church on Sunday.
12. I ……………………………… (buy) a new bicycle last week.
13. My family ……………………………….. (go) to the theatre yesterday.
14. Tom ……………………………… (live) in London three years ago.
15. My mother …………………………………… (make) some coffee now.
16. Sam …………………………… (go) to the circus yesterday.
17. I …………………………………. (talk) on the telephone at the moment.
18. Sally always ……………………………… (help) her mother in the house.
19. I …………………………… (have) dinner in a restaurant last Friday.
20. Listen! The birds ………………………………………. (sing) in the garden.
21. I often …………………………….. (buy) fruit from the greengrocer’s.
22. My mother …………………………………… (drink) tea now.
23. Look at Tom and Jim! They ………………………………… (walk) up the hill.
24. That man ……………………………………….. (laugh) at the moment.
25. The cat ………………………………….. (play) with a ball now.
26. We always ……………………………… (wear) warm clothes in winter.
27. He often …………………………….. (eat) a sandwich at lunchtime.
Exercise 6
Put the verb into the correct form, present continuous or present simple.
1. I …………. (not/belong) to this particu1ar government committee.
2. Hurry! The bus ………….. (come). I ………… (not/want) to miss it.
3. Gregory is a vegetarian. He…………. (not/eat) meat.
4. I ……………(1ook) for the manager. I can't find him anywhere.
5. We are successful because we ………. (take) the time to ta1k to our customers.
6. John…………. (deal) with all the enquiries about sales.
7. At the moment we …………. (make) a training video for Siemens.
8. ………..(you/know) what Mr. Stephan……….. (do)? He is not in his office.
9. I……. (apply) for a job in the sales department, but I don't know if I will be
successful.
10. ……………(depend) on whether or not they have any vacancies.
11. Unemployment …………. (fa1l) and is now down to 5.6%.
12. Jane is doing some research in the library. She needs it for a book she … (write).
13. While Anna is away on holidays, Matt…………. (work) in her office.
14. He…………. (teach) French and German at University and …… (learn) Greek.

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 15. There ……… (be)two flights to Honduras this afternoon. The British Airways
flight ……… (1eave) at 13:00 and………….. (arrive) at 22:00.
16. Inflation …………. (rise) at a rate of 2% per annum.

Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous Tenses

Description
This lecture is about the present perfect and present perfect continuous tenses. It
explores key elements related to the forms and uses of the given tenses. Throughout
the unit students will become familiar with the relevant theory, examples and
exercises of present perfect and present perfect continuous tenses.
Objectives
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
 Introduce a general overview of the present perfect and present perfect
continuous tenses.
 List the form and uses of the present perfect and present perfect continuous
tenses.
 Enable learners to reflect on the differences between the present perfect and
present perfect continuous tenses.
 Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using either the present
perfect or present perfect continuous tenses.

1. The Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is a sort of mixture of present and past. It always
implies a strong connection with the present and is chiefly used in conversations,
letters, newspapers, and television and radio reports. Please note that American and
British English have different rules for the use of this tense. The explanations and
examples here refer to British English. In American English, it is often acceptable to
use the past simple tense in some situations instead of the present perfect. The present
perfect tense is used when we want to look back from the present to the past. We use
it especially to say that a finished action or event is connected with the present time
in some way. When we say that something has happened, we are thinking about the
past time and the present time at the same time.
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1. 1. Form of the Verb

 The present perfect tense is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary “to
have” + the past participle of the main verb. Examples:
 I have worked.
 She has worked.
 They have made the cake.
 The past participle in regular verbs has exactly the same form as the simple past:
 Love, loved
 Work, worked
 In irregular verbs the past participles vary “see the list.” Examples:
 Find, found
 Come, come
 go, gone
 The negative is formed by adding “not” to the auxiliary. Examples:
 I have not worked.
 She has not worked.
 The interrogative is formed by inverting the auxiliary and subject. Examples:
 Have I worked?
 Has she worked?

1. 2. Main Uses of the Present Perfect Tense

 It is used for unspecified time before now. We use the Present Perfect to say that
an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not
important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions
such as yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, one day, etc. We
CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never,
once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc. furthermore, we
often use the Present Perfect to list the accomplishments of individuals and
humanity. Remember, though, that you cannot mention a specific time. This kind
of actions can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

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  I have seen that movie ten times.
 She thinks I have met her three before.
 There have been many earthquakes in Asia.
 People have traveled to the South Pole.
 People have not traveled to the Moon.
 Have you read the book yet?
 Nobody has ever climbed that mountain.
 Doctors have cured many deadly diseases.
 Scientists have split the atom.
 This tense expresses an idea of experience in the sense that the action of the
experience took place in the past while the results and the experience itself is still
in my head and memory now at the present time. So the speaker has a memory of
the event; he knows something about the event; he could remember it.
Consequently, he has a kind of experience of it. Here are some examples about
Experience:

 Here are some examples in which the present perfect talks about a New
Information. This means that the past and present are opposite to each other:

 I have bought a car.

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  The policemen have arrested the killer.
Past Present Future
- - - - - - - + + + + + + + - - - - -
Last week, I did not have a car. Now I have a car. No action in this stage

 We often use the Present Perfect to talk about change that has happened over a
period of time. Here are some examples in which the present perfect talks about a
Change. This means that the past and present are opposite to each other.
 You have grown since the last time I saw you.
 The government has become more interested in poverty removal.
 Mandarin has become one of the most popular language courses at the
university since the Asian studies program was established.
 My English has really improved since I moved to America.

 The present perfect tense is used with a length of time. In case we see this tense
with a phrase that shows a length of time, then it always means that the action
started in the past and has continued until now. In this situation, this tense
describes a continuing situation. This is about a state that started in the past and
continues in the present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state
(not an action). We usually use for or since with the structure. This kind of
description can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 I have had a headache for two says.

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  She has been in Sydney for six months.
 Ann has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

Important Note about For & Since with Present Perfect Tense
We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years. For can be
used with all tenses. Examples:
 I have been here for 20 minutes.
 John hasn't called for 6 months.
 He has worked in New York for a long time.
 We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o'clock, 1st January,
Monday. Since is usually used with perfect tenses only. Examples:
 I have been here since 9 o'clock.
 John hasn't called since February.
 He has worked in New York since he left school.

1. 3. Simple Past Tense and Present Perfect …………Differences

 Basic difference: Simple Past refers to a definite time in the past, whereas Present
Perfect refers to an action in indefinite time reference that is in certain connection
with the present moment. Examples:
 Ann has had a bad car accident. – She is probably still in hospital or sill facing
some health problems..
 Ann had a bad car accident. – She is probably fine by now and forgot totally
about the accident.
 With Simple Past you specify the time of past action, whereas with Present Perfect
you emphasize that something has happened in the past, but not when. Therefore,
Present Perfect cannot be used with adjuncts/adverbials of time, but can be used
with adjuncts/adverbials of duration/frequency. Examples:
 The settlers have left the bay forever.
 She has always been partial to sweets.

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  I have often/frequently wondered why he moved.
 Unlike Simple Past, Present Perfect may indicate incompletion. Examples:
 I have smoked for six years. –probably still smoke. VS.
 I smoked for six years. – I stopped smoking.).

Summary

The present perfect tense is used to indicate that an action occurring at some unstated
time in the past is related or continues to the present time. It is formed by using
“have” or “has” plus the past participle of the base verb (I, you, we, they have lived;
s/he/it has lived). The common way of using the simple present tense is when:
 Action that happened in the past without stating the specific time. (I have raised
$500 for my swimming pool. I have noticed this trait in many photographers. She
has had tremendous adventures.)
 Action which started at some time in the past, continued, and is still happening
now. (I have lived here for the last couple of years. She has not talked to me since
yesterday. I have always liked cherry pies. I have not seen you for ages. – but I see
you now)
 Action in the indefinite past related to present situation (You seem terrified. What
has frightened you? I have sprained my ankle. That is why I am limping.).
 Recent action (I have just returned from work. We have missed out stop.)
 In clauses of time to indicate a future completed action. (As soon as you have had
your dinner, come over.)

2. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

2. 1. A Form of the Verb

 This tense is formed by the present perfect of the verb “to be” + the present
participle of the main verb:
Subject + Have or has + been + stem + ing + object

 I have been working all the night.

 She has been working all the day.
 They have been revising all the week.
 I have not been working all the hour.
 She has not been working all the day.
 Have I been working all the hour?
 Has she been working all the night?

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2. 2. Main Uses of the Present Perfect Continuous Tense

 We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about how long something has
been happening. This kind of actions can be represented diagrammatically as
follows:

 Recently, I have been feeling really depressed.

 She has been watching too much theatre lately.
 Have you been exercising lately?
 How long have you been studying English?
 I’ve been working here for two months.
 Present perfect progressive tense is used for an action which began in the past and
is still continuing or has only just finished. In short, when we look back over
actions and situations which started in the past and are still going on. "For five
minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be
used with the Present Perfect Continuous. This kind of actions can be represented
diagrammatically as follows:

 I’ve been waiting for an hour and he still hasn’t turned up.
 She has been revising for whole one week and she has not memorized the
lessons.
 I’m so sorry I’m late. Have you been waiting long?

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 Remember that a number of verbs are not normally used in the continuous form
(verbs of state), but that some of these can be used in this form in certain cases.
We can therefore say:
 Tom has been seeing about a work permit for you.
 She has been having a tooth out.
 I’ve been hearing all about his operation.
 The present perfect continuous tense does not exist in the passive voice. The
nearest passive equivalent of a sentence such as “they have been repairing the
road” would normally be “the road has been repaired lately”.
 The present perfect continuous tense cannot be used with expressions that refer to
a finished period of time.

2. 3. Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous …………Differences

1. An action which began in the past and is still continuing or has only just finished
can, with certain verbs, be expressed by either the present perfect simple or
present perfect continuous. Verbs which can be used in this way include “expect,
hope, learn, lie, live, look, rain, sleep, sit, snow, stand, stay, study, teach, wait,
want, work”. Examples:
 How long have you learnt English?
 How long have you been learning English?
 He has slept for ten years.
 He has been sleeping for ten years.
2. This is not of course possible with verbs which are not used in the continuous
forms (verbs of state), i.e. the present perfect continuous could not replace the
simple present perfect in the following examples:
 They’ve always had a big garden.
 He’s been in hospital since his accident.
3. Notice also that the present perfect continuous can be used with or without a time
phrase. In this way it differs from the simple present perfect , which can only
express this type of action if a time phrase is added such as “for six days, since
June, never, …” when used without a time expression of this kind, the simple
present perfect refers to a single completed action.
4. We use progressive form mostly for shorter, temporary actions and situations.
When we talk about longer-lasting situations we often prefer the simple present
perfect. When present perfect tense is compared to present perfect continuous
tense then the present perfect take the quality of simple tenses.
 That man has been standing on the corner all day.
 For 900 years the castle has stood on the hill above the village.
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Summary

The present perfect progressive tense describes actions that start in the past and
continue to the present. It is formed by using “have” or “has” plus “been” plus the
present participle of the base verb (I, you, we, they have been sitting, s/he/it has
been sitting). The common way of using the simple present tense is when:
 Present perfect Continuous emphasizes duration, (Why are you crying? - I have
been cutting onions for the last ten minutes) or (non)-completion (Have you been
reading the book?).
 Compared to Present Perfect tense, little difference: I have worked here for two
years now. Versus. I have been working here for two years now).
Macro Summary to the Present Tenses

You may use the different forms of the present tense to show the progression and
sequence of events that are occurring right now. The present tense may help you give
directions (for instance, for a process analysis essay) or to organize an argumentative
essay. Always use present tense when writing a literary analysis or when describing a
work of art. For example:
 I graduated from college in 2005. Your graduation was a single event. It is
completely over; although you continue to be a graduate, the day you wore your
cap and gown and received your degree is over. Use the simple past tense.
 I was preparing dinner when the phone rang. Each of the events is over. You
prepared the dinner yesterday, and the phone rang yesterday. Show that a
continuing action was interrupted by using the past continuous tense.
 I was living in India at the time. I shopped at the outdoor markets every day.
Again, each of these events is over. You no longer live in India, and you no longer
shop in the markets. Use the past continuous tense to show that your life in India
was a duration, or period, of time. During that time you shopped at the markets.
 I had viewed the film before I read the book. Both of these actions happened in the
past. Use the past perfect tense to indicate that one event occurred before the
other.
 I had been looking for my shoes when I found his lost wallet. Again, both of these
actions are past. Use the past continuous tense to show that one action was in
progress when another event occurred.
Exercise 1
Write a suitable sentence using the Present Perfect Tense: on example is given.
1. Ann’s hair was dirty. Now it’s clean. (wash) Ann has washed her hair.
2. Tom was 80 kg. Now he’s 70. (lose weight) …………………………………..

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 3. Bill played football yesterday. Now he can’t walk; his leg is in plaster. (break)
……………
4. My sister is looking for her pen. (lose) …………………………………..………
5. Mary is on holiday in France. (go) ………………………………………...……..
6. Mr. Hill was in Canada last week. He’s back in London now. (be) ……....……
7. Look! Mrs. Smith has got a lot of packages. (buy) ………………………...…….
8. I can’t eat anything now. (eat too much) ……………………………………...….
9. Mrs. Jenkins is very tired. (clean / house) …………………………………..……
10. Tony needs a holiday. (work / hard / this year) ……………………………….…

Exercise 2
Put the verbs in the correct tense. Use the Simple Past or the Present Perfect
with justification:
1. ………….. Tim ……………. (finish) his work yet?
2. ………….. he …………… (finish) it yesterday?
3. They ………………………. (just / go) out.
4. They ………………… (go) out a minute ago.
5. ………… Ann ………………. (study) yesterday afternoon?
6. ………… you ……………. (send) the letters yet?
7. ………… she …………….. (call) him a week ago?
8. They ……………………. (not / see) the film yet.
9. The train …………………………… (just / arrive).
10. ………………. you ………………. (ever / be) in a TV studio?
11. ………… you and Tom ……………… (enjoy) the party last night?
12. …………… you ……………………. (not / finish) school last year?
13. I ………………………. (lose) my dictionary. I can’t find it anywhere.
14. His hair looks short. He ………………………….. (have) a haircut.
15. Jane ……………………….. (buy) her car two weeks ago.
16. My bicycle isn’t here. Somebody ………………………. (take) it.
17. Why …………………………… (Jim / not want) to play tennis last Friday?
18. The car looks clean. ……………….. you ………………….. (wash) it?
19. When we were on holiday, the weather …………………… (be) terrible.

Exercise 3
Insert in the blank spaces in the sentences below with the Simple Past or with
the Present Perfect tense (whichever you think is correct) of the verb given at
the end.
11. We…………...to the theatre last evening. (go)
12. My father……………sixty years old last Tuesday. (be)
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 13. Do you know whether the doctor…………..yet? (be)
14. ………...you…………...the film that is showing at the Odeon? (see)
15. We…………..to this house in 1935 and…………...here ever since. (come, live)
16. It…………..every day this week. (rain)
17. No one…………..from him for the past six months. (hear)
18. Last Saturday we…………..to visit some friends in a neighboring town. (go)
19. We………...all our money, so we shall have to walk home. (spend)
20. Shakespeare…………...from 1564 to 1616. (live)
21. . …………....the postman………….yet? (come)
22. We…………..you already that we cannot do what you ask. (tell)
23. When I………....a boy we…………….on a farm. (be, live)
24. The weather ................warmer yesterday that it is today. (be)
25. Mrs.…………. Smith is not at home; she...to visit some friends. (go)
26. She………....out at ten o'clock, and…………..not yet…………(go, return)
27. Several books on that subject…………...during the present year. (appear)
28. I cannot play in the match as I……………...my foot. (injure)
29. I...to him last week, but he...not………………..yet. (write, reply)
30. The accident……………..at 10.30 this morning. (occur)
Exercise 4
Use Present Perfect Tense or Present Perfect Continuous tenses to fill in the
blanks with justification:
1. I’ve bought / have been buying a new pair of shoes.
2. Have you finished / Have you been finishing reading that book yet?
3. They’ve eaten / have been eating fruit all afternoon, ever since they came from
school.
4. I’ve been reading / have read this book now, so you can have it back.
5. I’ve been writing / have written eight pages already.
6. Your exam paper is completely blank! What have you been doing / have you
done?
7. Oh, no! There’s nothing to eat. My sister has been eating / has eaten
everything I left in the kitchen.
8. Oh, no! There’s no wine to drink. They have drunk / have been drinking all
the wine.
9. No wonder your eyes hurt. You’ve been playing / have played computer games
ever since you had your breakfast.
10. I haven’t seen / haven’t been seeing you for ages.
11. God! John has scored / has been scoring.
12. They have danced / have been dancing for an hour.

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 13. I have been waiting / have waited for you for ages.
14. I’ve finished / have been finishing my work.
15. I’ve been writing / have written this letter for an hour.
16. He has visited / has been visiting ten museums this week.
17. I’m very tired. Because I have travelled / have been travelling around Istanbul
all day.
18. She has found / has been finding a good job.
19. I’m hot because I have been running / have run.
20. I have written / have been writing letters for weeks.

Exercise 5
Use resent Perfect Tense or Present Perfect Continuous tenses to fill in the
blanks with justification:
1. I’m trying to study. I ………………………….. (try) to study for the last hour,
but something always seems to interrupt me. I think I’d better go to the library.
2. The children are playing basketball right now. They ……………………………
(play) for almost two hours. They must be getting tired.
3. The telephone …………………… (ring) four times in the last hour, and each
time it has been for my roommate.
4. The telephone ………………… (ring) for almost a minute. Why doesn’t
someone answer it?
5. It ……………………………….. (rain) all day. I wonder when it will stop.
6. We ……………………………… (have) three accidents so far this week. I
wonder how many more we will have if you keep using the tools carelessly.
7. We …………………………………………. (live) here since last June.
8. My little son is dirty from head to foot because he ………… (play) in the mud.
9. What’s the matter? Your eyes are red and puffy. I hope you ……………… (not
/ cry). Oh, now I understand. You ……………………….. (peel) some onions.
10. Hello, Rob. I’m happy to see you again. I ………………………………….. (not
/ see) you for weeks. What ……………. you …………………… (do) lately?
11. I …………………………………………. (not / be) able to reach my boss on
the phone yet. I ………………………………………………. (try) for the last
twenty minutes, but the line …………………………………….. busy.
12. We ……………………………………. (have) three major snowstorms so far
this winter. I wonder how many more we will have.
13. I ………………… (write) them three times, but I still haven’t received a reply.
14. A: Dr. John is a good teacher. How long ………… he ………………. (be) at
the university? B: He ………………… (teach) here for almost 25 years.

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 15. My uncle ……………. (paint) the outside of his house for three weeks and he’s
still not finished.
16. The Smiths are presently in Tunisia. They ………………. (travel) throughout
North Africa since the middle of May. They’ll return home in another month.
Exercise 6
Put in the correct verb form: Present Perfect or Past Simple.
1. How long ………… (she/study) German?
2. When ………….. (he/begin) to study Business Administration?
3. Who………….. ( write ) the play Dancing at Paris.
4. ……………(you/visit) any museums when you were in Sofia.
5. Henry has a perfect school record. He …………. (not/be) sick this year.
6. Prices…………… (go) up. Things are much more expensive this week.
7. What ………….(happen) to you. I waited all afternoon for you.
8. Marilyn …………. (have) an accident. She was running for the bus when she
……….. (fall) down.
9. Mr. Arnold …………. (win) the Exporter of the Year prize twice. His brother
……….. (win) it four times already.
10. Alfred Hitchcock ………… (make) lots of films in his long career.
11. I ………… (just/remember) something.
12. …………. (you/reply) to Mr. Aston's letter yet?
13. Mr. Miller ………..(work) in a travel agency for years. Then he gave it up.
14. Melanie lives in Bucharest. She ………… (live) there all her life.
15. My uncle died in 1960. I …………(never/have) the opportunity to meet him.

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 Future Forms: Simple Present and “Will + Infinitive”
Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about the simple present tense and will + infinitive for future. It
explores key elements related to the uses of the simple present tense for future use.
The pedagogical procedures count on the definitions, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce a general overview of the simple future tense for future meanings.
2. List the uses of the simple present tense for future use.
3. Introduce a general overview of “will+ infinitive” form.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using the simple
future for future meaning.

Introduction to Future Forms

There are several ways of expressing the future time in English (8 forms). The
forms are listed below and will be dealt with in details in the order in which they are
given here. Students should study them in this order, as otherwise the relationship
between them will not be clear. It is worth to note here that instead of Future Tense
we may talk about forms expressing future time. These eight forms by order are as
follows:

1. The simple present for future actions

2. Will + infinitive, used for intention
3. The present continuous for future actions
4. The “be going to” form
5. The future simple “will/shall + infinitive”
6. The future continuous tense for future actions
7. The future perfect tense
8. The future perfect continuous tense

1. Simple Present Tense Used for the Future

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The simple present tense can also be used to talk about some future situations, but
only in certain situations. For more details, see the following situations;

 The simple present form is common to talk about future schedule when we are
talking about events which are part of timetables, a regular schedule or
something similar (impersonal). This situation can also be described with a time
expression for a definite future arrangement using the present continuous if the
action seems to be personal. Examples:
 The summer term starts on April 10. “Part of a timetable”
 The boys start school on Monday. “Regular schedule in which the simple
present is not replaceable by the continuous since it is used for a habitual
action.”
 I leave tonight.
 My plane leaves at three o’clock. “Three o’ clock is appoint of future time but
it takes the simple present because the speaker has a firm knowledge about the
departure of the plane at the present time. This situation explains well the
connection between present and future and henceforth the simple present is
used for future actions”
 The sun rises at 7.15 tomorrow.
 The second semester starts on the sixth April.
 The simple present tense is often used instead of “will + infinitive” to refer to the
future meaning in subordinate clauses. This happens not only after conjunctions
of time like when, until, after, unless, before, as soon as, but in most other
subordinate clauses for instance “after if, whether and on condition that, after
question words and relatives, and in indirect speech.” Examples:
 I will write to her when I have time.
 I will tell what I find out.
 Alex will see us tomorrow if he has time.
 I’ll have a good time whether I win or lose.
 We’ll get there as soon as you do.
 I’ll be in all day unless the office phones.
 I’ll wait until she gets here.
 Occasionally the simple present is used with a future instructions meaning when
asking for and giving instructions and orders. Examples:
 Where do I pay?
 Well, what do we do? So when you gets to London you go straight to Victoria
station, you meet us with the others, Rebecca gives you your tickets, and you
catch the 17.30 train for Dover. Ok?

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 After “I bet” you, we often use a present tense to refer to the future.
 I bet you they don’t come this evening.
 I bet you the Conservatives lose. “Also will lose is possible”
 A present tense with “for” refers to duration into the future. Compare:
 How long are you here for? “=until when…….?”
 How long have you been here for? “Since when…?”
 After “I hope”, we often use a present tense with a future meaning. Examples:
 I hope she likes (=will like) the flowers.
 I hope the bus comes soon.
 The structures “so that” and “in order that” are used to talk about purpose. Also
verbs after them can be used in present tenses sometimes to express something in
the future. Examples:
 I’ll send the letter express so that she gets /will get it before Tuesday.
 We must write to him, in order that he does not feel that we are hiding
things.
 “Suppose, supposing and what of” can all be used with present tenses to make
suggestions about things that might happen in the future. Examples:
 I have not got a table cloth. Suppose we use a sheet.
 Let’s go swimming. Supposing there are sharks.
 What if we invite your mother next weekend and go away the week after.

2. “Will + Infinitive” Used for Immediate Intention

The form “will + infinitive” used for intention is an essential part of the future, so we
have placed it in the second position due to its importance for referring to future
events. It may seem odd that it has been separated from the future simple “will/shall
+ infinitive” but logically it seems best to separate it from the simple future as well
as to place it before the present continuous and “be going to” form.

2. 1. Future with Intention Equals Speaker’s Wishes

 When we say that a particular form expresses future with intention we mean that
it expresses a future action which will be undertaken by the speaker in accordance
with his wishes. “Will + infinitive” is one forms used for this situation.
 When we say that a form means future without intention we mean that it merely
states that a certain action will happen. We don’t know whether it was arranged or
intended by the subject or by some other person and we don’t know what the
subject thinks of it.

2. 2. Will + Infinitive for Future Intention at the Time of Decision

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 “Will + Infinitive” form is used to express a future action with intention at the
moment of decision. This means that this form is strictly used for unpremeditated
action in the sense that the thought has just come into the speaker’s head. In other
words, we use it when there is no intention, plan or decision to do something
before we speak and we only make the decision spontaneously at the time of
speaking. But note that if after the decision has been made and the speaker
mentions the action again, he will not use the “will+ infinitive” form. Instead he
will use either the “be going to” or “present continuous” form. See the following
situations for more explanations:
a- John enters the restaurant and immediately order the “to the waiter”: I‘ll
have a steak of meat, please. “immediate intention”
b- Stephan “I would better look for a taxi tonight to go home”: his friend says
immediately never mind, I’ll drive you home.
c- Mary looking at a pile of letters. “I will answer them tonight.”
d- Alan (on receiving a telegram saying his father is ill”: I‘ll go home tonight.
e- Paul (who is getting nervous and very tired of paying parking fines always):
he decides and says that I will sell my car and buy a bike.
 For example, imagine the previous situations “a, b, c, and d” at a later time
a- When Tom joined John before his steak of meat arrived: John says that I ‘m
having a steak.
b- Stephan on his way receiving a telephone call: he can say that his friend is
driving him home.
c- Mary remembered that she is free and again says that she is going to
answer that pile of letters tonight.
d- Alan bought a tickets to go home and see his father would say that I ‘m
going home tonight.
e- When Paul finds a buyer to his car and also finds a bike he can say I’m
selling the car and buying the bike.

Summary

The simple present and “will +infinitive” are two future forms which are used to
refer to actions and events that take place in the future with connection to the present
time.

 The simple present has a number of situations where the meanings and time
belong to future instead of present such as part of timetables, a regular schedule or
something similar (impersonal). In addition it can replace the simple future form,
and it comes after constructions like I hope, purpose, etc.

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 “Will +infinitive” does not mean the simple future form; it is an independent form
which is used strictly for immediate intentions.
 Sometimes, will can be a main verb, as in I willed all my money to my unique
son. When the word “will” comes before a main verb, however, it is a helping or
auxiliary verb.)

Exercise 1

Direction: complete the following sentences with “will + infinitive” using the
following list of verbs “call, have, water, stay, walk, open and mail”.

1. It is very hot inside this room. I ……………………………the windows.

2. Would you like tea or coffee? I …………………..please.
3. Would you like a ride home? No thanks. It is beautiful today. I think
…………home.
4. We are out of milk and I need some for the children. Ok ………………..to the
store and get some.
5. I just finished writing my brother letter. Are you going to the post office? Now
no I do not. I …………………………..it for you in the morning.
6. These flowers look very dry. Okay. I …………………….them in a few
minutes.
7. Ken phoned while you were out. Okay. I ……………………him back after I
finish my lunch.

Exercise 2

Put the verbs in brackets either in the Simple Present or Will + Infinitive with
justification. Use all the elements in the brackets. Note the importance of certain
key words.

1. Ann (look) for a bed-sitter. She (see) an advertisement in the local paper and
(ring) up Mrs. Smith, the owner of the house. Mrs. Smith (answer) the phone.
2. Ann: good afternoon I (ring) about the room you advertised. Mrs. Smith: Oh
yes.
3. Ann: the advertisement (say) “share bathroom and kitchen”. How many other
people use the bathroom and kitchen?
4. Mrs. Smith: only one other- an Italian girl. And she (use) the kitchen very little.
She (eat) out most of the time. I (not think) she (like) cooking.
5. Ann: that (suit) me all right. I (like) cooking. But how we (arrange) about
paying for the gas we (use) in the kitchen?

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 6. Mrs. Smith: the rent (include) gas for cooking, also hot water and light. But it
(not include) heating. Each room has its own fire and meter.
7. Ann: I (see). And the room (face) the front of the back?
8. Mrs. Smith: I (face) the front. It (look) out on the garden square; and it (get) a lot
of sun.
9. Ann: that (sound) very nice. Could I come and see it this evening? Mrs. Smith:
yes, the earlier the better.
10. Ann: 7 p. m. (suit) you? I (not be able to) come before that as I usually (not
get) away from the office till 6 p. m.
11. Mrs. Smith: 7 p. m. (be) all right. I (not think) you (have) any difficulty in
finding us. The 14 buses (pass) the house and (stop) a few doors further along,
outside the Post Office.
12. Ann: I’m sure I (find) it all right. I (see) you at 7 then, Mrs. Smith. Goodbye.
13. At 6.30 Mr. Smith (come) home from work. He (ask) his wife about the room.
14. Mrs. Smith: I have not let it yet but a girl (come) to see at 7.00.
15. Mr. Smith: she probably (come) at 7.30 just as we (sit down) to supper. People
coming here for the first time always (get) lost. I (not think) you (give) proper
directions.
16. Mrs. Smith: oh yes, I (do). But nobody (listen) to directions these days. Anyway
I’m sure this girl (be) in time.
17. Just then the doorbell (ring). Mrs. Smith (look) at her husband and (smile).
18. You see, ‘she (say), and (go) to open the door.

Exercise 3

Put the verbs in brackets either in the Simple Present or Will + Infinitive with
justification. Use all the elements in the brackets. Note the importance of certain
key words.

Part 1: Weekend Plans

1 Bill (on phone): hello, Peter. Bill here. I (speak) from South World. I (spend)
my holidays here this year in a caravan. You (like) to come for the weekend?
2 Peter: I (love) to. But how I (get) to you?
3 Bill: get the 8 o’clock train to Hales Wroth and I (meet) at the station.
4 Peter: OK. I (do) that. Are you near the sea, Bill?
5 Bill: Yes. When the tide (come) in, I’m almost afloat!
6 Peter: it (sound) marvelous!
7 Bill: it is. Wait till you (see) it!
8 (Friday) peter’s mother. What you (do) this weekend, Peter.
9 Peter: I (spend) it with Bill in a caravan on the Suffolk coast.
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 10 Mother: the east coast in this wind! You (freeze) to death.- if Bill’s cooking (not
kill) you first! How you (get) there?
11 Peter: I (catch) the 8 o’clock train and Bill (meet) me at Hales Wroth. Mother:
then I (lend) you my alarm clock, and we’d better have breakfast at seven. I (tell)
Mary.
12 Peter: Poor Mary! She (like) a lie-in on Saturdays!
13 (Friday evening) mother: I (give) you a call at 6.30, Peter, in case you (fall)
asleep again after your alarm (go) off. By the way, Mary, we (have) breakfast at
seven tomorrow as Peter (go) away for the weekend and (catch) an early train.
14 Mary (petulantly): Peter always (go) away. I never (go) anywhere!
15 Mother: when he (come) home on Sunday night and you (hear) how awful it
was, you (be) very glad you stayed t home!

Future Tenses: The Present Continuous Form

Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about the present continuous tense for future. It explores key
elements related to the meanings and uses of the present continuous tense. The
pedagogical procedures of the unit count on the relevant theory, definitions,
examples and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce a general overview the present continuous tense for future.
2. List the meanings and uses of the present continuous tense for future.
3. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using the present
continuous for future meaning.

Introduction

When we talk about events which have some present reality –which have already
been planned or decided, or which we can see are on the way –we often use present
forms. The present continuous “progressive” and “be going to” are common. The
present continuous is used in the following situations:

1. Main Uses of the Present Continuous as a Future Form

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 It is used to express a definite arrangement in the near future with an idea in mind
that this arrangement must have some present reality. It is most common in
discussions of personal arrangements and fixed plans, when the time and place
have been decided and fixed. Note that the time must be mentioned. It is not
generally used to make predictions about events that are outside people’s control.
In addition, if there has merely been an expression of intention, we use the “be
going to “form instead of present continuous. Examples:
 I’m taking my exam in October. (It implies that I have entered for it.)
 Bob and Bill are meeting tonight. (It implies that they have arranged for the
meeting.)
 We’re travelling round Mexico next summer.
 What are we having for dinner?
 But with verbs of movement from one place to another, e. g. “arrive, come, drive,
fly, go, leave, start, travel,” verbs indicating position, e. g. “stay, remain, etc.”,
and the verbs “do and have” (for food or drink), the present continuous can be
used more widely. It can express a decision or plan without any definite
arrangement since the verb itself means presence of arrangement.it is to mention
that this case do not require time and place references. Examples:
 The neighbors are coming in to watch television. “It is just starting.”
 I’m just popping out to the post office. Back in a minute
 What are you doing next Saturday? (This is the usual way of asking people
about their plans.)
 I’m leaving. “Even before I have arranged my journey.”
 This method of expressing the future cannot be used with verbs which are not
normally used in the continuous tenses. These verbs are verbs of senses, verbs
expressing feelings and emotions, verbs of mental activity, verbs of possession,
and the auxiliaries. These verbs should be put into the future simple tense instead.
 I’m meeting him tonight but I will know tonight.
 They are coming tomorrow but they will be here tomorrow.
 We’ll think it over.
 However, that “see”, when it is used for a deliberate action “personal” “see about,
see someone, etc.” see meaning ‘meet by appointment”, can be used in the
continuous tenses because the context where these verbs are used deprive them
from the quality of state verbs. So speakers must pay attention to the context
where verbs are used. Examples:
 I’m seeing him tomorrow. “I have an appointment with him.”

2. Present Continuous and Will + Infinitive ………….…………..... Differences

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The following examples of combinations of “will + infinitive” used at the moment of
decision and the present continuous tense used as a future form will make the
relationship between them more clear.

 Now
 Travel agent: Now, how do you want to go to Rome, sir?
 Traveler (making up his mind): the trains are too slow. I’ll travel by plane.
 But afterwards, talking about his plans, this traveler will say:
 Traveler: I’m flying to Rome next week. Then immediately he remembered
that he must pay money for this and suddenly says:
 Travelled: I’ll have to pay 150 dollars rent and I don’t have them. His friend
immediately answered him:
 Friend: don’t worry. I’ll lend you all what you need.
 But later on, before his friend has actually lent the money, the traveler will say:
 Traveler: my friend is lending me 150 dollars.
 Friend: would you like to come to the opera tonight?
 Traveler: I’d love. Shall I meet you there?
 Friend: No, I’ll call for you.
 Traveler: OK.
 Later on again, the traveler telling another friend about this plan to the opera will
say:
 Traveler: my friend is taking me to the opera tonight. I’ m not meeting him
there but he is calling me.

Summary

The present continuous is an important tense for future use. The main idea for this
tense is related to the near future arrangement schedule. In this respect, it is always
used with a time reference to indicate an idea of near future arrangement.

Exercise 1

Put the verb in brackets into the present continuous or the present simple.
1. I …………….. (meet) Jane tonight.
2. The train to London ……………. (leave) at midday.
3. What time ……………..(the film / begin) this evening?
4. What ……………. (you / do) next weekend?
5. We …………….(have) a party on Saturday. Do you want to come?
6. When ……………. (the concert / start)? It …………. (start) at 7 p.m..

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 7. Harry ………. (come) to stay tomorrow. He ………… (catch) the last bus from
York, which ………(arrive) here at midnight.

Exercise 2

Choose the correct form of the verb with justification.

1. I'll meet / I'm meeting Jane in town tonight.
2. Louise can't come. She is taking / will take the car to the garage at 5 p.m.
3. What time does your train leave / will your train leave tomorrow?
4. I'm very thirsty.' 'I'll get / I get you something to drink. Coke or tea?'
5. This bus is stopping / stops at every village, so it's very slow!
6. 'Did you buy some butter?' 'Oh, I forgot. I'll get / I'm getting some now.'
7. I think it rains / will rain later today.
8. 'Have you chosen a new car yet?' 'Yes, we are going to buy / we will buy a Ford
Focus.'
9. 'Why have you put the TV on?' I'm going to watch / I will watch the news.'
10. 'Frank, I can't go out because I haven't got any money.' 'Don't worry. I lend you
/ I'll lend you some.'
11. Shall / Will I carry that for you?

Future Tenses: The “Be Going to + Infinitive” Form

Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about the “be going to” form. The pedagogical procedures of the unit
count on the relevant theory, definitions, examples and exercises of the form “be
going to” form or future meaning.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce a general of the “be going to” form.
2. List the forms, meanings and uses of the “be going to” form for future.
3. Enable learners to reflect more on the differences between the present
continuous and “be going to” for future.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using the “be going to”
forms for future meaning.

1. Form

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The present continuous of the verb to go + the full infinitive:

 I’m going to buy a bicycle.

 She is not going to be there.
 Is he going to lecture in English?
 Look to cloud, it is going to rain!

2. The Main Uses of “Be Going to”

2. 1. “Be Going to” for Intention

This structure is really a present tense. We use it to talk about future actions and
events that have some present reality. If we say that something in the future is going
to happen, it is usually already planned or decided. This structure is very often in an
informal style.

The “be going to” form often emphasizes the idea of intention, or a decision
that has already been made. So it is used to express the subject’s intention to perform
a certain future action. This intention is always premeditated and there is usually the
idea that some preparation for the action has already been made. Actions expressed
by the “be going to” form are therefore usually considered very likely to be
performed, though there is not the same idea of definite future arrangement that we
get from the present continuous. Examples:

 We are going to get a new car soon.

 She has bought some wool; she is going to knit a jumper.
 I’m not going to sit up all night listening to your problems!

2. 2. “Be Going to” for Prediction

“Be going to” form is often used to express the speaker’s feeling of certainty.
The time is usually not mentioned, but the action is expected to happen in the near or
immediate future. This expectation is on the basis of present evidence in which you
say that a future action or event is on the way or starting to happen or we can see it is
coming now or there are already physical signs of its happening. It can be used in this
way after verbs as “be sure, afraid, believe, think….” Examples:

 Look at those clouds! I suppose it is going to rain. It implies presence of

physical signs through the clouds that the speaker and listener can see.
 Listen to the wind. I am sure we are going to have a rough crossing. They
could near the strong wind.
 The temperature is below 0 degree, it is going to snow.

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  Be careful! You are going to spill your coffee.
 How pale that girl is! I am sure / believe / think she is going to faint.

3. “Be going to” and “Will + Infinitive”………………….. Differences

Very often we can use the “be going to” form or “will + infinitive” to express
intention, but there are differences between them. As a result, there are occasions
when only one of them is possible. The main differences are:

 The “be going to” form always implies a premeditated intention, and often an
intention + plan. While “will + infinitive” form implies intention alone at the
moment of decision and this intention is usually, though not necessarily,
unpremeditated. If, therefore, preparations for the action have already been made,
we must use “be going to” instead of “will + infinitive”. If the intention is clearly
unpremeditated, we must use “will + infinitive” instead. In this respect, at the
moment of making decision, we use “will + infinitive”. Once you have made the
decision, talk about it using “be going to”. Compare:
 I have bought some bricks and I am going to build a house. (The action of
buying some bricks implies some preparations and henceforth premeditated
intention. Consequently, we must use “be going to” form for the subsequent
action.
 There is somebody at the hall door and I will go and open it. (This situation
does not reveal any preparation except intention and determination exactly at
the moment of speaking.)
 I will call Jenny to let her know about the meeting. Sarah, I need Jenny’s
number. I am going to call her about the meeting.
 I’ll come and have a drink with you but I must let Harry know. Harry I am
going to have a drink with Simon.
 As already noted, “will + infinitive” in the affirmative is used almost entirely for
the first person. Second and third person are therefore normally expressed by “be
going to”:
 He is going to resign.
 Are you going to leave without paying?
 I will resign.
 But in the negative “will not” can be used for all persons. So we can say:
 He is not going to resign.
 He will not resign.

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 The “be going to” form, as already stated, usually refers to the fairly immediate
future. “Will + infinitive” can refer either to the immediate or to the more remote
future.

4. Present Continuous and Be Going to……………………………... Differences

In many cases, both structures can be used to express the same idea. But there are
some differences. Some of the differences are as follows:

 The “be going to” form is better used when we are not talking about fixed
arrangement, but about intentions and decisions. So you must differentiate
between a fixed arrangement and intention. In short, a fixed arrangement is used
with present continuous while intentions are expressed by “be going to” form.
Compare:
 I’m seeing Philip tonight. “it emphasizes an arrangement”
 I’m really going to tell him what I think of him. “Emphasis in on intention”
 Who’s cooking lunch? “Asking what has been arranged”
 Who’s going to cook lunch? “Asking for a decision”
 Because the present progressive tense is used especially for personal
arrangements, it is not generally used to make predictions about events that are
outside people’s control.
 It is going to snow before long. (Present progressive is not possible.)
 I can see that things are going to get better soon. (It is out of the speaker’s
control.)
 In many situations when we talk about future plans we can use either the present
continuous or the “be going to” form. However, when we use the present
continuous, there is more a suggestion than an arrangement has already made
and vice versa.
 I’m going to see him. / I’m seeing him.
 I’m going to do it. / I’m doing it.
 Present progressive is usually used for temporary actions and events, but not
usually for permanents states. Compare:
 Our house is getting/is going to get new windows this winter.
 Their new house is going to look over the river. (The present continuous is
not possible here instead we use be going to form)
 As already shown, “be going to” form can be used for the near future with a time
expression as an alternative “second choice” to the present continuous therefore
the meaning is not the same, i.e. we can say:

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  I’m meeting Tom at the station at six. (It implies an arrangement with Tom in
the sense that both the speaker and listener share the information about the
meeting so they both take procedures for such a meeting.)
 I’m going to meet Tom at the station at six. (It doesn’t imply any arrangement
in the sense that Tom may get a surprise! This situation refers only to the
intention of the speaker and he does share it with his listener Tom)
 The “be going to “ form can also be used without a time expression in order to
refer to the immediate or near future:
 I’m going to play with a backset ball.
 He is going to lend me his bicycle.
 Sandra is going to have a baby.
 The “be going to” form can be used with the verb “to be” and also sometimes
found with other verbs not normally used in the continuous tenses so it accepts
verbs of state:
 I’m going to think about it.
 I’m sure I’m going to like it.
 I think I’m going to believe it.
 The “be going to” form is not very usual used with the verbs “go and come”.
Instead we generally prefer to use the present continuous tense in order to avoid a
kind a heavy repetition:
 Instead of I’m going to go we normally say I’m going ………….………….....
 Instead of I am going to come we normally say I am coming……………....…

Summary

 The present continuous tense is another form of future through the following
situations:
 It is used to express a definite arrangement in the near future with an idea in
mind that this arrangement must have some present reality.
 Verbs of movements and positions.
 While be going to form is used to refer to future either for intention or prediction:
 We use it to talk about future actions and events that have some present reality.
 The “be going to” form is often used to express the speaker’s feeling of
certainty.

Exercise 1

Direction: choose the correct word from the list below to complete the following
sentences. Use the correct form of the future tense “be going to”. (hang, wear,
practice, get, ask, visit, write, clean, study, exchange, quit, take, give, fix)
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 1. My father sent me a box yesterday. I ………..………it back tomorrow.
2. My house is very dirty. She ……………..……..it next week.
3. Marry is going to a marriage party next week. She …………..her new red dress.
4. John bought a new painting at the art show. He ………………..it over the sofa
in his living room.
5. The hockey championship is next month. The boys …………………every night
next week.
6. Jack hates his job. He ………..……….next month.
7. We have a history exam in four days. We ……………..for the next few days.
8. It is very cold and rainy outside home. I …………………a nice hot bath as soon
as I get back home from this important football match.
9. Marry has a hair appointment for this afternoon. She ………………her hair cut
and colored.
10. I had a flat tire on my car yesterday. My husband ………………..it later today.
11. It is our parent anniversary tomorrow. We ……………them a gift certificate to
a beautiful new restaurant.
12. Ann got a sweeter from her mother-in-law for her birthday. If it did not fit, so
she …………………it for a larger prize.
13. John just got his driver license. He ………………his father to let him borrow
the car next weekend.
14. Their grandfather is in hospital. They ………………her next weekend.

Exercise 2

Direction: match the sentences on the left with the words on the right. Then
write the complete sentences below using the correct form of the future tense “be
going to”.

Column A Column A
1. I did not study it for the test. a. Take the next plane.
2. He is driving too fast. b. Have a backache.
3. Frank always eats too much. c. Rain
4. He forgot to return his books to the library. d. Fail
5. There are large black clouds in the sky. e. Call a service station
6. My friend and my brother missed their flight. f. Get a stomachache
7. Philip has a fever. g. Sink
8. Ellen and Bob are buying a lot of food and water. h. Have an accident
9. Marry is lifting very heavy boxes. i. Take an aspirin
10. The boat is full of water. j. Break her leg
11. John ate for big hamburgers. k. Have a party
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12. Kristin is a terrible skier. l. Get fat
13. Her car broke down. m. Have to pay a fine

Future Tenses: The Future Simple Tense

Description of the Lecture

This lecture is about the future simple. It explores key elements related to the
forms, meanings and uses of the simple future tense. The pedagogical procedures
of the unit count on the theory, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Present a general overview of the simple future tense.
2. List the form, meanings and uses of the future simple tense.
3. Enable learners to reflect more on the differences between the future simple and
“Will + Infinitive” form.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using the simple future.

Introduction

We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something
before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking.
 Hold on. I'll get a pen.
 We will see what we can do to help you.
 Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.
In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the
time of speaking.

1. Form

The simple future “Will or shall + infinitive” is the basic structure of talking about
the future. We use “will + infinitive form” if there is not a good reason for using
present forms. Here this form expresses a pure future without intention and
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determination. In other words, it indicates that something will happen as a matter of
course. Examples:

 I shall be fifteen on my next birthday.

 We shall have a break on national Day.
 In informal style, however, shall is often replaced by will: I will be fifteen on
my next birthday.

2. The Main Uses of the Simple Future Tense

The simple future tense is used in the following ways:

 "Will" often suggests that a speaker will do something voluntarily. A voluntary

action is one the speaker offers to do for someone else. Often, we use "will" to
respond to someone else's complaint or request for help. We also use "will" when
we request that someone help us or volunteer to do something for us. Similarly,
we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to voluntarily do something. This
action can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 You will meet him later.

 Will you meet him later?
 You will not meet him later.
 To express the speaker’s opinions, assumptions, speculations about the future in
which the speaker believes to be certain. These may be introduced by verbs such
as assume, be afraid, be, feel, sure, believe, daresay, doubt, expect, hope, know,
suppose, etc. often we may add “perhaps, maybe, probably, possibly” to make the
belief less certain. Examples:
 I’m sure he will come.
 I suppose they will sell the house.
 I believe she will accept my offer.
 I’ll probably come back later.
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  Perhaps we’ll meet again someday.
 To simple future is used similarly for future habitual actions and to describe facts
which will take place in the future time. Examples:
 Spring will come again.
 Birds will build nests.
 People will make plans.
 The future simple is used in sentences containing clauses of condition
“conditional sentences type 1”, time and sometimes purpose conjunctions. “Note
that the if-clause does not use the future simple even when the meaning is future”.
 If I drop this glass it will break.
 When it gets warmer the snow will start to melt.
 I’m putting this letter on the top of the pile so that he will read it first.
 The future simple is used, chiefly in newspapers and news broadcasts, for formal
announcements of future plans and for weather forecasts. Examples:
 Newspapers: the president will open the new heliport tomorrow.
 The fog will persist in all areas.
 The future simple is used to for interpersonal uses. It is common in offers,
promises, threats, refusals, asking for instruction, spontaneous decision, and
giving instructions and orders. Examples:
 The phone is ringing, I will answer it.
 I promise I will not smoke again.
 I will hit you if you do that again.
 I don’t care what you say, I won’t do it.
 Shall I open a window?
 Will you be quite, please!
 Make me a cup of coffee, will you do?

Note about the uses of “Will” and “Shall”

However, nowadays this distinction of 'will' and 'shall' is not followed. Instead,
'will' is used wherever absolute conviction is required to be expressed while the
usage of 'shall' depends on individual writing style. Examples:
 We assume that our representative will be winning the elections that are to be
held at the end of April.
 Today, she will be walking all the way to her house from her office.
 I will be watching the new movie next week.
 By this time tomorrow, I will be at home watching T.V.

3. Differences between “Going to + Infinitive” and “Will + Infinitive”

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 “Going to + Infinitive” “Will + Infinitive”
Future facts Future facts
Ex. he is going to be 14 next week. Ex. he will to be 14 next week.
Prediction Prediction
Ex. I am going to miss the exam. Ex. I will miss the exam if I do not
speed.
Predictions when there is something It is often used with probably, I think,
in the present that indicates what I do not think ……………
will happen in the future. Ex. I will probably stay at home today.
Ex. Look at the sky. It is going to rain.
It is used for preconceived plans and It is used when we decide immediately
arrangements. to do something at the time of
Ex. He needs some money. He is going speaking.
to do shopping. Ex. Would you like tea or coffee I will
have tea, please.
It is used for offers, requests and
promises.
Ex. I will help you answer those difficult
questions.
It is used to agree or refuse to so
something.
Ex. I am angry at John. I will not help
him.

Summary

The simple future tense is used for actions that will occur in the future. It is formed
by using “will” and the base verb (I, you s/he/it, we, they will complete). The
common way of using the simple present tense is when:
 Prediction (He will turn into a great player in two years’ time. He will come home
late tonight).
 Promise (I will take you to the movies next time.).
 Action which is not a part of a definite plan - often with think, expect, wonder,
perhaps, probably. (I think he will go to live in the Netherlands. I will have my
new car by June)
 General Truth (spring will come. When peace is available, people will go for it.).
Exercise 1

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Direction: complete the following sentences using the correct form of “going to”
or “will” with the verb provided. Be prepared to explain the reason for your
choice. Remember sometimes you can use either forms.

1. John feels sick. He …………………. “stay” home for work next week.
2. I ……………….……. “finish” my work late tonight.
3. I left my wallet t home. That is ok. I …………..…………..“lend” some money.
4. The sky is very dark. It …………………“rain”
5. What time …………….he …….………..“meet” you tomorrow?
6. Stephan …………..……“take” a two week holiday next week.
7. That box looks very heavy. I …………..………“help” you carry it.
8. I bought some paints because I ………..………….“paint” my flat.
9. He …………..…..“wear” a black tuxedo to do wedding.
10. Why did you take out the sugar out of the cupboard? I ….………“ bake” a cake.
11. They took money out of the bank because they ……...………. “buy” a new car
for their son.
12. It is very hot in here. I ………………. “open” the window for you.
13. The weatherman says it ………………. “be” a beautiful day tomorrow. I think I
………..……. “go” to the sea side.
14. Your car engine does not sound very good. It sounds like it …………….. “die”
15. We probably ………..……. “not go” to the parry next week.
16. Can I please talk to the manager? he ……….…………. “be” in a moment.
17. The plane ………….………. “arrive” in time.
18. The Anderson went to the travel agency yesterday. They …….……..“ buy”
their tickets tomorrow.
19. We ……………“see” that new movie tonight. Do you want to come with us?
20. Marry …………….. “get up” early tomorrow so that she can go fishing.
21. I ………………… “help” with your work tomorrow.
22. Do you have any holiday plans? Yes. We …………“take” a mountainous trip.

Exercise 2

Fill in the following blanks with WILL or BE GOING TO with justification:

1. A: Why do you need so much sugar? B: I ……………………… make a cake.
2. A: Oh no! I’ve left my purse at home and I haven’t got any money on me! B:
Don't worry. I ……………………………………. lend you some.
3. A: I don’t know how to use this mixer. B: That’s OK. I ………….. show you.
4. A: Why are all these people gathered here? B: The Prime Minister
………………… open the new hospital ward.

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 5. A: Did you remember to buy the magazine I asked for? B: Sorry, I didn’t. I
…………………. buy it when I go out again.
6. A: What’s that on your curtains? B: It’s a stain. I ……….. take them to the dry
cleaner’s tomorrow.
7. A: These bags are very heavy. I can’t lift them. B: I ……… carry them for you.
8. A: I hear you’re going to Leeds University in September. B: Yes, I
………………. study French and German.
9. A: Why don’t you tidy your room? B: I …………….. play football in ten
minutes, so I haven’t got time.
10. A: How can we get all this home? B: I …………. ask James to come and help.
11. She has bought some wool. She …………………………. knit a sweater.
12. A: This problem is very difficult. B: I …………………. help you to solve it.
13. A: Why are you taking down all the pictures? B: I …………….. paint the room.
14. I ……………………… climb that mountain one day.
15. Look at that young man. He looks very pale. He ……………………. faint.
16. A: Why are buying that spade? B: I …………………………… plant some
trees in my garden at the back of the house.
17. She …………………………….. get better. There are positive signs.
18. I’m hungry. I ………………………………. have something to eat.
19. I ………………………………… be 38 years old next week.

Exercise 3

Put the verb in to the correct from using WILL or GOING TO with
justification:
1. A: Why are you turning on the television? B: I …………… (watch) the news.
2. A: Oh, I’ve just realized. I haven’t got any money. B: Don’t worry. That’s no
problem. I ………………………. (lend) you some.
3. Those clouds are very black, aren’t they? I think it …………………… (rain).
4. A: I’ve got a terrible headache. B: Have you? Wait here and I ………. (get) an
aspirin for you.
5. A: Why are you filling that bucket with water? B: I ………… (wash) the car.
6. A: I’ve decided to re-paint this room. B: Oh, have you? What color ……….
(you / paint) it?
7. A: Look! There’s smoke coming out of that house. It’s on fire! B: Good
heavens! I ……………… call the fire-brigade immediately.
8. A: The ceiling in this room doesn’t look very safe, does it? B: No, it looks as if
it ……………….. (fall) down.
9. A: Where are you going? Are you going shopping? B: Yes, I
………………….. (buy) something for dinner.
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 10. A: I can’t work out how to use this camera. B: It’s quite easy. I …. (show) you.
11. A: What would you like to drink – tea or coffee? B: I ……. (have) tea, please.
12. A: Has George decided on what to do when he leaves school? B: Oh yes.
Everything is planned. He ……………………… (have) a holiday for a few
weeks and then he ………………….. (start) a computer programming course.
Exercise 4

Put in the missing words. Use one word only in each space. One example is
given.
 I don't want a steak. I think I'll have the chicken.
1. There's a fireworks display tomorrow. Janet is..........................to watch it.
2. We're at that table in the corner............................................you join us?
3. I'm seeing the boss this afternoon. But I must study this report before I ….. her.
4. There will be drinks at the reception, but there will ........................ be any food.
5. The European heads of state are………….. meet in Brussels on 3 October.
6. It's a lovely day. ..........................................we go for a walk?
7. My birthday ......................................on Sunday next year.
8. My brother is engaged. He's ........................................married in June.
9. You won't be allowed to go to your seat after the play ......................started.
10. Martin's got his coat on. I think he's ....................................... to go out.

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 Future Tenses: The Future Continuous Tense
Description of the Lecture
This lecture is about the future continuous tense. It explores key elements related to
the meanings and uses of the future continuous tense. Throughout the unit students
will become familiar with the theory, definitions, examples and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have completed of the unit, they should be able, among other
things, to;
1. Present a general overview of the future continuous tense.
2. List the meanings and uses of the future continuous tense.
3. Enable learners to reflect more on the differences between the future simple and
the future continuous tenses.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using the future
continuous tense for future meaning.

1. Form

This tense is made up of the future simple of “to be + the present participle”.
Example: to work “Will be working”.

 Students will be working on it.

 Students will not be working on it.
 Will Students be working on it?

2. The Uses of the Future Continuous Tense

This tense have two uses: it can be used as an ordinary continuous tense and for a
future without intention.

 The future continuous used as an ordinary continuous tense: like other continuous
tenses. It is normally used with a point in time, and expresses an action which
starts before that time and probably continuous after it. Speakers must assume that
everything will take place in the future. Imagine a class of students at this
moment. In short, the future continuous tense expresses action at a particular
moment in the future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have
finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop
work at 6pm. Look at the diagram and examples below:

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  Now they are sitting in their classroom. They are listening to a tape. This
time tomorrow they will be sitting in the cinema. They will be watching a
film. On Saturday there is no class. So on Saturday they will not be sitting in
the classroom. They will be doing other things.
 I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow.
 They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight.
 What will you be doing at 10pm tonight?
 What will you be doing when I arrive?
 She will not be sleeping when you telephone her.
 We will be having dinner when the film starts.
 Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return.
 The future continuous used to express future without intention: the future
progressive is useful if we want to show that we are not talking about making
decisions, but about things that will happen “anyway”. See the examples below:
 I’ll be helping Mary tomorrow. This does not imply that the speaker has
arranged to help Mary or that he wishes to help her. It merely states that this
action will happen. The future continuous used in this way is somewhat
similar to the present continuous, but differs form it in the following points.
The present continuous tense implies a deliberate future action. The future
continuous tense usually implies an action which will occur in the normal
course of events “statement of fact”. It is therefore less definite and more
casual than the present continuous. Examples:
 I am seeing Tom tomorrow. “This example implies that Tom or the speaker
has deliberately arranged the meeting.”
 I’ll be seeing Tom tomorrow. “This example implies that Tom and his speaker
will meet each other in the ordinary course of events (perhaps they work
together or study together in the same place)”.

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 The future continuous can be used with or without a definite time and for the near
or distant future “unlike the present continuous which can only be used with a
definite time and only for the near future”. We can say:
 I am meeting him tomorrow but
 I’ll be meeting him tomorrow /next year/some time. (Or without a time
expression at all).
 Use the Future Continuous to indicate that a longer action in the future will be
interrupted by a shorter action in the future. Remember this can be a real
interruption or just an interruption in time. This action can be represented
diagrammatically as follows:

 I will be watching TV when he arrives tonight.

 I am going to be staying at the Sheraton Hotel, if anything happens and you
need to contact me. Notice in the examples above that the interruptions
(marked in italics) are in simple present rather than simple future. This is
because the interruptions are in time clauses, and you cannot use future tenses
in time clauses. Further, in addition to using short actions as interruptions, you
can also use a specific time as an interruption. Examples:
 Tonight at 8 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.
 At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the forest.

3. Future Continuous and Will + Infinitive ……………………..….Differences

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 There is always the same difference between “will + infinitive” and the future
continuous as between “will + infinitive” and the present continuous. “Will +
infinitive” expresses future with intention. The future continuous expresses future
without intention. In this sentence:
 I’ll write to Mr. Pitt and tell him about Toms’ new house. “The verb in bold
type expresses intention. The speaker announces a deliberate future action in
accordance with his own wishes. But in the following example:
 I’ll be writing to Mr. Pitt and I’ll tell him about Tom’s new house. “The verb
in bold type expresses no intention. It is mere a statement of fact and implies
that this letter to Mr. Pitt will be written either as a matter of routine or for
reasons unconnected with Tom’s new house.
 Tom won’t cut the grass. “It means that Tom refuses to cut it.
 Tom won’t be cutting the grass. “It is merely a statement of fact, giving no
information about Tom’s feelings. Perhaps Tom is away, or ill, or will be
doing some other job.”

4. “Be going to” and “Future Simple”……………….…….……….: Differences

4. 1. Similarities

 “Simple future” and “be going to” are therefore rather similar and often either
form can be used interchangeably:
 It will take a long time to photocopy all the documents.
 It is going to take a long time to photocopy all the documents.

4. 2. Differences

 “Be going to” form implies that there are signs that something will happen “there
is an outside evidence for what we say”. We are showing something to the
listener and we do not ask them to believe about something. So it expresses a
particular conclusion regarding the immediate future (using available evidence).
 See those clouds! It is going to rain. (There are clouds in the sky.)
 Look out! We are going to crash. (There is outside evidence.)
 Ann is going to have a baby. (Outside evidence –she is pregnant now.)
 The lift is going to break down. (It implies that it is making strange noise or
behaving in strange way; we had better get out on the next floor.)
 He is going to get better. (It implies that there are signs of recovery or his
temperature has gone down.)
 “Simple future” is common way of expressing what the speaker thinks/believes
that something will happen “there is no such outside obvious evidence”. In short,
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 when we are talking more about what is inside out heads: what we know, or
believe, or have calculated. (When we use will, we are not showing the listener
something; but we are asking him or her to believe something.)
 Do not lend him your car, he is a terrible driver. He will crash it. (It implies
that the speaker knows the driver well.)
 The baby will certainly have blue eyes, because both parents have. (This is
about the speaker’s knowledge about genetics.)
 The lift will break down. (It implies that this will happen sometime in the
future. Perhaps we always overload our lift or because it is an “X” company
lifts and they don’t last long.)
 He will get better. (It implies confidence in his doctor or in the course of
treatment, but promises eventual rather than immediate recovery.)
 The future simple can be used with or without time expression. The “be going to”
form is sometimes possible here also, but it makes the action more probable and
(where there is no time expression) more immediate.
 He will build a house. (Merely means that this is just my opinion and gives no
idea when the building will start).
 He is going to build a house. (It implies that he has already made this decision
and that he will probably start quite soon.)
 “Be going to”, as already stated, usually refers to the fairly immediate future
while the “Simple future” can refer either to the immediate or to the more remote
future. So it does not refer to any particular time.

Summary

The future progressive tense is used for an activity that is expected to be in progress
at a time in the future when something else will happen. It is formed by using “will”
plus “be” or a form the verb “be” with the present participle of the base verb (I, you
s/he/it, we, they will be studying). The common way of using the simple present
tense is when:
 Action in progress at a particular time in the future (Do not call between 8 am and
10 am. I will be studying then. Will it still be raining like this when I get back?).
 Series of future actions seen as temporary arrangements (She will be giving
lectures across the country).
 Introducing polite requests (Will you be going out tonight? I thought you could
give me a lift.).
 To emphasize certainty that something will happen because arrangements have
been made. (I will be seeing you when I am finished with them. Next month he
will be retiring.)
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Exercise 1

Put in the answers. People are saying what they will be doing as part of their
routine. One example is given.
► David: When are you going to the club, do you know? (Nick goes to the club
every Friday.) Nick: I'll be going there next Friday.
1. Vicky: Are you likely to see John in the near future? (Emma sees John every
day.)Emma: ........................................................................................ tomorrow.
2. Claire: Are you going to France again soon? (Henry goes to France every
summer.) Henry: .............................................................................................
3. Jessica: When are you going to play badminton again? (Matthew plays
badminton every weekend.) Matthew:...................................................................
Andrew: When are you next having lunch in the canteen? (Daniel has lunch in
the canteen every day.) Daniel: ............................................................................

Future Tenses: Future Perfect and Future Perfect Continuous

Description of the Lecture

This lecture is about the future perfect and the future perfect continuous tenses. It
explores key elements related to the forms, meanings and uses. Throughout the unit
students will become familiar with the relevant theory, definitions, illustrations,
examples and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce a general overview of the future perfect and the future perfect
continuous tenses.
2. List the form and uses of the future perfect tense.
3. List the form and uses of the future perfect continuous tense.
4. Enable learners to reflect more on the differences between the future perfect
and the future perfect continuous tenses.
5. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using the future perfect
and the future perfect continuous tenses.

1. Future Perfect

1. 1. Form

This tense is made up of the “will / shall + perfect infinitive” for the first persons.
“Will + perfect infinitive”. Example: to work “Will have worked.
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1. 2. The Main Uses of the Future Perfect Tense

 The future perfect is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The future perfect
tense talks about the past in the future. We can use the future perfect to say that
something will be finished or complete by a certain time in the future. This tense
is normally used with a time expression beginning with “by”: by then, by that
time, by the 24th: This action can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 The builders say that they will have finished the roof by Monday.
 We’d better wait till 18 December. David will have had his exam by then, so
he’ll be able to enjoy himself.
 You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8.
 They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time.
 "Mary won't be at home when you arrive." See the table below.

 It is used with duration before something in the future with non-continuous verbs.
With non-continuous verbs and some non-continuous uses of mixed verbs, we use
the Future Perfect to show that something will continue up until another action in
the future. This action can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

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  I will have been in New York for six months by the time I leave.
 By Monday, John is going to have had my car for a month.
 By next June, I will have consumed five years as an associate professor.

Important reminder:
Like all future forms, the Future Perfect cannot be used in clauses beginning with
time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if,
unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect, Present Perfect is used. Examples:
 Incorrect: I am going to see a doctor when I will have finished my homework.
 Correct: I am going to see a doctor when I have finished my homework.

Summary

The future perfect tense is used to indicate an action that will be completed before
another time or event in the future. It is formed by using “will” plus “have” and the
past participle of the base verb. The common way of using the simple present tense is
when:
 Action which will happen before or until a particular time in future - it has not
happened yet, but it will. (By the time we get there, they will already have started.
I shall have been with the firm for 20 years by then. I will be tired when I arrive
because I will have done an exam the day before.)

2. Future Perfect Continuous Tense

2. 1. Form

This tense is made up of the “will / shall have been + present participle” for the
first persons. “Will have been + present participle” for the other persons.
Example: to study “Will have been studying. Examples:

 By the end of this year students will have been studying for the whole year.

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  By the end of this year students will have not been studying for the whole
year.
 Will have the students been studying for the whole year by the end of this
year?

2. 2. The Main Uses of the Future Perfect Continuous Tense

 It is used to talk about actions that will commence at a fix time in future and will
continue for some time in future. The future perfect progressive emphasize the
duration of an activity that will be in progress before another time or event in the
future. So we use the Future Perfect Continuous to show that something will
cont01.inue up until a particular event or time in the future. "For five minutes,"
"for two weeks," and "since Friday" are all durations which can be used with the
Future Perfect Continuous. It is normally used with a time expression beginning
with “by”. This action can be represented diagrammatically as follows:

 By the end of this year he’ll have been acting for thirty years.
 This time tomorrow, I will be enjoying the cricket match in the stadium.
 Students must notice that this is related to the Present Perfect Continuous and the
Past Perfect Continuous; however, with Future Perfect Continuous, the duration
stops at or before a reference point in the future. Examples:
 They will have been talking for over an hour by the time Thomas arrives.
 She is going to have been working at that company for three years when it
finally closes.
 John will have been teaching at the university for more than a year by the
time he leaves for Asia.

2. 3. Future Continuous vs. Future Perfect Continuous

 If you do not include duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or
"since Friday," many English speakers choose to use the Future Continuous rather
than the Future Perfect Continuous.

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 Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence. Future
Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Future Perfect Continuous
emphasizes duration of time before something in the future. Study the examples
below to understand the difference. Examples:
 He will be tired because he will be exercising so hard. (This sentence
emphasizes that he will be tired because he will be exercising at that exact
moment in the future)
 He will be tired because he will have been exercising so hard. (This sentence
emphasizes that he will be tired because he will have been exercising for a
period of time. It is possible that he will still be exercising at that moment or
that he will have already finished)

Important reminder:
Like all future forms, the Future Perfect Continuous cannot be used in clauses
beginning with time expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as
soon as, if, unless, etc. Instead of Future Perfect Continuous, Present Perfect
Continuous is used instead. Examples:
 Incorrect: You won't get a promotion until you will have been working here as
long as Ann.
 Correct: You won't get a promotion until you have been working here as long
as Ann.

Summary

The future perfect progressive tense is used to indicate actions that ended or will end
at a specified time or before another action. It is formed by using “will” plus “have”
plus “been” plus the present participle of the base verb (I, you, s/he/it, we, they will
have been teaching), for example, “When Professor Jones retires next month, he will
have been teaching for 45 years.” The common way of using the simple present
tense is when:
 To indicate duration at a particular time in the future. (Tomorrow I shall have been
working non-stop for over three weeks. By 2020 he will have been working with
us for 10 years.)

Macro Summary to the Future Tenses

Use the future tense to indicate events that will happen in the future. Even in the
future, though, we can imagine that events have already happened or foresee their
duration. For example:

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 I will look for a job very soon. Use the simple future tense to show that an action
will occur in the future.
 I will be looking for work after the holidays. Use the future continuous to show
that an action will occur in the future, over a period or duration of time.
 Hopefully, I will have found a job before the spring. Use the future perfect tense
to show that something will happen in the future, and after it has happened,
something else will happen. In other words, two things are going to happen: You
will find a job. It will be spring. One of these events will happen before the other.
 I will have been looking for four months by May. Use the future perfect
continuous to show that two things will be happening in the future. One will
happen before the other, and it will have covered duration of time.
Exercise 1

Use will have + past participle of the verb in the following blanks:
1. Tom and Ann are going to the cinema. The film begins at 7.30 and it is already
7.20. And it will take them 20 minutes to get there. When they get there,
………………… (the film / already / start)
2. Jim always goes to bed at 11 o’clock. Tom is going to visit him at 11.30 this
evening. When Tom arrives, …………………………….. (Jim / go / to bed)
3. Tom is on holiday. He has very little money and he is spending too much too
quickly. Before the end of his holiday, ………….. (he / spend / all his money)
4. Chuck came to Britain from the US nearly three years ago. Next Monday it will
be exactly three years since he arrived. Next Monday
…………………………… (he / be / here / exactly three years)
5. Next year is Ted and Amy’s 25th wedding anniversary. They
…………………….. (be married) for 25 years.
6. Jane is from New Zealand. She is traveling around Europe at the moment. So far
she has traveled about 1.000 miles. By the end of the trip, …………….. (she /
travel) more than 3.000 miles.
Exercise 2

Use the future perfect tense in the following sentences with justification.
1. By next February I ……………………………….……… (write) my third book.
2. I hope you …………………..……………. (not / forget) my name by tomorrow.
3. By next week we ……………………….……………….. (redecorate) the house.
4. Next July she …………………………………………… (be) dead for ten years.
5. I hope I …….……… (not / make) a lot of mistakes in this exam when I finish it.
6. By the end of this year I ………………………………………… (drive) more
than one hundred thousand kilometers with this car.
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 7. I hope it ………………………….………. (stop) raining before the match starts.
8. I ………………………………………. (have) an operation when you turn back.
9. By this time next week I …………………….…………………………. (marry).
10. If nothing is done one million species that are alive today
…………………………… (become) extinct in twenty years.
11. The tropical rain forests …………….………………. (disappear) in thirty years.

Exercise 3

Use the future perfect continuous tense in the following sentences with
justification.
1. By the end of June I …….………………….. (live) in this flat for thirteen years.
2. I ………………………..…… (fly) to London for an hour at this time tomorrow.
3. At this time next week I …...……………. (work) for this company for 20 years.
4. When the bell rings I …………...………………… (teach) for eight hours today.
5. I …………………………….…… (wear) these glasses for five years next week.
6. I ………………………………...……… (drive) this car for six years tomorrow.
7. At this time tomorrow I ……………………………….. (take) a test for an hour.
8. At this time next year I ……………….. (have) a holiday in Antalya for a week.
9. At this time next year I …………………………. (live) in Istanbul for ten years.
10. By the time we get home they …...…………….. (play) football for half an hour.
11. She …………………………………...……. (dance) for an hour at nine o’clock.
12. I ………………………….. (learn) English for ten years by the end of this year.

Exercise 4

Fill in the blanks with the correct FUTURE forms: (Will / Going to / Present
Continuous / Simple Present) with justification.
1. A: What ……… you ……… (do) when you grow up? B: I …… (be) an acrobat
in a circus.
2. I haven’t seen him for a long time but I think I ………….…… (recognize) him.
3. A: I need some tokens to telephone my friend. B: I ………… (give) you some.
4. I got the plane tickets. I …………………………. (fly) on Sunday.
5. A: Have you got any plans for the summer? B: Yes, we ……………. (go) to
Italy in June.
6. Don’t play with those matches; you …………………………. burn yourself.
7. A: Whose is that night dress? B: It’s mine. I ……………… (wear) it at John’s
graduation party.
8. A: Why did you call your grandma? B: I ………….. (visit) her at the weekend.

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 9. If your passport isn’t valid any more, you …………… (not / be able to) go
abroad this month.
10. A: What are you doing with that brush? B: I ………………… (paint) my room.
11. A: Why are you wearing your anorak? B: I …………………………… (go) out.
12. I don’t know the meaning of this word so I …… (look) it up in the dictionary.
13. Look out! You ………………………………… (hurt) yourself with that knife.
14. A: I’ve got a terrible headache. B: Have you? Wait there and I …………….
(get) an aspirin for you.
15. Mother: Your face is dirty. Child: All right. I ………………………. (wash) it.
16. A: What time ……………the next bus …………. (arrive)? B: 13 minutes later.
17. ………………. you ………………….. (open) the door for me, please?
18. We’re early. The film ………………… (start) at 2:30. Why don’t we go and
have something to drink?
19. He …………………………… (call) the police as soon as he gets home.
20. A: What …….. you ……… (do) with that dress? B: I ……. (shorten) the skirt.
Exercise 5

Use the correct form of the Future Tense:

1. A: Oh! You’ve got a ticket for the party. B: Yes. I ……….. (see) it on Friday.
2. A: Tea or coffee? B: I ………………………….. (have) coffee, please.
3. There isn’t any cloud in the sky. It ……………………… (be) a lovely day.
4. We ……………………………. (win) the match. We’re playing really well.
5. The festival ……………………………….. (last) for ten days.
6. I ………. (have) a meal with a few friends. There …….. (be) about ten of us.
7. Phil ……… (come) round us tomorrow. We ……. (be) at the airport at 9:30.
8. Why don’t you come with us. I’m sure you …………… (enjoy) the show.
9. That …………………………………….. (not / cost) more than $50.
10. The museum …………………………….. (open) at 9:00 every day but
tomorrow it …………………………….. (not / be) opened at 9:00.
11. I ……………………………. (pay) it back to you as soon as I get my salary.
12. The manager said, "We …………….. (have) the meeting on Thursday.”

Exercise 6: Mixed Tenses

Direction: Complete the sentences with the suitable form of the verbs in
brackets.
1. If I ………..….. (find) a good job, I’ll move to Madrid.
2. He met his wife when he ………..…… (work) in Brussels.
3. You can turn off the radio. I ……..……. (not listen) to it.
4. Where ……..…….. (you / have) dinner yesterday?
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 5. This exercise is difficult. I ………..….. (help) you to do it.
6. What ……..……… (you / cook) tonight?
7. …………..…. (you / finish) your homework yet?
8. My father ………..……. (go) to the bank. He’ll be back soon.
9. What …..………. (they / do) at 9.00 last night?
10. It ………..…… (snow) when we ………………. (leave) the library.
11. I usually ……….…….. (listen) to the news in the car.
12. My cousin is a writer. He ………..……… (write) three novels.
13. Be careful! The baby …………..…… (put) those keys in his mouth!
14. When ………………. (Barack Obama / become) president of the USA?
15. My students ………….…… (not listen) when I gave the instructions.
16. Gonzalo is thirsty! I ……….…….. (get) him a glass of water!
17. If it ………………… (not rain) we’d lie on the beach.
18. It’s my birthday next week- Don’t worry! I ……..………. (not forget) it.
19. I think it ……….……… (rain) this afternoon.
20. John ………….……. (speak) to Susan a minute ago.
21. If you ask him nicely, he ………………. (help) you.
22. Would you like a coffee? No, thanks. I …….… (already / have) four cups today.
23. ……………….. (you /ever / have) an argument with your parents about clothes.
24. I’m sure they ………….……. (lose) the match.
25. My neighbor has broken his leg. He …..……….. (not play) tennis this weekend.
26. If I had the receipt, I ………..….. (return) these jeans.
27. What would you like? I ………………. (have) some orange juice.
28. If my brother ………….……. (not arrive) soon, I’ll send him a text message.
29. I ………………. (not see) my grandparents since last summer.
30. If you found a purse, …………..………. (you / give) it to the teacher?

Exercise 7: Mixed Tenses

Direction: Complete the sentences with the suitable form of the verbs in
brackets.
1. John …. our bank manager at the moment. He …..here for three years. (be, be)
2. I ………….when the alarm …..………..off at 7.40 this morning. (still sleep, go)
3. If everyone donates $10, we ……………. enough to buy a new machine. (have)
4. There ………. a great documentary on TV yesterday evening. ……….it? – No,
I didn't. I ………. to take my television set back to the store to have it repaired.
(be, you see, have)
5. When I ………..to the car park I didn't know where I ………. my car. (return,
park)
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 6. My uncle …... the same pullover the whole winter. I guess he…. it. (wear, love)
7. Mum ………. dinner when the doctor……... (prepare, arrive)
8. He …..around with a limp since he ….. his accident a few weeks ago. (walk,
have)
9. You look pretty worried. – What…………? (happen)
10. When we ……….. at the theatre the play……….. (arrive, already start)
11. When she………. home, she ……… that her husband ……… for some time.
(come, see, drink)
12. ………. the good news? – Stan and Margie……….married! – That's not new. –
I ……… about it for a few weeks. (you hear, get, know)
13. I ……… to call you the whole week! – Where……….? (try, you be)
14. The manager……..to an important customer at the moment, but he …………
you in a few minutes. (speak, see)
15. Do you realize that you ……… on my toes? – It hurts! (stand)
16. I think I ………. a break. I surely deserve one. (take)
17. I wonder if he………. my number. I ……. for him to call for the last two hours.
(forget, expect)
18. The novel is about a man who………home from the war and ……… a new life.
(come, start)
19. When I ………. for my passport a few days ago, I ………. across this old photo
of our family reunion. (look, come)
20. I am sorry that I ……..to leave your party so early last night. I ………. myself.
(have, really enjoy)
Exercise 8: Mixed Tenses

Direction: Complete the sentences with the suitable form of the verbs in
brackets.
1. I (learn) English for seven years now.
2. But last year I (not / work) hard enough for English, that's why my marks (not /
be) really that good then.
3. As I (pass / want) my English exam successfully next year, I (study) harder this
term.
4. During my last summer holidays, my parents (send) me on a language course to
London.
5. It (be) great and I (think) I (learn) a lot.
6. Before I (go) to London, I (not / enjoy) learning English.
7. But while I (do) the language course, I (meet) lots of young people from all over
the world.
8. There I (notice) how important it (be) to speak foreign languages nowadays.
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 9. Now I (have) much more fun learning English than I (have) before the course.
10. At the moment I (revise) English grammar.
11. And I (begin / already) to read the texts in my English textbooks again.
12. I (think) I (do) one unit every week.
13. My exam (be) on 15 May, so there (not / be) any time to be lost.
14. If I (pass) my exams successfully, I (start) an apprenticeship in September.
15. And after my apprenticeship, maybe I (go) back to London to work there for a
while.

Conditional Sentences: Conditional Type 0

Description of the Lecture
This lecture aims at introducing a detailed description of the properties of the
Conditional Sentences (type 0). It explores key elements related to the forms, uses
and variations. Key content of the lecture includes two sections; the lectures and
exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have finished this lecture, they should be able, to;
1. Introduce a general overview about conditional sentences.
2. Define the Conditional Sentences type 0.
3. List the form and uses of the Conditional Sentences type 0.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences using Conditional
Sentences (type 0).

Introduction into Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences have two parts or clauses that give a condition in the
dependent clause and a result in the independent clause. Conditional sentences
usually consist of two clauses: a conditional clause (or if-clause) and a main clause
(or result clause). Direct conditional clauses are used to express a direct condition;
the result in the main clause is dependent on the condition in the conditional clause.
In other words, the truth of the proposition in the main clause is a consequence of the
fulfillment of the condition in the conditional clause, as in (1):

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  1-If you put the baby down, he will scream.
In uttering (1) the speaker wants the hearer to understand that the truth of the
prediction “he will scream” depends upon the fulfillment of the condition of “putting
the baby down”.

1. Definition of Conditional Statement

When the work done of first sentence, depends on second sentence that sentence
is called is conditional sentence. A conditional sentence expresses the idea that the
action in the main clause (the result clause) can only happen when a certain condition
(the clause that begins with if) is fulfilled. So a Conditional Sentence is a sentence
which expresses something that must happen or be true if another thing is to happen
or be true. The “if” clause states the condition, then the main clause states the result.
Conditional sentences have two parts or clauses that give a condition in the dependent
clause and a result in the independent clause. The condition clause usually contains
an “if” statement. There are several different forms of conditional sentences that
allow the writer to express various meanings using different tenses. The structure of
the conditional sentence is as follows:

If clause “condition” + comma“,” + main clause “result”

main clause “result” + If clause “condition”

Grammar Point: The basics of Conditionals

Conditional sentences have two (or more) parts. These parts are called clauses.
One of the clauses is dependent on the other – its truth is conditional to the other.
The two clauses are connected by the term ‘if,’ ‘unless,’ or ‘when.’ The clauses can
come in either order in the sentence; usually we put the ‘if’ clause first and separate
the sentence with a comma. If you put the ‘if’ clause second, no comma is used.
There are different types of conditionals, each for different types of situations being
described. To differentiate between the types, different tenses are used. The types
of conditionals are: first, second, third, zero, and mixed.

2. Types of Conditional Sentences

As mentioned before, the most common division of conditionals is into four
major types according to the verb phrase in the subordinate and the main clause. With
each type certain variations are possible but students who are studying the conditional
for the first time should ignore these and concentrate on the basic form. However,
there are also two other types which are also quite common in the traditional division.
They are so called zero and mixed type conditionals. For the sake of better
understanding of these traditional types, we will look at the most common three types
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of conditionals first. Whereas, there are overview of basic verbs forms used in
conditional sentences.
Situation If-clause Result clause
True in the present Simple present Simple present
True in the present / future Simple present Simple present or will + simple
Untrue in the present/future Simple past Would + simple form
Untrue in the past Past perfect Would have + past participle

3. Conditional Type 0

Zero conditional uses the present tense in both clauses and is used to talk about
something that is always or generally true - things which always happen under certain
conditions. The present tense signifies that these actions are both possible and typical.
The form of zero conditional statement is:

If + simple present, simple present or

simple present + if + simple present
 If it rains, I take an umbrella with me to work.
 If I wake up early, I always read in bed.
 If she gets there before me, ask her to wait.
 If you fly cheap airline, you have to pay for you meal and drinks.
 If you heat water, it boils. In all the previous examples, the fulfillment of the
condition in the if-clause involves a static consequence (which is always true
and never changes.)
 If unemployment is rising, people tend to be afraid for their future.

We use the zero conditional to talk about situations and events that are general truths
– like habits and rules of natural phenomenon and those for our life: “If I’m thirsty, I
have a drink” “When I’m tired, I go to bed” “If the red light shines, stop at the line.”
It’s like cause and effect, where the ‘if’ clause shows the cause, and what follows is
the effect.

3. 1. Important Note about Conditional Type 0

The conditional sentence type zero makes use of another alternative tense form which
is as follows:

if + simple past + simple past or

simple past + if + simple past
 If the pupils were talkative, the teacher got angry.
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  If you greeted her she smiled at you.
The use of past simple tense in the if-clause and matrix clause expresses habitual
action, which has a very high degree of probability that it becomes an automatic
reaction. The conjunction “if” can be replaced by “whenever” and “when”. In the
present case, the use of the past simple tense does not refer to an action happening in
the past. In fact, there is no big difference between the use of the present simple tense
and the past simple tense in the present case. As a result, we can substitute the past
simple tense used in each clause to the present simple tense.

Summary

The conditional type 0 is as follows:

 Form: if + simple present + simple present or if + simple past + simple past

 Uses: conditional type 0 is used as follows:
 Facts which are generally true.
 Facts which are always true.
 Scientific facts
 Conditions that have always the same results

Exercise 1
Choose the correct answer from the brackets to complete the following
sentences.
5. If plants ………………. “do not get/ did not get” water, they die.
6. If a car …………………..“runs/ ran out” of petrol, it stops moving.
7. If a baby …………………“feels/will feel” hungry, it cries.
8. If a dog sees a stranger, it …………….“barks/would bark”.
9. If we heat iron, it ………………“expands/will expand”.
10. If we throw something into the air, it ……………..“fall/ falls”.
11. If we heat water, it …………………..“boils/ would boil”.
12. If we feel tired, we ………yawn/ would yawn.
Exercise 2
Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verb in brackets.
13. Unless someone is in the room, I …………… (switch) off the lights.
14. When you buy fruit, it’s best to …………… (use) reusable bags.
15. All employees must take a medical exam unless they …………… (have) a
valid medical examination certificate.
16. Unless you are 18 or older, you …………… (cannot) come in.
17. He should do more exercise if he …………… (want) to lose weight.
18. If you heat water to 100C, it ……………

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 19. When you open a webpage, you’re asked if you …………… cookies.
20. …………… you don’t get enough sleep, you feel tired.
21. She always says ‘yes’ …………… you offer her a tea.
22. If you bite your tongue, it ……………!
Exercise 3
Match and write Zero Conditional sentences in the table below.
Part One Part Two
1.you mix blue and yellow a. it rains
2.clouds meet cold air b. you feel thirsty
3.there is no gravity c. water freezes
4.you do not eat d. objects do not fall
5.a cat falls from a height e. it lands on its feet
6.you do not sleep well f. you get green
7.it is hot g. you lose weight
h. you feel tired
8.the temperature falls below 0ºC

Conditional Sentences: Conditional Type 1

Description of the Lecture

This lecture aims at introducing a detailed description of the properties of the
Conditional Sentences (type 1). It explores key elements related to the forms,
meanings, uses variations and exceptions of the given conditional type 1t. Through
the developments of the lecture students will become familiar with the forms,
meanings, and uses of the Conditional Sentences (type 1). Key content of the
lecture includes two sections; the lectures and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have finished this lecture, they should be able to;
1. Introduce a general overview of the Conditional Sentences (type 1).
2. List the form and uses of the Conditional Sentences type 1.
3. Enable learners to reflect more on the differences between the Conditional
Sentences (type 1 and 0).
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences by Conditional (type 1).

Introduction
Conditional Type One is sometimes called the first conditional or the future
conditional. The conditions in the first conditional are open conditions. In other
words, the truth of the prediction in the main clause is a consequence of the

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fulfillment of the condition in the subordinate clause. The first conditional is used to
describe real possibilities in the future. Note that both clauses describe a real
possibility, both of which are often in the future (although the ‘if’ clause may also
talk about the present) but the ‘if’ clause does NOT include ‘will.’ It is also possible
to use other modal verbs in place of ‘will’ in the ‘will’ clause. In the first conditional,
the modal verb clause is dependent on the ‘if’ clause. Much like the zero conditional,
one clause is caused by the other, however, the key difference is that the zero
conditional talks about general truths (always true), whereas the first conditional talks
about one real possibility (where other possibilities could also be true on different
occasions) of the future, according to the real situation of the present or future.
Consider the bakery example:
 “When I need bread, I go to the bakery.” This means that every time I need bread,
I go to the bakery (zero conditional).
 “If I need bread, I’ll to the bakery.” This means I think there is a possibility that I
will need bread in the future. If that does turn out to be the case, I will solve the
need for bread by going to the bakery (first conditional). The basic pattern of
conditional type one is as follows:

1. Form

The verb in the “if condition clause” is in the present; and the verb in the result
clause is in the simple future tense. It does not matter which comes first.

if + simple present + simple future or

simple future + if + simple present

 If he runs he’ll get there in time.

 The cat will scratch you if you pull her tail.
 If you revise well you will get good marks.
 If you listen to your teacher, you will succeed.
 Their professional prospects will be affected if they have a criminal record.
 If you cycle to work, you will save money on petrol.
 If you adopt a dog, you will have to walk it every day.
 When you pass your exam, you’ll get a certificate.
 You’ll feel great if you do something nice for her.

Conditions in the previous sentences are presented as possible situations. Moreover,

the first conditional suggests that something will happen if a certain condition is
fulfilled and the probability of that condition to be fulfilled exists in the future.
Obviously the verb tense in the main clause is in the future tense in which the modal

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“will” expresses pure future and very often the verb in the present tense in the if-
clause expresses future meaning.

2. Main Uses of the Real Conditional Type 1

 Situation 1: Real conditions express situations that can happen in the present or
future. They are often used when stating facts, general knowledge, habits,
predictions, advice, or instructions.
 Situation 2: Real conditions in the future (real possibility) use the simple
present tense form of the verb in the if clause + modal or modal phrase
(should/can/could/may/might, will, be going to, have to) and the base form of the
verb or the imperative in the result clause.
 Situation 3: Negative forms of the verb can be used in the condition or result
clause or both. Examples:
Consequently, this type of conditional implies that the action in the result clause is
quite probable. So this form is used to talk about something that is a probable future
result of a condition. (Note that the meaning here is present or future, but the verb in
the if-clause is in a present, not a future tense.)

Warning: Students must pay attention to the following points:

 Do not use will or be going to in the “if” condition clause.
 Do not use a comma after the result clause. Use a comma after the if clause

3. Possible Variations of the Basic Form

3. 1. Variations of the main clause

Instead of if + present + future, the following variations may take place:

 If + present + may or might (possibility)

 If the fog gets thicker the plane may /might be diverted. (perhaps the plane will
be diverted or not)
 If + present + may to indicate permission
 If your documents are in order you may leave at once. (Permission)
 If + present + can to indicate either permission or ability
 If you answer the entire question you can leave. (Ability)
 If it stops snowing we can go out. (Permission or Ability)
 If present + must, should or any expression of command, request or advice
 If you want to lose weight you must/should eat less bread.
 If you want to lose weight had better eat less bread.

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  If you want to lose weight eat less bread.
 If you see Tom tomorrow could you ask him to ring me?
 If + present + another present tense to indicate automatic or habitual results:
 If you heat ice it turns to water. (Will turn also is possible)
 If there is a shortage of any product prices of that product go up.

3. 2. Variations of the main clause

Instead of if + present, the following variations may take place:

 If + present continuous, to indicate a present action or a future arrangement

 If you are waiting for a bus (present action) you’d better join the queue.
 If you are looking for Peter (present action) you’ (I’ll find him upstairs).
 If you are staying for another night (future arrangement) I‘ll ask the manger to
give you a better room.
 If + present perfect
 If you have finished dinner I’ll ask the waiter for the bill.
 If he has written the letter I’ll post it.
 If they have not seen the museum we’d better go there today.

Summary

The form and uses conditional type 1 is as follows:

 Form: simple present + will + infinitive

 Variations: it has a number of variations either in the main clause or subordinate
clause in which all express real present or future probable actions.
 Uses: this type of conditional sentence is used as follows:
 For real or highly likely future situations
 Predictions
 Promises
 Possibility
 Cause and consequence

Exercise 1

Instruction: choose the correct verb tense in each of the following sentences.

1. I will make a sandwich if I ……………..hungry.

2. If we go out tonight, we ……………….the door behind us.
3. She will marry him if he …………….her.
4. I will take my umbrella if it ……………next week.

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 5. If they practice a lot, they ……………….the game.
6. She will do the exercise again if she ……………a lot of mistakes.
7. I ………………..the doctor if my stomach still hurts me.
8. If she goes to the birthday party, she …………….a present.

Exercise 2

Instruction: Match the first part of the sentence on the left with the correct
ending on the right.

Column A Column B
1. I will pay you 50 dollars. a. If you play with matches.
2. If you behave nicely b. If you watch a scary movie before bed.
3. If you do not finish your dinner c. Your teeth will hurt.
4. If you practice the piano regularly d. You will fail your exam.
5. If you are late for school e. You will plat beautifully.
6. You will burn yourself f. You will be healthy.
7. If you eat lot of vegetables g. I will buy you a treat.
8. You will have bad dreams h. I will not let you have any desert.
9. If you do not study i. The teacher will keep you in after class.
10. If you eat too much candy j. If your baby sit your little sister tonight.

Exercise 3

Fill the gap in each sentence with unless or if.

4. We won't pay our suppliers …………… they don't send the goods before Friday.
5. We won't pay them …………….. they send the goods before Friday.
6. We’re going for a bike ride this weekend …………….. it rains.
7. He won’t come …………………… you invite him personally.
8. The meeting is on Friday at 10 o’clock ……………… you hear otherwise.
9. ……………….. you hear otherwise, the meeting is on Friday at 10 o’clock.
10. Let’s go out for dinner …… you’re too tired, in which case we can stay at home.
11. I’ll accept the job ………………….. the pay is too low.
12. I’ll accept the job ………………… they offer me it.
Exercise 4

Fill in the gaps with the correct form of the verb in brackets.
1. They won’t let you in if you …………… (not have) a mask.
2. If you want to go to the festival, you …………… (have to) buy a ticket in
advance.
3. He’ll definitely get better if he …………… (practise) every day.
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 4. She …………… (not be) laughing when she sees the mess inside!
5. If you ask nicely, I’m sure she …………… (say) yes.
6. Unless the law is changed, I …………… leave the country.
7. If you …………… it, they will come.
8. …………… you tidy up right now, I will be very angry.
9. If you like horror films, you …………… the new scary movie.
10. I will come …………… you call.
11. If he …………… the flowers every day, they will die.
12. If the weather forecast is correct, the sun …………… tomorrow

Exercise 5

Complete the Conditional Sentences (Type I) by putting the verbs into the
correct form.
13. If you (send) …………. this letter now, she (receive) ……..…….. it next week.
14. If I (do) ………………. this exam, I (improve) …………………… my French.
15. If I (find) ………………… your key, I (give) …………………... it back to you.
16. Stephan (go) ……… fishing if she (have) ……….………. time in the weekend.
17. John (go) …………… to Paris next month if he (get) …………. a cheap ticket.
18. If his girlfriend (phone / not) …………. today, he (leave) ………….……… her.
19. If they (study / not) …….. very well, they (pass / not)…………. The final exam.
20. If it (rain) ………….. next week, I (have to / not) …………….. water the plants.
21. You (be able/ not) ……….. to sleep if you (watch)………… this pleasant film.
22. Ann (can / move / not) ...…into the new flat if it (be / not) ......….. ready on time.
Exercise 6
Fill in each blank with the correct form of the verb in brackets.
1. If you speak loudly, you ………………. (wake up) the girl.
2. He ……………………. (feel) unhappy if he does not get 20 in An exam.
3. If trees get enough water and sunshine, they ………………… (grow) very fast.
4. You …………………… (win) the contest if you revise very your lessons.
5. If you do not listen to him, he ……………………… (be) very angry.
6. Things …………………… (catch) fire more easily if the weather is hot and dry.
7. Ann often …………………….. (talk) loudly if she feels angry.
8. If you go to a travel agent, you …………… (find) all the information you need.
9. If you have an illness, you …………………….. (stay) many days in bed.
10. Ask him to wait if he ……………………….. (arrive) before I return.
11. I ………………………….. (go) for a walk after dinner if the weather is fine.
12. I don’t think that I am coming to the celebration, but if I change my mind, I
…………………. (tell) you.
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 13. If we put the water into the freezer, it …………………. (turn) into ice.
14. If he ………………….. (have) a long holiday, he will fly to Paris.

Conditional Sentences: Conditional Type 2

Description of the Lecture
This lecture aims at introducing a detailed description of the properties of the
Conditional Sentences (type 2). It explores key elements related to the forms,
meanings, uses variations and exceptions of the given conditional type 1t. Through
the developments of the lecture students will become familiar with the forms,
meanings, and uses of the Conditional Sentences (type 2). Key content of the
lecture includes two sections; the lectures and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have finished this lecture, they should be ableto;
1. Introduce a general overview of the properties of the Conditional Sentences
(type 2).
2. List the form, meanings and uses of the Conditional Sentences type 2.
3. Enable learners to reflect more on the differences between the Conditional
Sentences (type 1, 2 and 3) in terms of forms, meanings and uses.
4. Compose sentences correctly using the Conditional Sentences (type 2).

Introduction

Conditionals type two is also called the second conditional or hypothetical

conditional. Conditional sentences type two refers to imaginary situations. As such,
the conditions in the subordinate clause are situations that the speaker wants to
imagine. The second conditional is used to describe hypothetical and imaginary
situations of the future. Here the ‘if’ clause describes an imaginary present or future,
and the ‘would’ clause tells the imaginary result of it (also in the future). The times
being described (present or future – > future) are the same as those in the first
conditional, the key difference is that in the second conditional these clauses are
hypothetical (not real). To indicate this imaginary nature, the past tenses is used, but
remember, this does not mean the past is being described (that’s what the third
conditional is for!). Let’s look again at the bread example:
 If I needed bread, I would go to the bakery. Because this is the second
conditional, this situation is not real; therefore we know that I do not need
bread. The basic pattern of conditional type two is as follows:
1. Form
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The verb in the if-clause is in the past tense; and the verb in the result main clause is
in the conditional tense modal + “base verb form”.

if + simple past + would + stem

if + would +6 stem + if + simple past

 If I had a map I would lend it to you. (But I haven’t a map so I could not lend
you a map. The meaning here is present) “unreality”.
 If someone tried to blackmail me I would tell the police. (But I do not expect
that anyone will try to blackmail me. The meaning here is future.)
“Improbability”
 If I were a bird, I would fly very high in the sky.
 If he changed his opinions, he would be a more likeable person.
 If my mother came into a fortune, she would give up working.

Imagination of the speaker in the previous sentences may resemble to a mere dream,
which has a very little probability or almost no probability to be realized in the
present or in the future. In addition, ideas conveyed in the subordinate clause of a
conditional sentence type two are usually contrary to the reality in the present. It is
worth to note that the past tense in the if-clause in type 2 is not a true past but it is
subjunctive, which indicates unreality or improbability. See grammar point below.

Grammar Point
In English there are three moods or ways to express the action of the verbs, a writer
or speaker uses. They are indicative (all of the tenses already studied in this unit)
which indicates the real world, that which is happening, has happened, or will
happen. The imperative or command mood is the mood in which the speaker
orders someone to do or not to do something. The subjunctive represents the
unreal, contrary to fact, or form whereby the speaker wants someone else to do
something. The subjunctive is not used as often as the other two moods in English.
Sentences using the subjunctive always contain two clauses, one main and one
dependent, two different subjects, and the conjunction that. Examples:
 The doctor suggests that I take vitamins.
 The doctor suggested that I take vitamins.
 The doctor will suggest that I take vitamins.

2. Main Uses of the Unreal Condition

 Situation 1: When the supposition is contrary to known facts:

 If I lived near my office I’d be in time for work. (But I don’t live near my
office.) Examples:
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  If I were you I’d plant some trees round the house. (But I am not you.)
 Situation 2: it refers to an untrue, not possible, or imaginary in the present and
that probably will not happen in the future when we don’t expect the action in the
if-clause to take place. Examples:
 If a burglar came into my room at night I’d scream. (But I don’t expect a
burglar to come in.) “Present meaning”
 If I dyed my hair blue everyone would laugh at me. (But I don’t intend to dye
it.) “Future meaning”
 Situation 3: When we talk about a hypothetical situation that cannot happen or is
unlikely to happen in the future or present time. Examples:
 If I had a million dollars, I would buy a large vacation home.
 If I were you, I wouldn’t wait to study for the test.
 Situation 4: Unreal conditions in the present or future use the simple past form in
the “if” clause and would, could or might plus the base form of the verb in the
result clause.
 Situation 5: Either clause, or both can be made negative. Examples:

3. Possible Variations of the Basic Form

3. 1. Variations of the Main Clause

 “Might” or “could” may be used instead of “would”:

 If you tried again you would succeed. (Certain result)
 If you tried again you might succeed. (Possible result)
 If you tried again you could succeed. (Ability)
 If I knew her number I could ring her up. (Ability)
 If he had a permit he could get a job. (Ability or permission)
 The continuous conditional form may be used instead of the simple conditional
form. Examples:
 Peter is on holiday; he is touring Italy.
 If I were on holiday I would/might be touring Italy too.
 If + past tense can be followed by another past tense when we wish to express
automatic or habitual reactions in the past. (The past tense have a past meaning)
 If anyone interrupted him he got angry.(Whenever anyone interrupted him)
 If there was a scarcity of anything prices of that thing went up.

3. 2. Variations of the if-Clause

 If + past continuous

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  (We are going by air) and I hate flying. If we were going by boat I’d feel much
happier.
 If my car was working I would/could drive you to the station.
 If + past perfect
 If he had taken my advice he would be a rich man now. (A mixture with type
3)

4. Real Condition Type 1 versus Unreal Condition Type 2

The main difference between the first and second conditional is about probability: the
first conditional is realistic, the second conditional is unrealistic.
 Sometimes we can use either the first or second conditional with the following
difference in meaning.
 If I see him, I will tell him. (I suppose I will see him, because we go to the
same school.)
 If I saw him, I would tell him. (I don't think I will see him, because he is ill.)
 If I need your help, I'll call you. (It is probable that I will need your help.)
 If I needed your help, I'd call you. (It is not very probable that I will need your
help.)
 Sometimes we must use either the first or the second conditional, because it is
clear that the situation is real or unreal.
 If you get up late, you will miss your bus. (A real situation)
 If I were from your country, I would understand your problems. (An unreal
situation - I am not from your country.)
 Time in Type 1 and 2: There is no difference in time between the conditional
sentences type 1 and type 2. Both of them refer to the present or future, and the
past tense in the if-clause in type 2 is not a true past but it is subjunctive, which
indicates unreality or improbability.
 A suggestion in type 2 is a little more polite than a suggestion in type 1, just as
“would you” is a more polite request form than “will you” form.
 Some course books refer to conditional sentence type one as real and unreal to
conditional sentence type two. These terms are much confusing or need more
explanation than to be real or unreal. In fact, when we use conditional sentence
type one, there are or at least we can perceive factors which may lead to the
fulfillment of the condition; hence, a positive probability for the truth of the
prediction in the main clause whereas with conditional sentence type two, this
factors do not exist or cannot be perceived by the speaker. In other words, there
is not any signal which indicates that the condition in the subordinate clause has
an essential probability to be fulfilled.
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Summary

The conditional type 2 is as follows

 Form: simple past + would + infinitive

 In the second conditional, the simple past is used in the condition clause. If the
be verb is being used, it is typical to use were in more formal contexts. If you’re
speaking informally though, was is more usual.
 Formal: If I were you, I would drink more water.
 Informal: If I was you, I wouldn’t stay out so late.
 Note: ‘Would’ and ‘had’ can both be shortened to ‘d – watch out for this in the
second conditional!
 Variations: it has a number of variations either in the main clause or subordinate
clause in which all express either unreal or improbable actions in the present.
 Uses: this type of conditional sentence implies for actions that are
 Impossible situations in the present or future
 Hypothesis
 Unlikely situations
 Unreal situations
 Give advice

Exercise 1

Put the verbs in brackets into the / a correct form.

1. If you ………. (do) more exercise, you ………… (feel) better.
2. What ………..(you / do) if you ………… (win) a million pounds?
3. If someone ………. (come) in here with a gun, I………. (be) very frightened.
4. If I ……….(be) you, I ……….. (learn) French before travelling to France.
5. I’m sure Fred ……….. (understand) if you …….(explain) the situation to him.
6. My husband ………(be) very upset if I ……….. (lose) my wedding ring.

Exercise 2

Complete the Conditional Sentences (Type II) by putting the verbs into the
correct form. Use conditional I with would in the main clause.
1. If we (have) …………. a big ship, we (sail) ……………… all the oceans.
2. If he (have) …………….. more time, he (learn) ………………. karate.
3. If they (tell) ……………. their grandmother, he (be) ……………… very angry.
4. Ann (spend) …….. a week in the United Kingdom if it (be) ……. easier to get a
green card.
5. If I (live) ……….. on a lonely house, I (run) …………….. around naked all day.
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 6. We (help) …………… you if we (know) ……………………. how.
7. My sister (buy) …………. a sports bicycle if he (have) …………….. the money.
8. If I (feel) ………….. better, I (go)…………… to the school with you.
9. If you (go) ………….. by bike more often, you (be / not) ……………. so flabby.
10. She (not / talk) …………… to you if she (be) ……………… mad at you.

Exercise 3

Complete the Conditional Sentences. Decide whether to use Type I or II.

1. If they go to Algiers, they (see) ………….…………. the Martyrs Monument.
2. If she (have) ………………… a hamster, she would call him.
3. If he gave a baby a sweet, she (stop) …………………. crying.
4. If he (arrive) ………………. later, he will take a train.
5. We would understand him if he (speak) ………………… slowly and clearly.
6. Ann (cook)………………. dinner if we buy the food.
7. I will prepare food if I (wake up) ………………… early.
8. If they shared a room, they (fight) …………………. all day long.
9. If you hate walking in the forests, you (enjoy / not) ……………… the tour.
10. John would go jogging if he (have / not) ……………… to do his homework.
Exercise 4

Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the words given.
1. ‘If you …………… (not/drink) so much, you …………… (not/gain) so much
weight,’ said Mike, laughing at his brother.
2. ‘You …………….. (not have) your meal tonight if you …………….
(not/apologize),’ Mike’s brother replied.
3. ‘If we …………… (run) faster, we ……………… (be) able to get on the bus.’
Ann said to May breathlessly when the bus left.
4. ‘You ……………. (be) much happier if you ……………. (be) an ordinary man,’
said the princess to the King.
5. If I ………….. (be) careful enough, I ……………. (not/get) hurt during the
handball competition. I only took part in the first 15 minutes!
6. If Jack ……………. (put) some warmer clothes on yesterday, he …………..
(not/catch) a cold today.
7. If I ………. (have) children, I ….. (educate) them wholeheartedly with my love.
8. Be careful! If you ……………. (touch) that dog, it ……………. (bite) you.
9. I don’t know the details of their plan. If I ………. (do), I …………. (tell) you.
10. Last night Alex ruined his sweater when he washed it. If he …………… (read)
the label, he ……………… (not/wash) it in hot water.

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 Conditional Sentences: Unreal Condition Type 3
Description of the Lecture
This lecture aims at introducing the Conditional Sentences (type 3). It explores key
elements related to the forms, meanings, uses variations and exceptions of the
given conditional type 3. Through the developments of the lecture students will
become familiar with the forms, meanings, and uses of the Conditional Sentences
(type 3).
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have finished this lecture, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce a general overview of the Conditional Sentences (type 3).
2. List the form and uses of the Conditional Sentences type 3.
3. Enable learners to reflect more on the differences between the Conditional
Sentences (type 0, 1, 2, and 3) in terms of forms, meanings and uses.
4. Compose sentences correctly using Understand the importance of the
Conditional Sentences (type 3).

Introduction

Conditional sentences of type three are also called hypothetical conditional or

the third or past conditional. We use this type to speculate about past events and
about how things that happened or did not happen might have affected other things.
As we know, verbs in conditional type three are back-shifted, the past perfective form
in the subordinate clause is used for past time reference. The modal most commonly
used in the matrix clause is “would”. We often teach this conditional to express
reproach and regret.
The third conditional, like the second, is all about hypothetical, imaginary
situations. The thing that differentiates it from the second conditional is that it talks
about the past. Both clauses of the third conditional describe the past – an alternative
past that we can imagine was caused by an alternative past-past! Let’s look at the
bread example again:
 If I had needed bread, I would have gone to the bakery. This means that in the
past, I did not need bread (perhaps I already had some, or I simply wasn’t
hungry). But, we can imagine the opposite situation where I did need bread –
to describe this hypothetical past, and the resulting action I could have taken
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 (also in the past) to remedy the situation, we use the third conditional. The
basic pattern of conditional type three is as follows:
1. Form

The verb in the if- condition clause is in the past perfect tense; while the verb in the
result main clause is in the perfect conditional “modal +present perfect”. The time
is past and the condition cannot be fulfilled because the action in the if-clause did not
happen.

if + past perfect + would + have + past participle

would + have + past participle + if + past perfect

 If I had known that you were coming I would have met you at the airport.
(But I did not know consequently the result clause did not take place.)
 If he had tried to leave the city he would have been arrested at the frontier by
the frontier police officers. (But he did not try and consequently he was not
arrested by the police officers.)
 I could have gotten the job if I had sent in my resume on time. (I didn’t get the
job because I didn’t send my resume in on time.)
 If they hadn’t read the book, the ending of the movie would have been a
surprise. (They read the book, so the ending of the movie was not a surprise.)
 He might have won the tournament if he had trained harder and more often.
He didn’t win the tournament because he didn’t train hard or often.)
 If I had wanted to go to the ball, I would have bought a new dress. (I didn’t
want to go to the ball, so I didn’t buy a new dress.)
 I would have won the competition if my battery hadn’t died. (My battery died. I
didn’t win the competition.)
 I wouldn’t have bought the bun if I’d known it was filled with chocolate. (I
bought the bun. I didn’t know it was filled with chocolate.)
 They wouldn’t have opened the restaurant if they had known about the new
regulations. (They opened a restaurant. They didn’t know about the new
regulations.)

The third conditional in the previous sentences refers to past time. The if-clause
mentions something that is not true; hence, the main clause also expresses a
consequence of the condition in the if- clause, which is also logically not true. In
other words, the condition in conditional type three was not fulfilled, yet, we like to
imagine the probable result of that unfulfilled conditions.

2. Main Uses of the Unreal Condition in the Past

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 We use the conditional type 3 to talk about possible consequence of an action
that did not happen at all (unreal past situations). As if the speaker wants to change
the past. But this is impossible. So this form is used to talk about a hypothetical
situation in the past that did not happen – typically with an outcome that did not
happen and is perhaps the opposite of what did happen. In other words, type 3
conditional is used in similar fashion to type 2 conditional in respect that they refer to
something completely imaginary in the if clause and to completely imaginary
consequences in the main clause. However, type 3 conditionals refer to consequences
that did not, could not ever happen because the condition to be satisfied did not
happen in the past. Thus, they are sometimes called hypothetical conditionals.
Examples:

 If I had written my essay this afternoon, I would have had time to go out
tonight. (It is now evening and I have not written my essay: it is now
impossible for me to go out.)
 If it had rained last week, the plants would not have died.
 If I had finished college, I would have become a doctor

3. Possible Variations of the Conditional Sentence Type 3

3. 1. Possible Variations of the Basic Form

 “Could” or “might” may be used instead of “would”:

 If we had found him earlier we would have saved his life. (Ability)
 If we had found him earlier we might save his life. (Possibility)
 If our documents had been in order we could have left at once. (Ability or
permission)
 The continuous form of the prefect conditional may be used:
 At the time of the accident I was sitting in the back of the car, because Tom’s
little boy was sitting beside him in front. If Tom’s boy had not been there I
would have been sitting in front.
 “Had” can be placed first and the “if” omitted.
 If you had obeyed orders this disaster would not have happened.
 Had you obeyed orders this disaster would not have happened.

4. Conditional Sentences Type 3 and Type 2 and Type 1 …………Differences

There are a few aspects of conditionals that should be noted in order to make their
use easier and clearer.
 Conditionals can be categorized as real and unreal. You can think of this as
meaning possible or impossible. Zero and first conditionals are possible as they
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 deal with things that are generally true or that could be true in the future. Second
and third conditionals are impossible because they are either hypothetical or
concerned with events in the past that we cannot change. Consequently, Real
Conditionals are Zero and First while Unreal Conditionals are Second, and Third.
 The table below summarizes the different mixed conditional sentences.
Grammar Point
The table below compares and contrasts between all the three conditional sentences
in terms of time and meaning. The brief comparison may indicate the following:
 Type 1 and 2 are the same in time and different in meaning.
 Type 2 and 3 are different in time and the same in meaning.
 Type 1 and 3 are different in time and meaning.

Type Time Meaning

Conditional type 1 Present (or future) Real (or probable)
Conditional type 2 Present (or future) Unreal (or improbable)
Conditional type 3 Past Unreal (or improbable)

5. Wishes in the Present, Future, or Past

Using the verb wish plus a clause about the wish is a very common construction
in English, especially in spoken language. The verb after wish is one tense before the
actual time. In other words, if you want to wish for the present time, use past tense. If
you want to wish for the past time, use past perfect tense. If you want to wish for the
future time, use would.
6. 1. Rules for Wishes in the Present, Future, or Past
 Rule 1: Sentences with wish are similar in meaning to unreal conditions in the
present, future, or past. The situation is imaginary, does not exist, or did not
happen.
 Rule 2: Using wish expresses the fact that you want the opposite of the real
situation to be true.
 Rule 3: The use of that between wish and the following clause is optional.
 To make a wish about the present time, use the past tense. Don’t use the present
tense after wish.
 To make a wish about the past time, use the past perfect tense. Don’t use the past
tense for past time. Examples:
6. Unless as a Negative Version of If

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 We can use the word ‘unless’ instead of ‘if’ in conditionals. The meaning of the
word is like a negative version of ‘if,’ so ‘unless’ clauses are like saying ‘if this
clause doesn’t happen, then…’ Because of this, the second clause in such
conditionals is often also negative, but it doesn’t have to be.
The conjunction unless functions the same as if . . . not in conditional
sentences. Whatever forms correspond to real and unreal conditions will also be used
here. Unless is usually followed by an affirmative clause, not a negative clause.
Avoid using negative clauses such as this: Look at the construction of these
sentences:
 Unless we finish the project soon, our clients will be angry. =If we don’t finish
the project soon, our clients will be angry.
 Unless Bill had all the ingredients, he wouldn’t try the recipe. = If Bill didn’t
have all the ingredients, he wouldn’t try the recipe.
7. Open Conditional Sentences

Open conditional sentences are used when the speaker expresses a situation
which usually occurs or will occur if the condition mentioned in the conditional
clause is met, as in:
 If John studies hard, he will get better marks.
 If it starts to rain, I will take a car.
These sentences contain a condition that may or may not be fulfilled. Thus, John may
or may not study hard; it may or may not start to rain. The conditions in these
sentences are open. In other words, open conditional sentences are neutral; namely,
the condition may or may not be true and therefore the proposition of the main clause
may or may not be true.

8. Hypothetical Conditional Sentences

A hypothetical condition conveys the speaker's belief that the condition was not
fulfilled (for past conditions) or is not fulfilled (for present conditions), or will not be
fulfilled (for future conditions) as in:
 If she had studied hard, she would not have failed the exam. This statement
implies that she did not study hard.
 If they had the time, they would visit us. This statement implies that they do not
have the time.
 If he changed his opinion, he would accept going to the museum. This
statement implies that it is probable that he will not change his opinion.

Open Conditionals Hypothetical Conditionals

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  They use the indicative mood.  They use the subjunctive mood.
 they express a possibility or a  They express something contrary-to-fact,
probability an impossibility or an improbability.
 They are neutral. They may or  'closed'
may not be true.  They are 'unreal' and 'counterfactual'.
 open

Summary
The conditional type 3 is as follows:

 Form: past perfect + would have + past participle

 Variations: it has a number of variations either in the main clause or subordinate
clause in which all express unreal and improbable past actions.
 Uses: this type of conditional sentence implies that the action in the if-clause did
not exist and the result is quite improbable. Therefore, it is used for actions that
are:
 For hypothetical situations in the past “situations that did not occur/unreal
imaginary situations”
 Indicate that present circumstances might have been different, had
circumstances in the past differed.
 Theoretical past situations, -regret
 An impossible situation because it had already happened.

Final Summary to Conditionals

Type If Clause Main Clause Uses

Type 0 Simple simple present  Fact which are generally true
present  Scientific facts
 Conditions that have always the same
results
Type 1 Simple simple future  For real or highly likely future situations
present  Predictions
 Promises
 Possibility
 Cause and consequence
Type 2 Simple would +  Impossible situations in the present or
past infinitive future
 Hypothesis
 Unlikely situations
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  Unreal situations
 Give advice
Type 3 past would have  For hypothetical situations in the past
perfect +past  Indicate that present circumstances might
participle have been different, had circumstances in
the past differed.
 Theoretical past situations, -regret
 An impossible situation because it had
already happened.

Exercise 1

Write each of the two sentences below as one sentence. Use the Third
Conditional with “had” (or “hadn’t”) + “wouldn’t have”.

1. John didn’t get up early. He was late for work.

2. We didn’t bring our umbrellas. We got wet.
3. Stephan didn’t study. He failed the test.
4. I rode the bicycle. I fell off.
5. I met him yesterday. I knew his name
6. The TV was broken. They were bored.
7. Paul sat under a tree. An apple fell on his head.
8. Kevin got lost. He cried.
9. John practiced a lot. She won the contest.
10. The firemen arrived. They put out the fire.
11. That was a funny joke. I laughed.
12. We didn’t clean the room. It was messy.
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verbs in brackets, using
second or third conditionals.
1. They met in New York at a meeting. If they hadn’t gone to the meeting in New
York, they wouldn’t have met. (not go / not meet)
2. This food is a little tasteless. I should have put more spices in it. If I
…………….. more spices in the curry, it better. (put / taste)
3. I’m not satisfied with my present job. Maybe I should leave it and look for
another. If I another job, I might be happier. (find / be)
4. We got ill because you wouldn’t take the bus during the heavy rain. You wanted
to go by feet. We ill if we the bus during rain. (not get / take)

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 5. Don’t swim in that lake; there might be dangerous sharks. If I you, I in that lake
as there might be dangerous big fish. (be / not swim)
6. Ann fell in love with John. If she in love with John. (not leave / not fall)
7. He used the stolen money at a famous restaurant, so the police found him. If he
the stolen money at a famous restaurant, the police him. (not use / not find)
8. They don’t have enough dollars to buy a new bicycle. They a new bicycle if they
afford one. (buy / can)
9. We didn’t go on the Paris because the queue was too long. We on the Paris, if the
queue so long. (go / not be)
10. My wife and I both work at a bank, so we can pay all the bills. If we, we to pay
all the bills. (not work / not be able)
11. I didn’t know you wanted to go to the party. I didn’t buy you a ticket. I you a
ticket if I that you wanted to go to the party. (buy / know)
12. Marry is overweight because she doesn’t do any sports exercises. Marry so
overweight if she some exercise. (not be / do)
Exercise 3
Supply the correct form of the verb in each sentence.
1. Unless we pay the rent soon, the landlord will evict (evict) us.
2. We ………… (attend) the lecture unless it is canceled.
3. No one will believe you unless you ………. (show) him the evidence.
4. He wouldn’t have offered to help unless he ……….. (have) the time.
5. Unless my friend learns to budget his money, he ……….. (be) in debt.
6. Unless Sam…………. (get) the contract signed, he can’t provide the services.
7. Unless Mr. Sanders ………. (find) an assistant soon, he will not finish his report.
8. You will have to pay a fare increase unless you ………..(purchase) your ticket
before Monday.
9. My teacher ……….. (negative for read) this paper unless I type it.
10. Unless the electrician……. (arrive) soon, we will have to sit in the dark tonight.
11. Unless you …………. (try) on the pants, I will not be able to hem them.
12. Unless I………… (prepare) supper soon, we will not eat until very late.
13. Unless you …… (answer) the phone, the caller will think that we are not home.
14. Unless you are more careful, the company …...... (negative for insure) you in the
future.
15. You will not ……….. (receive) your check unless you fill out a time card.
16. Unless we ……………. (leave) soon, we will arrive too late for the first act.
17. Unless they hurry, they ……………. (miss) the train.
18. Unless a stranger ………… (try) to enter the house, my dog will not bark loudly.
19. Unless you ……….. (put) the trash near the curb, the city won’t collect it.
20. Unless Sandy ……….. (ask) Terry, she will never know why they broke up.
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Exercise 4
Mixed Conditionals: Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses.
1. If you ………. (be) a professional football player, who ……… (you/play) for?
2. If he …………………… (not study) now, he won’t have time next week.
3. If Ann had taken the map of the forest, she ………………… (not get) lost there.
4. Where would you go on weekend if you ……………………… (can) choose?
5. The instructor …………….……… (be) angry if you didn’t do your homework.
6. What ………………….. (you/ give) me if it were my birthday party next week?
7. If we recycle more plastic , there …………………… (not be) so much dustbin.
8. If they had something to drink, they ……………………. (not be) thirsty.
9. If we ……… (hear) the weather broadcast, we wouldn’t have gone to the forest.
10. What ……………………….. (you/buy) if you had money in the bank?
11. If they ……………………… (not hurry) up, they will miss the train departure.
12. If the plane ……………………. (not arrive) soon, we’ll be late to the meeting.
13. If they had contacted me last week, I ……….…….. (give) them the information.
14. If I …………………………. (be) you, I wouldn’t eat so many cakes.
15. We’ll go for a sport exercise unless it …………………….. (rain).
16. If the South Pole ………. (melt), the water would flow many lands near the sea.
17. If we ……… (know) it was Stephan’s birthday, we would have sent him a card.
18. If you play the music too loud, you ………………… (wake up) the neighbors.
19. My mother doesn’t feel happy unless he ……………….. (swim) every day.
20. If the lake had frozen, my friends and I …………………….. (go) skating.
21. If people used bikes instead of cars, there …………. (not be) so much pollution.
22. If our team had scored another goal, we ………………. (win) the championship.
23. If the waiter …………… (not serve) us soon, we’ll have to leave the restaurant.
24. We’ll have dinner outside in the garden, unless it ………………… (be) too cold
25. When you heat wax, it ………………………. (melt).
Exercise 5

Mixed Conditionals: Complete the sentence with a verb in the correct form.

1. (Type 1) If we …… (not / work) harder, we ……………….(not pass) the exam.

3. (Type 3) If the students ...…….. (not be) late for the exam, they ………….. (pass).
1. (Type 3) If the weather …….. (not be) so cold, we …………. (go) to the beach.
2. (Type 2) If she ………... (have) her laptop with her, she …...….….. (email) me.
3. (Type 1) If she ………….... (not go) to the meeting, I …………..(not go) either.
4. (Type 3) If the baby ……….. (sleep) better last night, I ………..(not be) so tired.
5. (Type 1) If the teacher ……….……. (give) us lots of homework this weekend, I
………….…….. (not be) happy.
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 6. (Type 2) If Lucy …….…… (have) enough time, she …………… (travel) more.
7. (Type 1) If the children ………. (not eat) soon, they …………….. (be) grumpy.
8. (Type 1) If I …… (not go) to bed soon, I'm………… (be) tired in the morning.
9. (Type 2) If I ………….….. (want) a new car, I ………..………. (buy) one.
10. (Type 2) If John …….. (not speak) good French, he …….. (not move) to Algiers.
11. (Type 1) If John ……...…. (drink) too much coffee, he ………..…….. (get) ill.
12. (Type 3) If we …………… (tidy) our flat, we …………….. (not lose) our keys.
13. (Type 3) If Ann …… (not send) flowers to his mother, she …... (not be) happy.
14. (Type 2) If the children ……… (be) in bed, I …….….. (be able to) have a bath.
15. (Type 2) If you …… (not be) so stubborn, we …. (not have) so many arguments!
16. (Type 3) If John …. (not go) to Sweden, she …...……… (go) to Germany.
17. (Type 1) If she ………...… (go) to the library, she ………………(study) more.
18. (Type 3) If we ………….…. (not have) an argument, we ………… (not be) late.
19. (Type 2) If you ……………… (arrive) early, it ……….……. (be) less stressful.
20. (Type 3) If I …….….. (not go) to the party, I ………………(not meet) Amanda.
21. (Type 2) If John ………...….. (like) chocolate, I …………..…...(give) her some.
22. (Type 2) If Luke ………….. (live) in the UK, I ………….. (see) him more often.
23. (Type 3) If the children …………. (not eat) all that chocolate, they ………….
(feel) sick because of that reason.
24. (Type 1) If they ……………. (not / arrive) soon, we …………..…….. (be) late.
25. (Type 3) If she ……..…….. (study) Mandarin, she ……..……. (go) to Beijing.
26. (Type 2) If we …………..…. (not be) so tired, we ……….……….(go) out.
27. (Type 1) If you ………..….. (buy) the present, I ……………….(wrap) it up.
28. (Type 1) If Lucy …………… (not quit) her job soon, she ………… (go) crazy.

Exercise 6

Rephrase the following sentences using one of the conditional sentences.

1. We didn't see The Two Towers because the cinema was closed.
2. She doesn't understand because you haven't explained the situation to her.
3. You won't get a promotion if your work doesn't improve.
4. I never eat octopus because I get sick.
5. We didn't pick you up at the station because you didn't phone us.
6. The government won't win the elections unless they create employment.
7. I'll buy a new computer provided that I get a rise in salary.
8. She wanted to buy that picture, but she didn't have enough money.
9. Whenever I make a promise, I keep it.
10. We haven't got any matches, so we can't light a fire.
11. I didn't renew my subscription because I lost interest in the magazine's articles.
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 12. He was too slow to win the race.
13. I won't go to Rio unless I find a cheap flight.
14. I never sunbathe because I get sunburt easily.
15. She will understand you provided that you don't speak too fast.
16. He won't come for a drink because he's got work to do.
17. She's too young to get a driving license.
18. They lost the match because of the heavy rain.
19. Whenever Peter and I meet, we talk about the good old times.
20. Should you see Paul, tell him about the meeting.

Exercise 7

Complete the Conditional Sentences (Type III) by putting the verbs into the
correct form.
1. If you (study) ………….. for the exam, you (pass) ………………… it.
2. If you (ask) ……………… me, I (help) …………………. you.
3. If we (go) ……… to the school, we (see) …….……. my friend Stephan there.
4. If you (speak) ……………..French, she (understand) ………………….
5. If they (listen) ………………… to me, we (be) ………………….. home earlier.
6. I (write) …………….. you a letter if I (have) ………………. your address.
7. If I (not / break) ………….. my arm, I (take part) ………………. in the contest.
8. If it (not/ start) ………….. to snow, we (walk)………………… to the mosque.
9. We (swim) ……… in the river if there (not / be) ……….. so many sharks there.
10. If she (take) …………. the train, she (not / arrive) ………………. on time.
Exercise 8

Complete the Conditional Sentences (Type I, II or III) by putting the verbs into
the correct form.
1. If they (have) ……………. time at the afternoon, they will come to play with us.
2. If we sneak out quietly, nobody (notice)……………………..
3. If we (know) ……….. about your situation, we would have helped you so much.
4. If I (be) ………………… you, I would not buy that big shoes.
5. We (arrive) ………………… earlier if we had not missed the plane.
6. If I didn't have a new car, my life (not / be) ………………….. complete.
7. Okay, I (get) ……………….. the popcorn if you buy the food.
8. If I (tell) ……………… you a secret, you would be sure to leak it.
9. She (go) …………………… out with you if you had only asked her.
10. I would not have read your book if you (not hide) …… it in such an obvious
place.

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 Active Voice versus Passive Voice
Description of the Lecture
This unit is about active voice versus passive voice. Throughout the unit students
will become familiar with the forms, meanings, and uses of the active voice versus
passive voice. The emphasis is put on the transformational rule from active voice to
passive voice or vice versa. The pedagogical procedures count on theory, examples
and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce a general overview of the active voice versus passive voice.
2. List the form, meanings, uses and transformational rules from active voice to
passive voice or vice versa.
3. Compare and contrast between the active voice and passive voice.
4. Compose correct, meaningful and functional sentences through active voice
and versus passive voice.

Introduction

A Voice is an important factor in English Grammar. The term ‘voice’ is a

grammatical category which applies to verbs. In English, ‘voice’ refers to the form of
a verb takes to indicate whether the subject of the verb performs or receives the
action. Voice is a grammatical category which makes it possible to view the action of
a sentence in either of two ways, without change in the facts reported.” English has
two grammatically marked voices: active and passive. The action remains the same,
but the focus changes depending upon the context. There are two types of voices in
English- active voice and passive voice.

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1. Active Voice

The sentences in which the subject performs the action and the object receives
the action are said to be in Active Voice as in: The teacher explains the lesson. In the
above example, the simple subject is “teacher” and “explains” is the verb. So it
reveals clearly that he subject / the doer / an agent performs the action which is
received by the object/receiver. In the Active sentences, the importance or priority is
given to only the subject. It gives the question ‘who did the action’ rather than ‘what
happened’. Active voice is ideal when you want to connect with the reader. Active
voice engages the reader more effectively than passive voice thanks to its language
being a bit stronger. In short, sentences with active voice have an overt subject and
verb, which means readers get to see “what or who” is doing “what.” An active verb
style leaves no doubt about who did what.

2. Passive Voice

If the importance or priority is given to only the verb “action” of a sentence,

then it is said to be in Passive Voice. In Passive voice, ‘what happened’ is more
important than ‘who did the action?’ in the following example: The lesson is
explained by the teacher. “lesson” is the simple subject and “is explained” is the verb.
In effect, the object of the active sentence becomes the subject in the passive
sentence. In short, sentences in passive voice can fall under two categories. We either
don’t see a subject, or see it straggling behind the verb because more emphasis is
placed on the object of the action rather than the subject. A passive verb style can
leave the reader wondering who did what.

Active sentences are about what people (or things) do, while passive sentences
are about what happens to people (or things). While changing a sentence from Active
Voice to Passive Voice, several changes must take place as indicated in this next title.

3. The Steps of the Passive Voice

The passive form is formulated through the steps mentioned in the table below;
note that the example sentence is “The teacher explains the lesson.”

Steps ➔ Rule Example

Step 1 ➔ Only those verbs which have an object In this step the verb
can be passivized. Such verbs are called explains must be
Transitive verbs i.e. verbs with objects. transitive and needs its
object lesson become
So a sentence in active voice should have
the object lesson will
the following parts if it is to be become more prominent
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 passivized. in the passive sentence.
Subject (Doer) + Verb + Object
(Receiver) it is again stated that when the
verb is changed from the Active Voice to
the Passive Voice, the Object of the
Transitive verb becomes prominent.
Step 2 ➔ The object of the active voice becomes the object “the lesson”
the subject of the passive voice. In short, takes the place of the
we need to invert the order of the subject subject “the teacher”
and the object of an active sentence.
Step 3 ➔ We add to be automatically and put it in “to” be becomes “is”
the same tense of the main active verb.
Step 4 ➔ Then, we add the main verb of the active “explains” become
voice and put it in its past participle form. “explained”
Step 5 ➔ Then, the subject of the active voice “the teacher” is
becomes the object of the passive voice. replaced by the “lesson”
The subject of the active sentence may or
may not be present in passive voice
according to its importance.
Step 6 ➔ When the “agent” is mentioned it is often The lesson is mentioned
preceded by “by” and placed at the end of consequently we add
the clause. “by” before the teacher.
step 7 ➔ When the “agent” is not mentioned we We do not mention
do not add by as well as the agent. Here neither by nor the
when the subject of the active sentence is teacher.
a pronoun or not mentioned a tall.

➔ Important Note: Students must note that we do not change the tense of the verb;
we only change the form of the verb as indicated in the steps 3 and 4 before.
Furthermore, the verb in the passive voice always consists of more than one part as
follows: “some form of to be + a past participle of the main active verb”. Examples:

 We keep the butter here. = The butter is kept here.

 They broke the window. =The window was broken.
 People have seen wolves in the street. = Wolves have been seen in the street.
 They are repairing the bridge. = The bridge is being repaired.
 You must shut these doors. = These doors must be shut.
 They should to have told him. = He should to have been told.
 The teacher wants someone to take photographs. = The teacher wants
photographs to be taken.

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4. Transitive versus Intransitive Verbs
Only transitive verbs, which take a direct object, can be used in the passive
voice – the direct object becomes the subject and the receiver of the action; the
original subject is introduced in a prepositional phrase with by, or even omitted
altogether. Consequently, intransitive verbs (verbs which do not take objects)
cannot be used to form passive sentences. Some examples of common intransitive
verbs are as follows: “come, die, go, happen, itch, occur, rain, rise, walk
………………………………..” Consider the following examples:
 Active Voice: Thieves stole paintings from the Gardner Museum.
 Passive: Paintings from the Gardner Museum were stolen [by thieves].
(correct)
 Active Voice: James Levine conducted the symphony
 Passive Voice: The symphony was conducted [by James Levine]. (correct)

5. Active Verbs and their Passive Equivalents “to keep”

N Tense Active Voice Passive Voice

1 Simple present Keeps or keep is kept or are kept
2 Present continuous am keeping is being kept
is keeping is being kept
are keeping are being kept
3 Simple past kept was kept / were kept
4 Past continuous was keeping was being kept
were keeping were being kept
5 Present perfect have kept has been kept
has kept have been kept
6 present perfect continuous have been keeping ……………………..
has been keeping ………….not found
7 Past perfect had kept had been kept
8 Past Perfect Continuous had been keeping ………..not found
9 Future will /shall keep will /shall be kept
10 Future perfect will have kept will have been kept
11 Future Continuous will be keeping …………..not found
12 Future Perfect Continuous will have been keeping ………….not found
13 Conditional would keep would be kept
14 Perfect conditional would have kept would have been kept
15 Present infinitive to keep to be kept

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 16 Perfect infinitive to have kept to have been kept
17 Present participle keeping being kept
18 Perfect participle having kept having been kept
19 With modal auxiliaries must keep must be kept
should keep should be kept
ought to keep ought to be kept
…………………… …………………….

Grammar Point: four active tenses without passive voice

Students must remember that in English language there are four active tenses which
couldn’t be in passive voice.
 Present perfect continuous
 Past perfect continuous
 Future perfect continuous
 Future continuous
Students must note that because to an awkward construction, the previous are not
used in the passive voice. Instead, an adverb may be used to show continuing action
as in this example: “We have been repeatedly scolded for being late.”

Examples:
 The student keeps the idea. ➔The idea is kept by the student.

 The student was keeping the idea. ➔The idea is being kept by the student.

 The student kept the idea. ➔The idea was kept by the student.

 The student was keeping the idea. ➔ The idea was being kept by the student.

 The student has kept the idea. ➔ The idea has been kept by the student.
 The student has been keeping the idea. = ………………..not found
 The student had kept the idea. ➔ The idea had been kept by the student.
 The student had been keeping the idea. = ………………………..not found
 The student will keep the idea. ➔ The idea will be kept by the student.
 The student will be keeping the idea. = ………………………not found
 The student will have been keeping the idea. ………………………….not found
 The student would keep the idea. = The idea would be kept by the student.
 The student must keep the idea. = The idea must be kept by the student.

6. The Shift of Pronouns from Active to Passive

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While conversion of Active voice sentence to Passive voice sentence, the pronoun
used in the sentence also changes in the following manner.

Active Voice Pronoun ➔ Passive Voice Pronoun

I ➔ me
we us
they ➔ them
she ➔ her
he him
it ➔ it
you ➔ you or him

7. Passive Voice with two Objects

When there is an object and an indirect object in the active voice sentence.
Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the
two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to
transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on. Examples:

 Active sentence: The postman gave me a letter.

 Passive sentence 1: I was given a letter by the postman.
 Passive sentence 2: A letter was given to me by the postman.
 Active sentence: He told them the truth.
 Passive sentence 1: They were told the truth.
 Passive sentence 2: the truth was told to them.)

8. Comparaison between Active Voice versus Passive Voice

Active voice Passive voice

Focuses on the subject: the subject is Focus is on the action: the subject does
performing the action not act but is acted upon
More emphasis is placed on the object.
Active style sentences are short and Passive style sentence are wordy and
clear. long.
Subject is known  Subject is unknown
Active voice and verbs are direct, Passive voice and verbs are indirect, less
forceful and economical. forceful, weak and long.
Unambiguous and easy to understand.  Ambiguous, unclear and needs some

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Most style guides recommend active focus Most style guides recommend
voice. avoiding passive voice.
direct, crisp and to the point  Indirect and polite with firmness
The subject is important.  The subject is unimportant and obvious.
Useful in delegating responsibilities, Useful for general announcements. For
giving orders to an individual or to a example, in airports, railway station.
small group.

Secure to keep the sentence from being Risk of sounding boastful, complicated
complicated and wordy. and wordy
Using active voice makes meaning Using the passive voice makes the
clear for the readers/listeners meaning firm and polite.
Sentences in active voice tend to be Sentences in passive voice tend to be
shorter. Many readers prefer the longer. Many readers prefer short, simple
concise nature of active voice. and precise sentences.
When writing academic papers, you Passive voice should be avoided in most
should use active voice instead of academic papers; however, some writing
passive voice in the sciences requires passive voice.

9. The Main Uses of the Passive Voice

Although active voice is generally preferred in academic writing, most formal and
informal conversations, students must have attention to the appropriate choice of the
voice since generally the passive voice exists for a reason, and is acceptable or even
recommended under certain conditions.

 When it is not necessary to mention the doer of the action as it is obvious,

unknown, uninteresting, and unimportant who he or she is. Examples:
 The rubbish hasn’t been collected.
 The streets are swept every day.
 The decision was made.
 When we don’t know, or do not know exactly, the subject would be the indefinite
pronoun, or have forgotten who did the action or we want to be tactful by not
naming the actor. Examples:
 The minister was murdered.
 My car has been moved.
 You’ll be met at the station.
 I’ve been told that …
 Passive voice allows people to evade responsibility for their actions. Examples:
 Mistakes were made.
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  Your package has been lost.
 It has been decided that you no longer.
 Have a job here.
 When we are more interested in the action than the person who does it. (In case
we know the doer we would use the active voice.) Examples:
 The house next door has been bought.
 The car has been moved away.
 The passive may be used to avoid an awkward or ungrammatical sentence
“complex subject”. This is usually done by avoiding a change of subject:
 When he arrived home a detective arrested him. It would be better expressed:
 When he arrived home he was arrested.
 When their mother was ill neighbors looked after the children. It would be
better expressed:
 When their mother was ill the children were looked after by neighbors.
 Passive voice is useful in legal and scientific writing, where it is not necessary to
know the performer of the action. It is used in this sense to emphasize the
objectivity of the experimenter and emphasize the results of the experiment as
well as a process. Examples:
 Carbon dioxide is absorbed and oxygen is released by the plant during the
day. At night, the process is reversed.

10. Passive Voice of Imperatives: request, order, advice, suggestion, prohibition

 If the verb in the active voice expresses imperatives, orders, requests, advices
…… etc. the word “Let” is usually placed at the beginning of the passive voice
sentence and be verb is placed before the past participle of the main verb. The
imperative sentence in the passive voice has the following structure: Let + object
+ be + past participle. Examples:
 Pick up the box. Active Voice
 Let the box be picked up. Passive Voice
 Bring it home. Active Voice
 Let it be brought home. Passive Voice
 Do it at once. Active Voice
 Let it be done once again. Passive Voice
 If the imperative sentence begins with “please” in active voice, the expression
“you are requested to” is used in the passive voice sentence. In such cases, an
intransitive verb may also be changed into passive with, “you are requested to”.
Another form of the passive is with “should” and “be”. Examples:
 Be patient, please! Active Voice
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  You are requested to be patient. Passive Voice
 Be in the queue. Active Voice
 You are requested to be in the queue. Passive Voice
 Please do not smoke. Active Voice
 You are requested not to smoke. Passive Voice
 When the active voice begins with do not, the passive voice has the following
structure: Let not + object + be + past participle. Examples:
 Don’t let the door open. Active Voice
 Let not the door be opened. Passive Voice
 Do not beat the dog. Active Voice
 Let the dog not be beaten. Passive Voice
 Let me do it. Active Voice
 Let it be done by me. Passive Voice Or
 Let me be allowed to do it. Passive Voice
 Don’t touch it. Active Voice
 Let it not be touched. Passive Voice
 The passive form has to begin with you, when the object of the verb in the active
voice is not given. Examples:
 Work hard. (No object) Active Passive
 You are advised to work hard. Passive Voice
 Please lend me some money. Active Passive
 You are requested to lend me some money. Passive Voice
 Kindly do this work. Active Passive
 You are requested to do this work. Passive Voice
 Get me a glass of water. Active Passive
 You are ordered to get me a glass of water. Passive Voice
 You ought to respect your parents. Active Passive
 Your parents ought to be respected by you. Passive Voice
 You should learn your lessons. Active Passive
 Your lessons should be learned by you. Passive Voice
11. Passive Voice of Interrogative Sentence

 “Do” verbs: The do-verb is used for interrogative and negative sentences. To
change an interrogative sentence with ‘do’ from active voice form into passive
voice form, use – Is/are/am +object of the active verb + past participle form of
the verb + by + subject of the passive verb. ExampleS:
 Do you speak French? Active Voice

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  Is French spoken by you? Passive Voice
 Does she speak French? Active Voice
 Is French spoken by her? Passive Voice
 Did you speak in French with her? Active Voice
 Were you invited by Alice? Passive Voice
 Don’t you speak French? Active Voice
 Isn’t French spoken by you? Passive Voice
 I don’t speak French. Active Voice
 French is not spoken by me. Passive Voice
 Interrogatives: Wh- questions and how In wh- questions and how, the sentence
is directly changed into passive voice. Except for, who changes to by whom in the
passive; (by) whom changes to who in the passive. Examples:
 Which book do you want? Active Voice
 Which book is wanted by you? Passive Voice
 Who taught you English? Active Voice
 By whom were you taught English. Passive Voice
12. Passive Constructions with “be”, “get” and “have”

We have been discussing constructions created with the “be” verb, but passive can
also be created using get or have. “Someone stole Ann’s car” can be turned into the
passive constructions:
 Be passive construction – most common in academic writing (and speech).
 Get passive construction – while much rarer than the BE-passive, has been
increasing dramatically in frequency in written English over the last few decades.
It is seldom used in academic writing and seen as quite informal.
 Have passive construction – need to make distinction between experiential have
and causative have:
 Experiential: Ann had her reservation cancelled (it was cancelled by someone
else and happened to her)
 Causative: Ann had her reservation cancelled (she arranged for it to be
cancelled).

Summary

Students must remember that the usage of one voice over the other is a matter of
clarity and style, not a matter of being grammatically correct. Use passive voice when
you want to focus on an object, the doer within the sentence is either unknown or
insignificant, and when you want to shift the focus away from the doer. Active voice
will be used in the opposite situations as listed for passive voice. When writing or
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revising, make sure the passive voice is being used for one of the functions above and
that the passive construction is the best way to express this idea in the correct form
(be + past participle). When used appropriately, balancing the active and passive
voices creates sentence variety, clarity, and correct tone.

Exercise 1

Instruction: Identify the verbs in the following sentences by underlining them.

Then decide if the verb is in the active or passive voice.

1. I was frightened by the storm.

2. My car ran out of gas on the Resources Road.
3. I might have forgotten to add your name to the list.
4. The child was struck by a stray bullet.
5. My heart was broken.
6. Stephen King has written many best sellers.
7. The strike vote is being called for next Monday.
8. That document was written in Halifax in 1774.
9. Our MLA will be voted into office again in the next election.
10. Local workers will be hired to build the new mall.
11. The audience will be arriving in the next hour.
12. Sandra’s writing is improving daily.
13. We have been searching for answers to our questions.
14. After the elections, the votes were recounted several times.
15. I have just been thinking about you.

Exercise 2

Instruction: Change the following ACTIVE VOICE sentences into PASSIVE

VOICE, but only if possible. Omit the by-phrase wherever possible. Do NOT
change the verb tense.
16. The student copied the new vocabulary terms into her notebook.
17. The salesperson talked Sung Ho into buying a new car.
18. The chef seasoned the bubbling pot of pho with star anise.
19. The sous chef chopped the onions and grated the ginger.
20. The crow ate all of the cherries on her tree.
21. This year, monkeys have bitten several tourists in Phuket.
22. It rains a lot during the monsoon season.
23. The sun rises at seven o’clock in winter.
24. Her parents taught her to be punctual.
25. The scholar diligently checked all of his references.
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Exercise 3

Complete the sentences below with the correct active or passive form of the verb
in brackets.
26. At last night's ceremony, they….…….. the award to an unknown actress. (give)
27. The survivors …… by a cruise ship that …....to be near them. (rescue, happen)
28. Two hours after the accident the doctor ………….. him dead. (declare)
29. I remember ……………..……. to the circus by my father. (be take)
30. The weather ………..………… in the next few days. (not improve)
31. Coffee …………….…… before you ………………….. it. (must roast, sell)
32. The bridge ………..…….at the moment so it ………….. (repair, cannot use)
33. The police …………………… the victim a picture of the suspect. (show)
34. The new staff members …………….……… all the help they need. (give)
35. That door …………………. for ages. (not open)
36. A few days ago, a judge …...… him to appear before court next month. (order)
37. The Times ………….……… such a shocking letter before. (never publish)
38. They …….…. on what to do when the headmaster ………. in. (instruct, come)
39. The vandals …… bottles into windows and .…….. a few cars. (throw, destroy)
40. The new team mates ……………. more time to get accustomed to the practice
sessions. (should give)
41. After dad ………….…… me to the zoo, he ……..……… me some new
clothes at the department store. (take, buy)
42. I …………. to the party last Thursday because I………...... (not go, not invite)
43. I ……...…. so surprised by such an outstanding performance before. (never be)
44. When we ...…..out of the cinema, the bus …….. to take us home. (come, wait)
45. All the papers ……………………… in by next Friday. (must hand)

Exercise 4

Direction: Identify and change the passive voice verbs to active voice.
1. The gun was shot by Tina.
2. The soup was prepared by the cook.
3. The empty house will be torn down by the city.
4. Tony has been shocked by that wire twice today.
5. Her new car was stolen right out of the garage.
6. The team was given a standing ovation.
7. The horse was being ridden by Julia when I drove up.
8. The moving van was loaded by four perspiring men.
9. A tray of glasses was dropped by the new waiter.
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 10. A bomb was found in the suitcase by airport security.
11. The widow’s groceries are paid for by her neighbors.
12. His right leg was broken in two places.
13. Every garment is inspected by a supervisor.
14. My house was vandalized last night.
15. Jeff is often irritated by his neighbor’s noisy parties.
Exercise 5

Direction: Fill in the blank spaces in the following sentences with the present or
past participle (whichever you think correct) of the verb given in brackets at the
end of the sentence.

1. Two men were ...............in the doorway. (stand)

2. Many houses were ………….....by the gale. (damage)
3. We have been …………......for over half an hour. (wait)
4. The doctor has been …………....out to attend an urgent case. (call)
5. I want these parcels ………………...immediately. (deliver)
6. Are you ….the goods with you, or would you like them ….on later? (take, send)
7. She was ...............by the fire ..............a newspaper. (sit, read)
8. This house has been …………....nearly a hundred years. (build)
9. We should like two seats …………….....for us. (reserve)
10. They were ..................that their team had never been ………….. (boast), beat)

Reported Speech
Description of the Lecture

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 This unit is about “direct speech versus indirect speech”. It explores key ideas
related to the forms, meanings, uses and exceptions of the reported speech.
Throughout the unit students will become familiar with the transformational
techniques from direct speech to indirect speech or vice versa. Key content of the
unit counts on the theory, examples, rules and exercises.
Objectives of the Lecture
When students have completed this unit, they should be able, among other things,
to;
1. Introduce a general overview about the direct speech versus indirect speech.
2. List the form, meanings, transformational rules and uses of the reported
speech.
3. Recognize the rules and changes associated with the different kinds of
sentences.
4. Associate the relevant time and place adverbs changes with reported speech.
5. Use reported speech for statements, request, questions, promises, and
instructions.

Introduction

Suppose your friend whose name is John tells you in school, “I will give you a pen”.
You come to home and you want to tell your brother what your friend told you. There
are two ways of relating what a person has said, or the words spoken by a person to
other person; direct speech by repeating Johns exact words and indirect speech
“sometime called reported speech”. Students must pay attention that exercises in
reporting passages of direct speech into reported speech should not be treated as mere
practice in mental gymnastics. Exercises of this type are really essays in
comprehension and flexibility of expression. Consequently, this unit about reported
speech offers plenty of mechanical and mental observations for narration and
reporting in terms of basic rules and exceptions.

1. Definition of the Direct Speech

 In direct speech we report the original speaker’s exact words:

 He said, “I’ve lost my umbrella.”
 He says, “I don’t answer the question.”
 The technique of reproducing the exact words spoken by a person is called the use
of the direct speech or quoted speech.
 When we use direct speech in writing we must pay attention to the correct use of
punctuation as follows: The exact words, remarks or the message that repeated
exactly are enclosed in speech marks such as inverted commas, comma or colon.
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 So quotes must go inside quotation marks. Furthermore, the first word of the
speech or message must begin with a capital letter and the whole words of the
message must be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma and colon.
Finally, you must use a new line when s new speaker begins to speak.
 Direct speech is found in conversations in books, in plays, and in quotations.
 Quoted speech can add color and liveliness to your writing if used wisely. Use
quotes when someone says something notable. A good quote might reveal
something about a person’s character, have emotional impact or say something
unusual or in an unusual way.
 Do not use the direct speech to quote facts.

2. Definition of the Indirect Speech

When the words spoken by a person are reproduced or rewritten in our own words by
changing the tense and the person whenever necessary, it is called the indirect speech.
Example: John said that he was reading books.

 In indirect speech “sometime called reported speech” we give the exact meaning
of a remark or a speech “message”, without necessarily using the speaker’s exact
words:
 He said (that) he had lost his umbrella.
 He says that he does not answer the question.

 We use “reporting verbs” like say, tell, declare, mention, state, ask, announce
…………….etc. either in the present or past tenses to report the direct message.
 There is no comma after “say” in indirect speech. “That” can usually omit after
“say” and “tell” + object. But it should be kept after other verbs; complain,
explain, point out, protest etc.
 We sometime need to change pronoun sand verbs tenses. We do not use speech
marks.
 Indirect speech is normally used when conversation is reported verbally, though
direct speech is sometimes employed here to give a more dramatic effect.
 When we turn direct speech into indirect speech, some changes are usually
necessary. These are most easily studied by considering statements, questions, and
command separately.

3. The Reporting Verb

Reporting verbs are a way for you, the writer, to show your attitude towards the
source of information you are citing and using in your papers, essays and
conversations. These attitudes are either ‘positive’, ‘negative’ or ‘neutral’.

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Grammatically speaking, when the reporting verb “introductory verb” is in the
present, present perfect or future tense we can report the direct speech without any
change to tense of the verb in the message. In other words, we keep the tense the
same. The most common verbs used for reporting speech are “say” and “tell”. There
are many reporting verbs besides say and tell that can be used in reported speech and
that are often more expressive than these two rather neutral verbs. Some of them are
as follows: “add, announce, comment, explain, remark, state, ask, enquire, wanted to
know, wonder ………….” Examples:

 Direct speech: He says: “I have missed the train.” Present perfect

 Indirect speech: He says that he has missed the train. Present perfect
 Direct speech: He has said “they have caught the train.” Present perfect
 Indirect speech: He has said that they have caught the train. Present perfect
 Direct speech: He said: “I have missed the train.” Present perfect
 Indirect speech: He said that he had missed the train. Past perfect

➔ Important Note: But when the reporting verb is in the simple past or other past
tenses, which are more common, tenses and verbs in the message have to be changed
into a corresponding past tense according to the next table. The changes are discussed
in the section of tenses changes.

4. Tenses Changes from Direct into Indirect Speech

When reporting speech, grammatical changes must often be made in order to

keep the original meaning of what was said. The most common changes occur to verb
tenses. It should be noted that this type of reporting known as formal reporting takes
place later on when you want to tell what somebody said that is why the reporting
verb is in the past tenses. Furthermore, students must note that when the reporting
verb (say, tell, know, think, learn, mention, claim …) is in the past tense or past
tenses, the tense of the reported speech changes according the table below:
N Direct speech: He said, ➔ Indirect speech: He said that
1  Simple present ➔  Simple past
 Present perfect  Past perfect
➔
 Present continuous  Past continuous
 Present perfect continuous ➔  Past perfect continuous
➔
2  Simple past ➔  Past perfect or no change
 Past perfect  Past perfect or no change
➔
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  Past continuous ➔  Past continuous or no change
 Past perfect continuous  Past perfect continuous or no change
➔
3  Simple future ➔  Conditional present
 Future perfect  Conditional perfect
➔
 Future continuous  Conditional continuous
 Future perfect continuous ➔  Conditional perfect continuous
➔
4  Conditional tenses ➔  Conditional tenses
5  Modal auxiliaries verbs: ➔  Could, might, should, might, had to
can, may, shall, must…… …………………...………………...
6  Modal in past: Could, ➔  No change
should, ought to,
7  Must ➔  Had to or no change
 Imperative ➔  Infinitive

➔ Important Note: Students must point out that in formal reported speech; the
tenses go back in time one tense. For example, “study” becomes “studied” and
“studied” becomes “had studied.” In other words, each tense must go back to its
corresponding past tenses as the table above indicates. In conversational or
immediate reporting, the verb tenses do not change “see the next title”. Formal
reported speech is the most challenging, so we will place our efforts here. Consider
the examples below for more clarifications. Examples:
 He said: “I meet her today.” ➔ He said that he met her yesterday.

 He said: “I met her yesterday. ➔ He said that he had met her that day.
 He told: ‘I’m living with her this week.” ➔ He told that he was living with her that
week.”
 He said: “I was meeting her here.” ➔He said that he was meeting her there.

 He said: “I had met her a week ago.” ➔He said that he had met her a week before.

 He said: “I am meeting her today.” ➔He said that he was meeting her yesterday.

5. Time and Place References Changes

When reporting speech, grammatical changes must often be made in order to

keep the original meaning of what was said. The most common changes occur in

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adjectives of place and time. In this section we will introduce time and place
references changes. In general, time and place references are also changed in reported
speech. The table below represents words which get changed when the Direct Speech
is changed into Indirect Speech.

N Direct speech › Indirect speech

1 now › then / at that time
2 today › that day /yesterday /Sunday / the fifth June
3 tonight › that night
4 yesterday › the day before yesterday /Sunday /date
5 the day before › two days before
6 tomorrow › the next / following day / Wednesday /date
7 the day after tomorrow › in two days' time / two days later
8 next day, month, year › the following week, month, year
9 last week, month, year › the previous week, month / the week before
10 last night › the night before / Tuesday night
11 ago › before
12 “a week” ago › a week before
13 this “for time” › that
14 that › that
15 here › there
16 there › there
17 these › those
18 those › those
19 thus › so

Examples:

 Direct speech: He said: “I met her today.”

 Indirect speech: He said that he has met her that day.
 Direct speech: He said: “I met her yesterday.”
 Indirect speech: He said that he had met her the day before.
 Direct speech: He said: “I met her the day before yesterday.”
 Indirect speech: He said that he had met her two days before.
 Direct speech: He said: “I shall meet her tomorrow.”
 Indirect speech: He said that he would meet her the next day.

6. Pronouns and Possessive Adjectives Changes

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 When reporting speech, grammatical changes must often be made in order to
keep the original meaning of what was said. The most common changes occur again
in pronouns. In this section we will introduce pronoun changes. It should be noted
that, in general, we always refer to the personal pronoun mentioned with the
introductory verb, and we obtain the following changes:

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

First person pronouns in the direct speech change according to the subject of the
reporting verb in the indirect speech.
 The first singular person becomes  The first /third singular person
 The first plural person becomes  The first /third plural person
Second person pronouns in the direct speech change according to the object of the
reporting verb in the indirect speech.
 The second singular becomes  The first /second/third singular
person becomes person
 The second plural person  The first /second/third plural person
Third person pronouns in the direct speech will not change in the indirect speech.
 The third singular persons keeps  The third singular persons
 The third plural persons keeps  The third plural persons

Examples:

 Direct speech: he told her: “I want to meet your father.”

 Indirect speech: he told her that he wanted to meet her father.
 Direct speech: I said, “I am going.”
 Indirect speech: I said that I was going.
 Direct speech: I told him, “You are a stupid.”
 Indirect speech: I told him that he was a stupid.
 Direct speech: She said, “I am going.”
 Quoted: “I feel hungry,” Mary said
 Reported: Mary said she felt hungry.
 Quoted: Professor: “I’ve looked at the results of your work this year and you’ll
be pleased to know that I’m recommending you for a scholarship next year.”
 Reported: The professor told me that she had looked at the results of my work
this year and that I’d be pleased to know that she was recommending me for a
scholarship next year.

7. Basic Rules for Indirect Speech

The indirect speech is formulated by following the steps in the table below;
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 Steps Rules
Step 1 Words of the speaker (reported speech) are not enclosed in Inverted
Commas or Quotation Marks in Indirect Speech.
Step 2 Usage of word “that”: The conjunction “that” is always used between
reporting verb and reported speech in indirect speech in positive
statement. It should be noted that this conjunction is nit used for
commands and questions.
Step 3 Change in tense of the reported speech: A change is made in tense of
reported speech for changing a direct speech into indirect speech when
the reporting verb in in the past tenses. It should be noted that the tense of
the message is not changed when the reporting verb is in the present
tenses. It should be noted that the basic rule for tense change in
indirect speech is to change a present tense into its corresponding
past tense. That is why most past tenses keep the same past tense in
the indirect speech.
Step 4 Changes in Pronoun: The pronoun (or subject) of reported speech is
sometime changed according to the pronoun (or subject) or Object of the
reported verb (first sentence of Direct speech). The possessive pronouns
(i.e. his, her, my, their, your etc.) may also change according to subject or
object of the first sentence.
Step 5 Change in Time and Place Reference: If there is time and place
reference mentioned in the sentence of Direct speech, the time and place
will be changed in Indirect Speech. There are certain rules changing the
time and place references.
Step 6 besides the general rules for changing the positive statements, there are
specific rules for changing commands, requests, questions, yes /no
questions, suggestions, intentions, hopes, whishes, promises and modals.

8. Informal, Immediate and Conversational Reported Speech

Students must notice that the changes in verb tenses for reported speech do not
take place in many cases. They must point out that in informal, immediate and
conversational reported speech; the verb tenses do not change. For example, “study”
keeps as “study” and “studied” keeps as “studied.” In other words, each tense keeps
its original tense. It should be noted that in informal, immediate and conversational
reported speech accepts two versions. Students can keep the original tenses of the
verb in the message of the direct speech or change the tense of the verb in the
message of the direct speech as the table above indicated. Furthermore, students must

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know that both sentences and versions are grammatically correct, meaningful and
functional. Consider the examples below for more clarifications:

Reported Speech
Quoted / Direct Speech Informal Reporting
Immediate and Conversational Reporting
 Ann said, “I learn  Ann said she learns French. Or Ann said she
French.” learned French.
 Ann said, “I am  Ann said she is learning French. Or Ann said she
learning French.” learned French.
 Ann said, “I learned  Ann said she learned French. Or Ann said she
French.” was learning French.
 Ann said, “I have  Ann said she has learned French. Or Ann said
learned French.” she had learned French.
 Ann said, “I am going  Ann said she is going to learn French. Or Ann
to learn French.” said she was going to learn French.
 Ann said, “I will learn  Ann said she will learn French. Or Ann said she
French.” would learn French.
 Ann said, “I can learn  Ann said she can learn French. Or Ann said she
French.” could learn French.

9. Special Notes about No Verb Tense Change in Reported Speech

In these three situations tenses are not always changed mechanically when speech is
reported. It is especially important to remember that when the reported speech
expresses the following cases:

 Universal Truth or habitual fact or a situation that is still true: Occasionally,

we don't need to change the present tense into the past if the information in direct
speech is still true or the situation is still the same. In this case, you have the
option of keeping what was said in the same tense or using formal reported tenses.
But if the situation has changed or finished, you must change or use the formal
reported speech. Again, you must you the formal reported speech or change the
verb tense when there is a difference between what was said and what is really
true. Examples:
 Quoted: Ann said, “I want to visit Paris next month.”
 Reported: Ann said that she wants to visit Paris next month. Here it means
that Ann still wants to visit Paris next month.
 Quoted: “summers are very mild in Algiers,” he said.
 Reported 1: He said summers are mild hot in Algiers.
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  Reported 2: He said summers were very mild in Algiers.
 Direct: My grandmother told “women are more patient than men”
 Indirect: My grandmother told that women are more patient than men.
 Direct: The teacher said, “The earth goes round the sun.”
 Indirect: The teacher said that the earth goes/went round the sun.
 Direct: She said, “Girls are usually more sincere than boys”
 Indirect: She said that girls are usually more sincere than boys.
 You met Sonia a few days ago. She said: Joe is in hospital. Later that day you
meet Joe in the street. You say: Hi, Joe. I didn’t expect to see you. Sonia said
you were in hospital. (not ‘Sonia said you are in hospital', because clearly he is
not) ➔difference
 Using the reporting verb in the present tenses to report: no changes are
required to the tense of the main verb in the message. Examples:
 Quoted: “I really like my new boss,” Robert said.
 Reported: Robert says he really likes his new boss.
 Quoted: “We will hire two teachers in June,” the principal said.
 Reported: The principal says they will hire two teachers in June.
 When we report soon after someone has spoken: When you report speech
immediately after someone has spoken, you do not change the verb tenses.
 Quoted: Imagine Ann says to you right now, “I am sleepy.”
 Reported: The correct reported speech response would be as follows, Ann
said she is sleepy.
 Quoted: The person next to you asks, “What did Ann say?”
 Reported: The person said to me what Ann says.

Important reminder: No Verb Tense Changes Cases In these situations it is not

necessary to change verb tenses:
 When we use say in the present tense to report.
 When we report soon after someone has spoken.
 When we speak or write about a general truth or if the situation is still true.

10. Changes according to Different Kinds of Sentences

10. 1. Assertive Sentences

This refers to sentences that make a statement. The statements may be positive,
negative, true or false statements. In order to change or convert such sentences into
indirect speech, we follow the following steps to change it into indirect speech.
 Step 1: Comma and inverted commas will be removed.
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 Step 2: The reporting verb “say” must keep its original meaning as “declare, tell,
announce, state, say, inform, etc.” Consequently, the reporting verb in the indirect
statement must take the meaning of a positive statement.
 Step 3: The conjunction “that” will be used in Indirect Speech (in positive
statement sentence). The conjunction “that” is used in indirect speech immediately
after the reporting verb.
 Step 4: The conjunction “that” must be followed immediately by the person
addressed.
 Step 5: The tense of the verb of the message must be changed according to the
tense changes when the reporting verb is in the past tenses (see the table of tense
changes). It is worth to note that the tense of the verb of the message keeps its
original tense when the reporting verb is in the present tenses.
 Step 6: Other general rules such as people, tense, time adverbs, and place adverbs
and so on are observed too in this case. Examples:

Direct Speech › Indirect Speech

They said: “We saw them in › They said (that) they had seen them in the
the cinema.” cinema. Or They said (that) they saw them in
the cinema.
He said: “I work as an › He said (that) he worked as an assistant.”
assistant.”
She said: “I will be back soon.” › She said (that) she would be back soon.
They said: “We are going to be They said that they were going to be late
late again.” again.
He said: “I’ve lost my keys › He said (that) he had lost his keys again.”
again.”
She said: “I will be back soon.” › She said (that) she would be back soon.
She said: “I’m not very happy.” › She said (that) she wasn’t very happy.
He said: “I can speak Chinese.” › He said (that) he could speak Chinese.
The teacher said: “You might › The teacher said that I could be right.
be right.”

10. 2. Interrogative WH Sentences

Those sentences that ask questions are known as interrogative sentences.

Interrogative sentences end with a question mark (also known as a sign of
interrogation). Some of the rules to be kept in mind while converting an interrogative
sentence into indirect speech are:
In case the massage is a question, we follow the following steps to change it into
indirect speech.
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 Step 1: Comma and inverted commas will be removed.
 Step 2: The reporting verb “say” must change to a verb of question as “ask,
wanted to know, enquired, etc.” The reporting verb in the indirect statement must
take the meaning of interrogative.
 Step 3: The conjunction “that” will not be used in Indirect Speech (in question
sentence).
 Step 4: The reporting verb “question verb” must be followed by the person being
addressed and the question words as “what, when, where, who, why, etc.”
 Step 5: The reporting verb must be followed by the person addressed.
 Step 6: If there is no question words or the question is “Yes” or “No” question,
we use “if” or “whether”. See the next title for more details.
 Step 7: We turn the sentence from the interrogative form into the positive one.
Consequently, we delete the inversion of subject and verb and omit the question
mark at the end and replace it with the full stop.
 Step 8: Do not use the auxiliaries do, does, and did.
 Step 9: Other general rules such as people, time adverbs, and place adverbs and so
on are observed too in this case. Examples:

Direct Speech › Indirect Speech

He said: “what is your name?” › He asked me what my name was.
He said: “why are looking through › He said: “why are looking through the
the keyhole?” keyhole?”
He said: “did you come by › He wanted to know if I had come by plane.
plane?”
He said: “have you got a › He enquired me whether I had got a
computer?” computer.
He says: “What are you doing?” › He asks me what I am doing.
John says, “How are you?” › John asks me how I am.

10. 3. Yes or No Questions

In case the massage is a “yes” or “no” question, beginning with Auxiliary Verbs,
indirectly, observe the following rules:-

 Step 1: Comma and inverted commas will be removed.

 Step 2: The Reporting Verb - say - is changed into - ask or inquire, demand, etc.
The reporting verb must be followed by the person addressed.
 Step 3: Start the reported speech with the conjunction - if or whether.
 Step 4: The conjunction “that” will not be used in Indirect Speech (in commands
and requests sentence).

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 Step 5: Change the interrogative form of the reported speech into Assertive form
(Helping Verb after Subject).
 Step 6: Nouns or Pronouns in the vocative case are treated as objects of their
verbs.
 Step 7: Other general rules such as people, tense, time adverbs, and place adverbs
and so on are observed too in this case. Examples:

Direct Speech › Indirect Speech

The inspector told to me, "Is your › The inspector asked me if my mother was
mother at home?" at home.
Ann said to his men, "Are you › Ann asked his men if they were ready to
ready to die for your country?" die for their country.
The host said to the guest, "Would › The host asked the guest if he would like
you like to have a cup of tea?" to have a cup of tea.
John said, "May I use your pen, › John asked Ann if he might use her pen.
Ann?"
The clerk said to his officer, › The clerk asked his officer respectfully if
"Shall I type this letter again, he should type that letter again.
Sir?"
The crow said, "Are the grapes › The crow asked the Fox if the grapes were
sour, Mr. Fox?" sour.

10. 4. Questions for Objects

In case the massage is a question for objects, we follow the following steps:

 Step 1: Comma and inverted commas will be removed.

 Step 2: We use “ask” as an introductory verb.
 Step 1: The reporting verb “question verb” must be followed by the person being
addressed, then,
 Step 3: The person who receives the question must be followed by the preposition
“for” + the person addressed. “Ask + for + accusative”.
 Step 4: The expressions and words such as “please, bravo ………………… ”
should be omitted in the indirect speech.
 Step 5: Other general rules such as people, tense, time adverbs, and place adverbs
and so on are observed too in this case. Examples:

Direct Speech › Indirect Speech

“Can I have a cherry pie?”, she asked › She asks for a cherry pie.
“May I have a glass of water, please?” › He asked for a glass of water.
“Sugar, please.” › He asked for the sugar.

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10. 5. Commands, Requests and Imperatives Sentences

Imperative sentences are sentences that give a direct command or an order and they
may be in the form of an advice, request or order. According to the degree of force
used by the speaker a full stop or a sign of exclamation is used at the end of the
sentence. (Example- Shut the door!). In order to change such sentences into indirect
speech, the above mentioned rules along with the following rules may be applied:
 Step 1: Comma and inverted commas will be removed.
 Step 2: The reporting verb “say” must change to a verb of command, order,
advice or request as “advise, beg, command, forbid, invite, order, request, suggest,
teach, tell, instruct, warn, caution, urge, warn, invite, etc.” Consequently, the
reporting verb in the indirect statement must take the meaning of command or
request.
 Step 3: The conjunction “that” will not be used in Indirect Speech (in question
sentence).
 Step 4: The expressions and words such as “please, bravo………………… ”
should be omitted in the indirect speech.
 Step 5: The reporting verb must be followed by the person addressed and with the
infinitive without “to”.
 Step 6: The imperative mood must be changed into the infinitive.
 Accusative + to + infinitive = to report positive requests or command.
 Accusative + not + to + infinitive = to report negative requests or commands.
 Step 7: Other general rules such as people, tense, time adverbs, and place adverbs
and so on are observed too in this case. Examples:

Direct Speech › Indirect Speech

He said: “sit down!” (order) › He ordered me to sit down.
She said: “sit down!” (order) › She ordered me to open the door.
He said: “Please help me.” (request) › He requested me to help him.
He said: “Quit smoking.” (advice) › He advised me to quit smoking.
He said: “don’t watch the film!” › He ordered us not to watch the film.
The teacher said: “could you please › The teacher ordered us to be quiet.
be quiet!”
He shouted, “Let me go.” › He shouted to them to let him go.

10. 6. Negative Commands, Request and Instructions

In reported speech, use a negative infinitive for negative instructions, commands,
and requests. (There is no such thing, really, as a negative invitation!)
 Negative Instructions
 Direct: “Don’t eat just before going to bed,” the doctor told her.
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  Reported: The doctor told her not to eat just before going to bed.
 Negative Commands
 Direct: “Don’t climb the tree,” said the father.
 Reported: The father told us not to climb the tree.
 Negative Requests
 Direct: “Please don’t eat all the cake. We need to save some for Ann.”
 Reported: He asked me not to eat all the cake because we needed to save
some for Ann.

10. 7. Reporting Suggestions

In case the massage is a suggestion, we follow the following steps to change it into
indirect speech.

 Step 1: Comma and inverted commas will be removed.

 Step 2: They are usually reported with “that” and “should”.
 Step 3: The main useful reported verbs in this kind are “suggest, recommend,
propose, insist, demand, request, etc.
 Step 4: Other general rules such as tense, time adverbs, place adverbs and so on
are observed too in this case. Examples:

Direct Speech › Indirect Speech

My wife said: “why don’t you › She suggested that I should get a new car.
get a new car?”
“It would be a good idea to buy › My mother recommended I buy a new car.
a new car”, said my mother.
My wife says: “why don’t you › She suggests that I shall get a new car.
get a new car?”

10. 8. Reporting Intentions, Hopes and Promises

In case the massage is an intention, hopes and promises, we follow the following
steps to change it into indirect speech.

 Step 1: Comma and inverted commas will be removed.

 Step 2: They are usually reported with “that” or “to + infinitive”.
 Step 3: The main useful reported verbs in this kind are: “promise, hope, threaten,
propose, guarantee, swear, etc.”
 Step 4: The expressions and words such as “please, bravo………………… ”
should be omitted in the indirect speech.
 Step 5: Other general rules such as people, tense, time adverbs, place adverbs and
so on are observed too in this case. Examples:
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 Direct Speech › Indirect Speech
“You pay the ransom or we will › They threatened that they would kill my
kill your son” they said. son, if I didn’t pay the ransom.
He said, “Alas! I am undone”. › He exclaimed sadly that he was undone.
Ann said, “How clever I am?” › Ann exclaimed that she was very clever.
He said, “Bravo! You have done › He applauded him, saying that he had
well.” done well.
He says, “Bravo! You have done › He applauds him, saying that he has done
well.” well.
Ann says, “How clever I am?” › Ann exclaims that she is very clever.

10. 9. Exclamatory Sentence

Sentences which express our feelings and emotions are known as exclamatory
sentences. An exclamation mark (!) is used at the end of an exclamatory sentence. In
order to change exclamatory sentences into indirect speech the following rules should
be kept in mind:
 Step 1: If the exclamatory sentence contains an interjection like alas!, aha!, hurry!
etc., these interjections are omitted in the indirect speech.
 Step 2: If the word ‘said’ appears in the exclamatory sentence, then it is replaced
with these expressions: ‘exclaimed with joy’, ‘exclaimed joyfully’, ‘exclaimed
with great wonder or sorrow’ etc. in the indirect speech.
 Step 3: The exclamatory sentence becomes an assertive sentence when it is
converted into indirect speech. Example:
 Direct Speech: He said, “What a delicious cook this is!”
 Indirect speech: He exclaimed what a delicious cook it was.

11. Rules for Converting Indirect to Direct Sentences

Until now, we were talking about the rules to be followed while converting different
kinds of direct sentences to indirect sentences. Now let us take a look at rules to be
kept in mind while transforming an indirect sentence to a direct one. The rules are as
follows:
 Step 1: Use the reporting verb ‘say’ or ‘said to’ in its correct tense.
 Step 2: Remove conjunctions like ‘that’, ‘to’, ‘whether’ etc. wherever necessary.
 Step 3: Use question marks, exclamatory marks, quotation marks and full tops
wherever necessary.
 Step 4: Place a comma before the statement.
 Step 5: Always write the first letter of the statement in capital letters.

350
 Step 6: Change the past tense into present tense wherever the reporting verb is in
past tense.
 Step 7: Convert past perfect into either past tense or present perfect as required.
Summary

Narration has two main ways direct speech and indirect speech. Reported
speech (or indirect speech) is used to report what someone has said without quoting
them. If the reporting verb is in the present, present perfect or future tense, the tense
stays the same. If the reporting verb (say, tell, know, think, learn, mention, claim …)
is in the past tense (which it most commonly is), the tense of the reported speech
changes as it is shown in the table below with other common rules:

It should be noted that in longer passages particularly, it is most important to

preserve the spirit of the original, and this consideration should be before a strict
adherence to the form. Students must, therefore, not only understand the content but
also appreciate the style and tone of the original if their own version is not to sound
flat or unnatural by comparison.

Exercise 1

Instruction: Change the following into direct speech or indirect speech.

1. The boy says, “I am doing my homework today”.

2. Ravi says, “I have met your brother here”.
3. Susan sys, “I waited for Rami till 10 o’ clock last night”.
4. Rahim says, “John will have met the governor tomorrow”.
5. He says, “It is time I went to bed here”.
6. They say, “I was watching T.V. here ”
7. He says, “I have bought this watch for you”.
8. Susan says, “I have been working here on this novel for five years”.
9. My father says to me, “You have done your work well”.
10. Mohan says to me, “I met Suresh in Paris yesterday”.
11. Ann said, “I have not stolen this necklace”.
12. The villager said to the stranger, “I have never seen you here”.
13. Susan said, “I am reading a novel now”.
14. Susan said, “My father went to Guntur yesterday”.
15. He said, “The children are having a bath now”.

Exercise 2

Instruction: Change the following into direct speech or indirect speech.

351
 1. She said, “I am very poor yesterday”.
2. He said, “We are in the playground yesterday”.
3. Marry said, “I don’t believe you”.
4. John said to Mary, “You are innocent”.
5. My father said to me, “They are late”.
6. She said, “It may rain”.
7. The boy said, “I can do it”.
8. He said to me, “I shall meet your father”.
9. Joseph said, “I will go home soon”.
10. She said, “I can’t agree with you”.
11. Raman said, “I have a problem”.
12. The officer said to the clerk, “You must do it”.
13. John said, “I don’t drink coffee”.
14. Ann said, “Marry will not lie”.
15. Marry said, “Stephan has a car”.

Exercise 3

Instruction: Change the following into direct speech or indirect speech.

1. He said to me, “Who lives in this house”?

2. “Do you know when she will go home?” I said to him.
3. Ramesh said to me, “How are you feeling?”
4. She said, “Can you help me?”
5. I said to him, “What are you doing here today?”
6. My friend said, “Is Mr. John on leave?”
7. Susan said, “Shall I switch on the fan?”
8. She said, “Why didn’t he come?”
9. Marry said to her friend, “Which magazines do you usually read?”
10. He said, “Will you listen to such a man?”

Exercise 4

Instruction: Change the following into direct speech or indirect speech.

1. Rama said to Ann, “Go away”.

2. He said to him, “Please wait here till I return”.
3. “Call the first witness”, said the Judge.
4. “Open fire”, the officer said to the soldiers.
5. My friend said, “Let's sing together”.
6. Mary’s father said to the Principal, “Please pardon my daughter”.

352
 7. They said to us, “Grow more trees”.
8. The doctor said, “You must exercise every day”.
9. He said, “Sit down”.
10. The manager said to the clerk, “Don’t come late”.

Exercise 5

Instruction: Change the following into direct speech or indirect speech.

1. “May you live long”, she said.

2. He said, “How beautiful the garden is!”
3. He said, “Alas! I am undone”.
4. “Many happy returns of the day”, said Marry.
5. Harrison said to Susan, “Good Morning”.
6. He said, “Bravo! You have been well”.
7. She said, “My God! I am ruined”.
8. He said, “May your daughter recover soon”.
9. “So help me, Heaven!” he cried, “I will never steal again”.
10. Alice said, “How clever I am!”

Exercise 6

Direction: Change the following sentences into Direct Speech:

1. My doctor advised me to go home and get my affairs in order.
2. My father told us that the jeep was an expensive resource.
3. He used to tell us that we should leave our newspaper and our toilet the way we
expect to find them.
4. My mother replied that it did not matter to her that she would not see the flowers
in full bloom.
5. She always told me that nobody could roll out better chappatis - mine didn't
resemble a wonky map of India.
6. I asked her when she gets time to play.
7. She also added that board exams are very important, and that you only get one
chance.
8. I wonder whether they have time to play with friends.
9. Yamuna informed that as neither the train nor the bus services had resumed so
far, she and her colleagues would be leaving the office on foot.
10. Amelia once said that you haven't seen a tree if you haven't seen its shadow
from the sky.
11. She concludes that the grown-ups reading Potter are childish people.

353
 12. A few neighbors asked my mother why she was taking so much pain to beautify
a government house.
13. I asked her once if she saw darkness.

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Van Antwerp, Bragg and Co.37 Walnut Street, 28 Bond Street, Cincinnati New
York.
 Traugott, Elizabeth Closs; Pratt, Mary Louise (1980), Linguistics for Students of
Literature, San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
 VAndi Riswandi Putra, (2020). Students’ Interjection in Speaking English (A
Descriptive Research at Eleventh Grade Students of SMA Muhammadiyah 1
Makassar). A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education

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 Muhammadiyah University of Makassar in partial Fulfillment of the Requirement
for the Degree of Education in English Department. 10535 6249 15

 Walker, Elaine and Steve Elsworth. 2000. Grammar Practice for Upper
Intermediate Students. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
 Writing Centre 2009, Common reporting verbs for academic writing, University
of Adelaide, viewed 25 October 2012,
http://www.adelaide.edu.au/writingcentre/learning_guides/learningGuide_reportin
Verbs.pdf.

The List of Irregular Verbs

The list below presents the most common verbs in English language which have
irregular past tenses and past participles. Some verbs have two or three possibilities
of simple past and past participles forms but the first one is the more useful. Keep
attention that the list below presents also the present participle and ( s / es/ ies) forms
of the irregular verbs.

Infinitive Past Simple Past participle ‘ing’ Form s / es/ ies Forms
abide abode/abided abode / abided abiding abide /abides
arise arose arisen arising arise / arises
awake awoke / awaked awoken /awaked awaking awake /awakes
be was / were been being am /is / are
bear bore borne bearing bear /bears
beat beat beat / beaten beating beat/ beats
become became began beginning become/becomes
bend bent bent bending bend/bends
bite bit bitten biting bite/bites
begin began blown beginning begin/begins
blow blew begun blowing blow/blows
break broke broken breaking break/breaks
bring brought brought bringing bring/brings
broadcast broadcast broadcast broadcasting broadcast +s
build built built building build +s
buy bought bought buying buy + s
can could --------- ------------ …………………
catch caught caught catching catch /catches
choose chose chosen choosing choose chooses
come came come coming come /comes
cost cost cost costing cost /costs
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cut cut cut cutting cut /cuts
dig dug dug dealing dig/digs
deal Dealt Dealt diving deal / deals
dive Dove / dived Dived doing dive/ dives
do Did Done dreaming do/ does
draw drew Drawn drinking draw / draws
drive drove driven driving drive/ drives
dream dreamt / dreamed dreamt /dreamed dreaming dream/ dreams
drink drank drunk drinking drink/ drinks
eat ate eaten eating eat /eats
earn earned earned earning earn / earns
fall Fell Fallen falling fall /falls
feed fed fed feeling feed / feeds
Feel Felt Felt fighting feel / feels
Fight Fought Fought flying fight / fights
Find Found Found forbidding find / finds
fit fit fit fitting fit/ fits
Fly Flew Flown flying fly / flies
Forbid forbade / forbad Forbidden / forbidding forbid / forbids
Forget forgot forbid forgetting forget / forgets
Forgive forgave Forgotten forgiving forgive /forgives
freeze froze Forgiven/frozen freezing freeze / freezes
get got got/ gotten getting get / gets
give gave given giving give / gives
go went gone going go / goes
grave graved graven / graved graving grave / graves
grow grew /grown growing grow / grows
hang hung hung hanging hang / hangs
have had had having have / has
hear heard heard hearing her / hears
hide hid hidden / hid hiding hide / hides
hit hit hit hitting hit / hits
hold held held holding hold/ holds
hurt hurt hurt hurting hurt / hurts
inlay inlaid inlaid inlaying inlay
keep kept kept keeping keep / keeps
kneel knelt / kneeled knelt / kneeled kneeling kneels / kneels

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knit knit/ knitted knit/ knitted knitting knit / knits
know knew known knowing know / knows
lay laid laid laying lay / lays
lead led led leading
leap leapt / leaped leapt / leaped leaping
learn learnt/ learned learnt /learned learning
lend lent lent lending
leave left left leaving
let let let letting
lie lay lain lying
light lit/lighted lit/lighted lighting
lose lose lost losing
make made made making
mean meant meant meaning
meet met met meeting
pay paid paid paying
put put put putting
quit quit quit quitting
read read read reading
ride rode ridden riding
ring rang rung ringing
rise rose risen rising
run ran run running
say said said saying
see say seen seeing
sell sold sold selling
send sent sent sending
set set set setting
shake shook shaken shaking
shot shot shot
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
spread spread spread
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stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
strike struck struck
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept
swim swam swum
Take care, took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
understand understood understood
upset upset upset
wake woke waked (woken)
wear wore worn
win won won
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
write wrote written

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