Chemistry Notes Copy (2)
Chemistry Notes Copy (2)
Mixture – 1) combination
of two or more types of
matter 2) with no fixed
composition 3) that can
be physically separated
• Homogeneous mixture – a
mixture with a uniform
composition throughout (ex.
solutions, alloys)
• Heterogeneous mixture – a
mixture that does not have a
uniform composition throughout
(ex. sand in water)
Definitions
Pure Substance – type of matter with a definite or fixed
composition that does not vary from one sample to another
• Element (atoms)– cannot be broken down into simpler substances with
chemical reactions (ex. You should start memorizing these element symbols
right away: hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), helium
(He), neon (Ne), phosphorus (P), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), potassium (K),
fluorine(F), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), gold (Au), silver (Ag),
nickel (Ni), chlorine (Cl), sulfur (S), aluminum (Al) )
• Compound (molecules)– 1) made up of two or more elements in 2) fixed
proportions that 3) can ONLY be separated by chemical reaction (ex. H2O,
NaCl, H2O2, MgSO4)
thesemajor
remember diatomic
elementsHz NaOaFaClaBra It
Changes of Matter
1
e
ng
Reading Assignment: Types of Properties
w units attached
units of measurement SI
Units
Remember 1mL 1cm
1.4 Units of Measurements—SI Units
– For solids
• Measure using displacement
– Volume of the object = Final volume – initial volume
– Liters (l) base unit
• Calculate the volume using formulas based on the shape of the object
– Ex. Vcube = length x width x height
– If a cube is 5.3 cm by 2.4 cm by 3.8 cm, volume would be 48 cm3
– (Length unit)3
Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• In general usage,
temperature is considered
the “hotness and coldness”
of an object that determines
the direction of heat flow.
• Heat flows spontaneously
from an object with a higher
temperature to an object
with a lower temperature.
Quantities that are measured and calculated:
Mass, Length, Volume, Temperature, Density
• The Fahrenheit scale is not used in scientific measurements,
but you hear about it in weather reports.
• The first two equations below allow for conversion between
the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales:
– F = 9/5( C) + 32
– C = 5/9( F − 32)
– K = C + 273.15
• Normal body temperature is 98.6 oF. What is this temperature
in oC and K? 37.0 oC, 310.15 K
• On your own: Room temperature is recognized as 25 oC.
What is this temperature in oF and K? 298.15 K, 77 oF
Used in class
Units of Measurement—
Metric System Prefixes
• Prefixes convert the base
units into units that are
appropriate for common
usage or appropriate
1T
000,000g
1,000g measure.
– Ex. Relationship between
grams and kilograms?
– Ex. Relationship between
milliliters and liters?
– Ex. Relationship between
seconds and microseconds?
– Ex. Relationship between
centimeters and meters?
• Scientific notation review?
Numbers Encountered in Science: Significant
Figures
• Exact numbers are counted or given by definition.
For example, there are 12 eggs in 1 dozen.
• Inexact (or measured) numbers depend on how they
were determined. Scientific instruments have
limitations. Some balances measure to ±0.01 g; others
measure to ±0.0001g.
Significant Figures
• The term significant figures refers to digits that were
measured.
• When rounding calculated numbers, we pay attention to
significant figures so we do not overstate the accuracy of our
answers.
• See the handout posted in Canvas.
• You will be responsible for knowing the significant digit rules.
important
diatomic Ian't exist as
singy
Ha Na 02 Fa Cla Bra Is
Dalton’s Atomic Theory of Matter
102
25g 15.6g
Calls Cao 9.4g
25g 91s.bg ycalosscaotc 2sy
S1s 6gt9.4g
2.3 The Modern View of Atomic Structure
8
compare
5
48
Symbols of Elements
•We will use the shorthand below to represent the
number of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
A
Z E
•E is the element symbol, Z is the atomic number
(# of p+), and A is the mass number (# of p+ + #
of n0).
•More elements for you to know: lead (Pb), tin
(Sn), barium (Ba), lithium (Li), titanium (Ti),
chromium, (Cr), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn),
platinum (Pt), silicon (Si), arsenic (As), zinc (Zn),
bromine (Br), iodine (I), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
xenon (Xe), mercury (Hg), tungsten (W),
zirconium (Zr)
find E on periodictable
find2 onperiodictable orange
Symbols of ElementsfindA
A
Z E
• E is the element symbol, Z is the
atomic number (# of p+), and A is the
mass number (# of p+ + # of n0).
• Z (atomic number) is found in the
periodic table.
• For potassium Z =19
• For carbon Z = 6
• On your own: For calcium Z = ?20
• On your own: For neon Z = ?
• On your own: For phosphorus Z is
=?
• A (mass number) is not found in the
periodic table. It must be given or
calculated.
Representing Protons, Electrons, and Neutrons
P no A atoms areelectronically
Z E mbertt
nuetralcng.fi i
• Determine the number of p+, e-, and n0.
23 7 118 27
11 Na 3Li 82 Pb 14Si
– To name an atom:
• Name the element – mass number sodium 23
• Name each of the atoms above.
lithium 7
lead 118
• Write the shorthand for each of the following
–
–
35
35 p+, 35 e-, 44 n0
56 p+, 56 e-, 81 n0 fy52 56t81
3Brypaa.pt 137
– On your own: 33 p+, 33 e-, 45 n0 338A'S 33 45 78
– On your own: 8 p+, 8 e-, 7 n0
* You don’t have to show the atomic number.
iii ia
I IE debunk
theories
Isotopes
12C 13C
Mass 12.000 u atomicmass 13.003 u atomicmass
Percent Abundance 98.9% are 1.11% are
12C
• What is the atomic weight (average atomic mass) of carbon? 12.012 u
Franchikkhundance verysmallur.it lu 1.66054 10 24g Hofthe mass of a 12Catom
6916
• On your own: Calculate the average atomic mass of magnesium using the
data above. 24.310 u
• We can also determine the percent abundance of oooh
an isotope.
– The two naturally occurring isotopes of copper are copper-63, mass 62.9298 u, and
copper-65, mass 64.9278 u. What must be the percent abundances of the two isotopes if
the atomic mass of copper listed in a table of atomic masses is 63.546 u? 63Cu = 69.16%
and 65Cu = 30.84%
learnhowto calculatepercent
Abundantquisin
confusing
Atomic Weight
AUGantiS of Rb 85.46784
onch H2 nextFriday
test I 2.5 Periodic Table
To the right of
the line we find
nonmetals,
including the
noble gases.
Some elements
adjacent to the
line are called
metalloids.
2.6 Molecules and Molecular Componds
no subscript
• Compounds are represented with formulas understood 1
0
– H2O – 1 molecule of water contains 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen
atom 0
–
Had subscript
(CH3)2CHOH – 1 molecule of rubbing alcohol contains 3 carbon
atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms, and 1 oxygen atom
rpkfff.fi mgat.ms
Hatoms
– g . 7H2O –
MgSO4 ll
– C12H22O11 - ???
– 1 Iqgsatomsa0atoms
CaCO3 . 3Ca3(PO4)2 - ???
• These are molecular formulas.
Chemical Formulas
• Three types of formulas: • Molecular formula =
1. Molecular formula – gives the
number of each kind of atom in a
C2H4O2
molecule. • Empirical formula = simplified
CH2O
2. Empirical formula – gives the
whole number ratio of atoms in a • Structural formula =
molecule CH3COOH
3. Structural formula – shows the
order in which atoms are
attached. They do NOT depict the
three-dimensional shape of
molecules.
• Perspective drawings also show the
three-dimensional order of the atoms
in a compound. These are also
demonstrated using models.
yellowis
Molecules and Molecular Compounds
• Now that you can write formulas.
Let’s talk about the types of metal
compounds.
• Two types of compounds:
1. Binary molecular compounds–
compounds made up of 2 nonmetals
– can’t predict formulas 0
Ex. CO2, H2O,
2. Ionic compounds – compounds
made up of a positive ion and a
metalt negative ion – can (and will)
metal predict formulas
non
Ex. NaCl, CaCO3,
• Label the following as ionic compounds or
binary molecular compounds.
– NH3 BaCl2
– C3H8 Li3N
– CO O3molecular.EE
– NaF H2O2
metalsreactwithnonmetals
onmetakdonotreactwihnonmetalsgreendpmrp.tl non
g p PH metal
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
• The name consists of two
words.
• First word: name of the
element that appears first in
the formula.
• Second word: stem of the
name of the second element,
ending with -ide.
• Names are further modified
by adding prefixes to denote
the numbers of atoms of
each element in the
molecule. **(Don’t use “mono”
with the first element.)
Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
• Name the following binary molecular compounds.
– N2Odinitrogen monoxide
– H2O2 dihydrogendioxide
– CO bromine pentachloride
MANS
phosphorusdeca
hydride
– CO2
Afford tetra
OFa oxygendifloarde
– NH3 decahydide
liggyhhhhhetratarbon
– H2O
• Give formulas for
– Tetraphosphorus hexaoxide
– Phosphorus pentachloridePus
– On your own: Disulfur decafluoride
2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds
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nooo dou arrange adenoaded
data
tooooo those
Ptdon'tchange
• Ionic compounds are made from positive and negative ions.
• Ions – atoms that have lost or gained electrons atomsopket
– Cations – atoms that have lost electrons and now have a
positive charge
Atom
• Na 11 p+ and 11 e-
• Na 11 p+ and 10 e- Na+sundestood
– Anions – atoms that have gained electrons and now have a
negative charge
• O 8 p+ and 8 e-
• O 8 p+ and 10e- O-2
elementsinthe havethesame
samegroup
behavior
A polyatomic ion is a
charged group of covalently
bonded atoms.
You will have to be familiar
with some of them.
– AmmoniumNHyt
– Acetate
– Carbonate
– Cyanide
– Hydroxidef
– Nitrate
– Phosphate poi
– Sulfate 5042
Ionic f bewritten
Compounds
withempiricalformulas
Making Ionic Compounds
• Ionic compounds are made from cations (+) and anions (-).
• The ions must be combined so that their charges add up to zero
because compounds must be neutral. don'tputcharges in compound
Reactants appear on the left side of Products appear on the right side of
the equation. the equation.
What is in a Chemical Equation?
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
• puris a Countingburner
Scientists make observations on the macroscopic level and
explain those observations based on microscopic behavior.
• We will now quantitatively connect the microscopic to the
macroscopic using the mole.
Microscopic
Mafforic
• Grams, kilograms mole Atoms, molecules
Na 49.5 moles
www
I
es
• 3.1 moles of H2O molecules = ???
H2O molecules 1.9 x 1024 H2O
EI
molecules
• On your own: How many gold atoms
iii iiiiii iii
are there in 5.9 moles of gold? 3.6 x
1024 gold atoms s.am IIiems
ex6F
3.6X1ot4goldatoms
Oimportant
• Example: Cyclohexanol is 71.95% C, 12.08 % H, and 15.97 %
O. steps toremember
Determine the empirical formula. C6H12O
ery
i as.ie n.asycxIf
2.081.418 12.088Hx
s.aaosnkkf ff i satisfy
11.98484014
g 9982mold
97108 15.9780 I É 64120
3.5 Empirical Formulas from Analyses
• On your own: Mebutamate is 51.70% C, 8.68% H, 12.06% N,
ddall
gethert and the rest is oxygen. Determine the empirical formula.
to
4417819C5H10NO2
8.61162MOTH
8.681 tl 8.68gHx
4m
If.is 9 EiEi.aamoio
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas
MM
Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas
m 188 14
mm164 5.1606
3.6 Quantitative Information from Balanced
Equations
• Now that you have learned about moles and balancing
equations, you can predict the amount of product made in a
given reaction (stoichiometry).
• Coefficients give mole-mole ratios, also called
“stoichiometrically equivalent quantities”.
– CO + 2H2 CH3OH
• 1 mol CO is stoichiometrically equivalent to 2 mol H2
• 1 mol CO is stoichiometrically equivalent to 1 mol CH3OH
• 2 mol H2 is stoichiometrically equivalent to 1 mol CH3OH
–
ffpx
If there are 1.19 moles of H2, how many moles of CH3OH can be made?
0.595 moles CH3OH 4sc I.lamolestyaxfffit
595
fffy g
• How many grams of CO is this?
13 grams of CO
É 4
– If there are 1.19 moles of H2, how many
moles of CH3OH can be made? 0.595
moles CH3OH I.itF
• How many grams of CH3OH is
this? 19.1 grams of CH3OH t.am a
IIi
3
I i
t.is
3204216
Stoichiometric Calculations Using Grams
med
if
Reactant
nolonger
3.7 Limiting Reactants
25.00g 25.00g
• Limiting reactant • 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
– Reactant that gives the least
gFez0 fromas.orgFe
amount of product gFe203from25.00902
– Not necessarily the reactant in
smallest supply as.oogfex.is xEiEiix Es ed
• How do you find the limiting 5 5
reactant? Determine which Ms t.in i E7feaos
reactant gives the least amount of
product.
as.oogoxkixfii.fi ximiii Eo
83.2gFests
• Example 1: 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 5
2Fe2O3(s) If there are 25.0
grams of iron and 25.0 grams of
oxygen, which reactant is the
limiting reactant? Iron
Iron It theamountofproduct
limited
thatcouldbemade
Diatomic HaOrNaFaUaBrs Ir
Yield Examples
t.es g YE
• On your own: Consider the reaction below
• 2C8H18(g) + 25O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
• If 25.0 g of C8H18 is reacted with 25.0 g of O2, what is the limiting
reactant? What is the theoretical yield of CO2? If 16.0 g of CO2 are
actually produced, what is the percent yield? O2, 22.0 g, 72.7%
g02fromasoycothr2s.ogwtiox iiiixEiEYEt
fff.tk 77 ly
02from25.0202 8612011
0 i
g
aE.ogio
2s.ogoax g
t.ie
x
Ozisthelimitingreactant
Yield Examples
theyHetical
30.0965.0g C6H5Br + HBr (balanced)
• On your own: C6H6 + Br2
– When benzene (C6H6) reacts with bromine (Br2), bromobenzne
(C6H5Br) is produced. A) If 30.0 g of benzene reacts with 65.0 g of
bromine, which is the limiting reactant? C6H6 B) What is the
theoretical yield of bromobenzene? 60.3 g C6H5Br C) If the actual
yield of bromobenzene is 42.3 g , what is the percent yield? 70.1%
Chapter 4
Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Cgothrough
Canvas
4.1 General Properties of Solutions
Nat kt Naclean Nation Ilan
• Substances can dissolve in water by different ways:
➢ Ionic Compounds dissolve by dissociation, where water surrounds the
separated ions. - Electrolytes
➢ Molecular compounds interact with water, but most do NOT
dissociate. - Nonelectrolytes
➢ Some molecular substances react with water when they dissolve.
4.1 General Properties of Solutions
I
441
Solubility of Ionic Compounds
Shewillgivechart
onexam
• Determine whether the following
ionic compounds are water
disolve
soluble (aq) or insoluble (s).dodistivein
–Later MgCl2 water
aq Mythagittelland
some
– Al2S3 s
insoluble
– NaOH Nattag t 0HCag
Soluble
– Pb(NO3)2
9 PbatdN
Soluble
– AgBr
insoluble
– BaCO3
insoluble
– (NH4)3PO4 4 3NHatant Pain
Soluble
– CaSO4 lattant 504
Soluble
studyperiodictable forcharges
Quizopens1018due1019
Remember: Monatomic and Polyatomic Ions
include in sheet
4.2 Precipitation Reactions
1) Molecular equation
2) Complete ionic equation
3) Net ionic equation
Molecular Equation
The molecular equation shows the reactants and products.
• Steps to follow
1) Use the chemical formulas of the reactants to determine which ions are
present.
2) Write formulas for the products: cation from one reactant, anion from the
other. Use charges to write proper subscripts. DON’T SIMPLY
CARRY OVER SUBSCRIPTS FROM THE REACTANTS.
3) Check your solubility rules. If either product is insoluble, a precipitate
forms. Designated with (s)
4) Balance the equation.
p
stops Molecular Equation
My'THE SOFIE
NI 204 I 1H
• MgSO4(aq) + KOH(aq)
Mg 0H12 s 2142504cal balance
Agt 1
Precipitate
Nat no
Aft 105 at
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) Cagliist
Nanoscan
• stoluble
insoluble balance
Nano
Aglles Bat 52 Lit It
• To form the net ionic equation, cross out anything that does not
change from the left side of the equation to the right.
• The ions crossed out are called spectator ions, K+ and NO3−,
in this example.
• The remaining ions are the reactants that form the product—an
insoluble salt in a precipitation reaction, as in this example.
– Ag+(aq) + NO3−(aq) + K+(aq) + Cl−(aq) AgCl(s) +
K+(aq) + NO3−(aq)
• Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
Net Ionic Equation
n
Assignment #7 – Due 10/14
• SrI2(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)
125mL 1 34
1mL
I n
s g4aHaa0 m 0391M
275.0mL Solution
m
ii.int
3.68gxF 010750801moles
2422011
ff 12H22011
I 30008gmol
275.0mL 275L
Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume
mm of Na
53149
• Example: How many grams of Na2SO4 are required to make
350. mL of 0.500 M Na2SO4? 24.9 grams
MolesNaz504 350L
• Not all aqueous solutions are made from a solid solute and
water. Sometimes a concentrated solution is diluted (with
water) to form more dilute solution.
• Dilution is the process of preparing a more dilute solution by
adding solvent to a more concentrated one.
• Addition of solvent does not change the amount of solute in a
solution but does change the solution concentration.
• It is very common to prepare a concentrated stock solution of a
solute, then dilute it to other concentrations as needed.
m
19 7 9 sditI.in m cmotes MYY.rs
molesConcentrate molesdilute
Dilution
V NL
E
• On your own: How many milliliters of 18.0 M
H2SO4? 5.56 mL
5Om McUc
H2SO4 are needed to prepare 100.0 mL of 1.00 M
MdUdMc 1.00M