Republic of the Philippines

CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS (CHEM111)

UNIT I
FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMISTRY
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
1. Describe different ways to identify atoms.
2. Combine simple ions to write formulas and names of some ionic compounds.
3. Interconvert masses, moles, and formulas.
4. Write balanced equations to describe chemical reactions.
5. Carry out calculations related to the use of solutions in chemical reactions.

Introduction:
This world around us is composed of all sorts of substances like bricks, concrete, wood,
metal, and many others. To understand and appreciate these substances we need to know what
atoms they composed of and how the atoms are attached and bonded to each other. We also need to
learn and understand chemical reactions to how initial substances are converted into another
substance. We use chemical reactions to create many useful products such as steel for cars and
buildings, ammonia for fertilizers, and chips for computers and electronics.
Since chemical reactions involve rearrangement of atoms, we need to know how many atoms
are present in a given samples of starting materials when we run a reaction. However, because
atoms are too small to count directly, we need an indirect technique to count them that is useful in
factories and laboratories. In this unit, we will learn how many atoms counted by weighing samples
of them and by chemical reactions.

I. ATOMS AND MOLECULES

Greek philosopher Democritus stated the belief that all matter consists of very small,
indivisible particles, which he named atomos (meaning uncuttable or indivisible).
The postulates about the nature of matter on which Dalton’s atomic theory is based can be
summarized as follows:
 Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
 All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and chemical
properties. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
 Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one element. In any compound, the ratio of
the numbers of atoms of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a simple
fraction.
 A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it
does not result in their creation or destruction.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Law of definite proportions states that

different samples of the same compound
always contain its constituent elements
in the same proportion by mass.

Different compounds are made up of the

same elements but differ in the number of
atoms of each kind that combine.

The law of multiple proportions states For example, carbon forms two stable
that if two elements can combine to form compounds with oxygen, namely, carbon
more than one compound, the masses of monoxide and carbon dioxide.
one element that combine with a fixed
mass of the other element are in ratios
of small whole numbers.

law of conservation of mass states that

The total mass of substances present at
the end of a chemical process is the same
as the mass of substances present before
the process took place.

A. Structure of the Atom

Through research and experimentation, scientists have found out that an atom is composed of
three elementary particles: proton, electron, and neutron. The proton has a positive charge, the
electron has a negative charge, and the neutron has no charge. Protons and neutrons are located in
the nucleus, a small region at the center of the atom, while electrons are spread out about the
nucleus at some distance from it.
The table below shows the characteristics of the atom’s subatomic particle.
Mass
Particle Charge
Grams Atomic Mass Units
-28
Electron 9.109383 x 10 0.0005485799 -1
Proton 1.672622 x 10 -24 1.007285 +1
Neutron 1.674927 x 10 -24 1.008665 0

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

B. Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes

All atoms can be identified according to the number of protons and neutrons they contain.
The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the
nucleus of each atom of an element. In a neutral atom
the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons; therefor the atomic number also indicates
the number of electrons present in the atom.
Example:
The mass number (A) is the sum of the number of
neutrons and protons present in the nucleus of an
atom of an element. Except for the most common form Atomic number = 11
of hydrogen, because it has has one proton and no Mass number = 23
neutrons, all atomic nuclei contain both protons and No. of protons = 11
neutrons. In general, the mass number is given by No. of electrons = 11
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
No. of neutron = 23 – 11 = 12
= atomic number + number of neutrons

Some atoms of a given element do not all have the Example:

same mass. Most elements have two or more
Hydrogen, has one proton and
isotopes. Isotopes are elements that have the
no neutrons.
same atomic number but different mass numbers.
The deuterium isotope contains
one proton and one neutron.
tritium has one proton and two
neutrons

C. Molecules
A molecule is a group of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by
chemical forces (also called chemical bonds). A molecule may comprise atoms of the same element
or atoms of two or more elements joined in a fixed ratio, in accordance with the law of definite
proportions. Thus, a molecule is not necessarily a compound, which, by definition, is made up of two
or more elements. Hydrogen gas, H2, for example, is a pure element, but it composed of molecules
made up of two H atoms each.
The hydrogen molecule, symbolized as H2, is called a diatomic molecule because
it contains only two atoms. Other elements that usually exist as diatomic molecules are nitrogen (N2)
and oxygen (O2), as well as the Group 7A elements—fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and
iodine (I2). Of course, a diatomic molecule can contain atoms of different elements.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Molecules comprising more than two atoms are called polyatomic molecules. Like ozone, water
(H2O) and ammonia (NH3) are polyatomic molecules.

Self-learning Assessment 1:

1. The atoms of elements A (blue)

and B (orange) form two
compounds shown here. Do
these compounds obey the law
of multiple proportions?

2. Give the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of the following species:
(a) 20 11Na, (b) 22 11Na, (c) 17O, and (d) carbon-14.

3. One isotope of a metallic element has mass number 65 and 35 neutrons in the nucleus. The
cation derived from the isotope has 28 electrons. Write the symbol for this cation.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

II. CHEMICAL FORMULAS

A chemical formula is used by chemist to express the composition of molecules and ionic
compounds in terms of chemical symbols. By composition we mean not only the elements present
but also the ratios or percentages in which the atoms are combined. Here we have three types of
formulas: molecular formulas, empirical formulas and structural formulas. We will only focus on the
first two because structural formulas will be dealt on organic chemistry.

Example:
A molecular formula shows the exact
number of atoms of each element in The molecular formula of hydrogen
the smallest unit of a substance. peroxide, a substance used as an
antiseptic and as a bleaching agent for
textiles and hair, is H2O2. This formula
indicates that each hydrogen peroxide
molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms
and two oxygen atoms.
The empirical formula tells us which
elements are present and the simplest
whole-number ratio of their atoms, but The empirical formula of hydrogen
not necessarily the actual number of peroxide is HO.
atoms in a given molecule.

The structural formula, which shows

how atoms are bonded to one another
in a molecule.

Example 2.1:
Problem: Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules:
(a) acetylene (C2H2), which is used in welding torches;
(b) glucose (C6H12O6), a substance known as blood sugar; and
(c) nitrous oxide (N2O), a gas that is used as an anesthetic gas (―laughing gas‖) and as an aerosol
propellant for whipped creams

Strategy
Recall that to write the empirical formula, we need to make sure that the subscripts in the
molecular formula must be converted to the smallest possible whole numbers.

Solution
(a) There are two carbon atoms and two hydrogen atoms in acetylene. So we can divide the
subscripts by 2, so that we will obtain the empirical formula CH.

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

(b) In glucose there are 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms.
The smallest possible whole number is 6 therefore dividing the subscripts by 6; we obtain the
empirical formula CH2O. Note that if we had divided the subscripts by 3, we would have
obtained the formula C2H4O2. Although the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen atoms in
C2H4O2 is the same as that in C6H12O6 (1:2:1), C2H4O2 is not the simplest formula because its
subscripts are not in the smallest whole-number ratio.

(c) Because the subscripts in N2O are already the smallest possible whole numbers, the
empirical formula for nitrous oxide is the same as its molecular formula.

Self-learning Assessment 2:
1. Write the empirical formula for caffeine (C8H10N4O2), a stimulant found in tea and coffee

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

III. IONS AND IONIC COMPOUNDS

An ion is an atom or a group of atoms that has a net positive or negative charge. The
number of positively charged protons present in the nucleus of an atom remains the same during
ordinary chemical changes (called chemical reactions), but negatively charged electrons may be lost
or gained.

The loss of one or more electrons from a neutral atom results in a cation, an ion with a net
positive charge. For example, a potassium atom (K) can readily lose an electron to become a
potassium cation, which is represented by K+. On the other hand, an anion is an ion whose net
charge is negative due to an increase in the number of electrons. A chlorine atom (Cl), for instance,
can gain an electron to become the chloride ion Cl-.
For ionic compounds to be electrically neutral, the sum of the charges on the cation and anion
in each formula unit must be zero. If the charges on the cation and anion are numerically different,
we apply the following rule to make the formula electrically neutral: The subscript of the cation is
numerically equal to the charge on the anion, and the subscript of the anion is numerically
equal to the charge on the cation. If the charges are numerically equal, then no subscripts are
necessary. This rule follows from the fact that because the formulas of ionic compounds are usually
empirical formulas, the subscripts must always be reduced to the smallest ratios.

Let us consider some examples.

The potassium cation K+ and the bromine anion Br- is combined to

Potassium
form the ionic compound potassium bromide.
Bromide.
The sum of the charges is (+1) + (-1) = 0, therefore no subscripts
are necessary. The formula is KBr.

The zinc cation Zn2+ and the iodine anion I- is combined to form
zinciodide.
Zinc Iodide. The sum of the charges of one Zn2+ ion and one I- ion is +2 + (-1) =
+1. To make the charges add up to zero we multiply the -1 charge
of the anion by 2 and add the subscript ―2‖ to the symbol for
iodine. Therefore the formula for zinc iodide is ZnI 2.

Aluminum Oxide. The cation is Al3+ and the oxygen anion is O2-. The following
diagram helps us determine the subscripts for the compound
formed by the cation and the anion:

The sum of the charges is 2(+3) + 3(-2) = 0. Thus, the formula for
aluminum oxide is Al2O3

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Example 3.1:
Problem: Write the formula of magnesium nitride, containing the Mg2+ and N3- ions.
Strategy Our guide for writing formulas for ionic compounds is electrical neutrality; that is, the
total charge on the cation(s) must be equal to the total charge on the anion(s). Because the
charges on the Mg2+ and N3- ions are not equal, we know the formula cannot be MgN. Instead, we
write the formula as MgxNy, where x and y are subscripts to be determined.

Solution To satisfy electrical neutrality, the following relationship must hold:

(+2)x + (-3)y = 0
Solving, we obtain x/y 5 3/2. Setting x 5 3 and y 5 2, we write

Check The subscripts are reduced to the smallest whole number ratio of the atoms because the
chemical formula of an ionic compound is usually its empirical formula.

Self-learning Assessment 3:
Write the formulas of the following ionic compounds:
(a) chromium sulfate (containing the Cr3+ and SO42- ions)
(b) Titanium oxide (containing the Ti4+ and O2- ions).

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

IV. NOMENCLATURE OF COMPOUNDS

To begin our discussion of chemical nomenclature, the naming of chemical compounds, we
must first differentiate inorganic and organic compounds. Organic compounds contain carbon,
usually in combination with elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. All other
compounds are classified as inorganic compounds. But some carbon-containing compounds, such as
carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon disulfde (CS2), compounds containing the
cyanide group (CN-), and carbonate (CO32-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) groups are considered to be
inorganic compounds.
To organize and simplify our course into naming compounds, we can divide inorganic
compounds into four categories: ionic compounds, molecular compounds, acids and bases, and
hydrates.
A. Ionic Compounds
From the previous topic, we learned that ionic compounds are made up of cations (positive ions) and
anions (negative ions).

With the important exception of the

ammonium ion, NH4 +, all cations of
interest to us are derived from metal
atoms. Metal cations take their names
from the elements.
For example, NaCl is sodium chloride. The anion
is named by taking the first part of the element
Many ionic compounds are binary name (chlorine) and adding ―-ide.‖
compounds, or compounds formed
from just two elements. For binary
compounds, the first element named
is the metal cation, followed by the
nonmetallic anion.

For example, hydroxide (OH-) and cyanide (CN-).

Ternary compounds are ionic
Thus, the compounds LiOH and KCN are named
compounds consisting of three
lithium hydroxide and potassium cyanide,
elements.
respectively.

An older nomenclature system that is

still in limited use assigns the ending
―-ous‖ to the cation with fewer
positive charges and the ending ―-ic‖ The names of the compounds that these iron
to the cation with more positive ions form with chlorine would thus be
charges:

Note: This method of naming ions

has some distinct limitations. First,

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

the “-ous” and “-ic” suffixes do not Thus, the ferric ion is Fe3+, but the cation of
provide information regarding the copper named cupric has
actual charges of the two cations the formula Cu2+.
involved.

Some metallic elements can assume For example, manganese (Mn) atoms can
three or more different positive assume several different positive charges:
charges in compounds. Therefore, it
has become increasingly common to
designate different cations with
Roman numerals. This is called the
Stock system. In this system, the These names are pronounced ―manganese-two
Roman numeral I indicates one oxide,‖ ―manganese-three oxide,‖ and
positive charge, II means two positive ―manganese-four oxide.‖
charges, and so on.

B. Molecular Compounds
Molecular compounds usually consist of nonmetallic elements. Many molecular compounds are
binary compounds and are similar to naming binary ionic compounds.
We place the name of the first element in the formula first, and the second element is named by
adding -ide to the root of the element name. Some examples are

Confusion in naming the compounds is avoided by the use of Greek prefixes to denote the number of
atoms of each element present (Table 2.4). Consider the following examples:

Exceptions to the use of Greek prefixes are molecular compounds containing hydrogen. Traditionally,
in most cases, many of these compounds are called either by their common, nonsystematic names or
by names that do not specifically indicate the number of H atoms present:

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

The following guidelines are helpful in naming

compounds with prefxes:

• The prefx ―mono-‖ may be omitted for the first

element.
For example, PCl3 is named phosphorus
trichloride, not monophosphorus trichloride.
Thus, the absence of a prefix for the first
element usually means there is only one atom
of that element present in the molecule.

• For oxides, the ending ―a‖ in the prefix is

sometimes omitted.
For example, N2O4 may be called dinitrogen
tetroxide rather than dinitrogen tetraoxide.

Note that even the order of writing the elements in the formulas for hydrogen compounds is
irregular. In water and hydrogen sulfide, H is written first, whereas it appears last in the other
compounds.
Example 4.1 :
Problem:
Name the following molecular compounds:
(a) SiCl4 (b) P4O10.
Strategy
We refer to Table 2.4 for prefixes.
In (a) there is only one Si atom so we do not use the prefx ―mono.‖
Solution
(a) Because there are four chlorine atoms present, the compound is silicon tetrachloride.
(b) There are four phosphorus atoms and ten oxygen atoms present, so the compound is
tetraphosphorus decoxide. Note that the ―a‖ is omitted in ―deca.‖

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 Republic of the Philippines
CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Carig Campus, Tuguegarao City
College of Engineering

Example 4.22.8
Problem:
Write chemical formulas for the following molecular compounds:
(a) carbon disulfide and (b) disilicon hexabromide.

Strategy
Here we need to convert prefixes to numbers of atoms (see Table 2.4). Because
there is no prefix for carbon in (a), it means that there is only one carbon atom present.
Solution
(a) Because there are two sulfur atoms and one carbon atom present, the
formula is CS2.
(b) There are two silicon atoms and six bromine atoms present, so the formula is Si2Br6.

Self-learning Assessment 2:

1. Name the following molecular compounds: (a) NF3 and (b) Cl2O7.
2. Write chemical formulas for the following molecular compounds:
(a) sulfur tetrafluoride and (b) dinitrogen pentoxide.

References:
1. Zumdhal, Steven S., Zumdhal, Susan A.(2012). Chemisrty: An Atoms First Approach
(International Edition). Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
2. Chang, Raymond (2010). CHEMISTRY (10th ed). McGraw-Hill

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