2.

4 Typical Task Breakdown in Each Phase 29

d R a n g e (C onfigures fuselage and undercarriage)(C onfigureswing,e mpennage,nacelle ,highliftdevices,control surfaces)S e a t i n g

arrangementsf orthecapacity PerformanceO perationalsafe t y Cargo-space allocationLoadingfa cilitiesA i r c r a f t s i z ingAirworthines s Doors,emergencye xits,

andwindowsarrang ementEnginematchi ngEnvironmentcont rolTakeoff/landingC abinamenities(e.g., overhead lockers, galley, toilet)Climb,cruise, descent

Chart 2.5. Toplevel denition (Phase 1, Conceptual Study)

Chart 2.5can be divided into functional work group activity to

focus attentionon specic areas necessarily in IPPD environment for MDA. Other chapters of this book address

specic work group activity.

Project Activities for Small Aircraft Design

Typical work content and

milestones for a small aircraft project are given herein blocks of time; readers need to expand this in bar chart form (the

courseworkinvol ved in drawing the Gantt chart may alter the contents of the table, as required).Largeraircraft design

follows similar activities in an expanded scale suited to taskobligations.

1. Perform the market survey to establish aircraft specications from customerrequire ments; information is

extracted from year-round exploratory work.2. Lay out candidate aircraft congurations starting with

fuselage, followed bywing, undercarriage, power plant, and so forth.3. Establish wing parameters

because they will acquire prime importance in syn-thesizing aircraft design; the parameters include the wing

reference area, aspectratio, wing sweep, taper ratio, aerofoil thickness-tochord ratio, wing twist, sparlocation, ap

area, ight control, and wing location with respect to fuselage.4. Initiate CAD 3D surface modeling.5.

Conduct preliminary CFD analysis to establish pressure distribution and loadson aircraft.6.

Conduct preliminary wind-tunnel tests.7. Determine preliminary weights and CG estimates.8.

Determine aircraft preliminary drag estimate.9. Size aircraft and match engine.10. Establish engine data.11. Conduct

preliminary aircraft and engine performance tests.

30 Methodology to Aircraft Design, Market

Survey, and Airworthiness

12. Freeze the conguration to one aircraft.13. Lay out internal structures and arrange fuselage

interior.14. Complete mockup drawings, construction, and initial evaluation.15. Complete the control system

concept layout in CAD.16. Complete the electrical/avionic s systems concept layout in CAD.17. Complete the

mechanical systems concept layout in CAD.18. Complete the power plant installation concept in

CAD.19. Create a database for materials and parts.20. Establish a plan for bought-out items and delivery

schedule.21. Plan for outsourcing, if applicable.22. Provide the preliminary cost projection.23. Obtain

managements go-ahead.
Phase 2: Project Denition (9 Months)

1. Create integrated and component

drawings in CAD.2. Complete FEM stress analysis of all components (e.g., wing and fuselage).3. Complete mock-

up and nal assessment.4. Complete advanced CFD analysis.5. Conduct windtunnel model testing and CFD

substantiation.6. Conduct utter analysis.7. Conduct extensive and nal aircraft and engine performance

tests.8. Create detailed part design and issue manufacturing/p roduction drawings inCAD. This follows stress

analyses of parts.9. Perform aircraft stability and control analysis and control-surface sizing.10. Finalize control

system design in CAD.11. Finalize electrical/avionic s system design in CAD.12. Finalize mechanical

system design in CAD.13. Finalize power plant installation design in CAD.14. Produce jigs and tool design.15.

Plan for subcontracting, if applicable.16. Place order for bought-out items and start receiving items.17.

Complete cost analysis.18. Complete design review.19. Continue customer dialogue and updating (no

change in specications).
Phase 3: Detailed Design (Product Development) (12 Months)

1. Complete detailed

component design in CAD.2. Complete stress analysis.3. Complete CFD analysis.4. Revise to nal

weights analysis.5. Complete and issue all production drawings in CAD/CAM.6. Complete

production jigs and tools.7. Complete parts manufacture and begin aircraft component subassembly.8. Finish receiving

all bought-out items.9. Complete standards, schedules, and checklists.

F a m i l i a r i z a t i o n 3 1

10. Finalize ground/ight test schedules.11. Complete prototype shop

status schedules.12. Revise cost analysis.13. Begin ground tests.14. Complete design review.15.

Continue customer dialogue and updating (no change in specications).

Phase 4: Testing and Certication (9 Months)

1. Complete nal assembly and prototype equipping.2. Complete

ground and ight tests and analysis.3. Review analysis and modify design, if required.4. Complete overall

design review.5. Review cost estimate.6. Complete customer dialogue and sales arrangement.7.

Continue design review and support.Producti on launch costs are typically kept separate from design and develop-ment

costs. Total time to complete a project is 3 years (i.e., 2.5 years from the goahead), which is tight but feasible.

2.5

Aircraft Familiarization

Thissectionintro ducesgenericciv ilandmilitaryair craft.Geometric denitionsrele-

vanttoaerodyna micconsideratio nsareaddressedi nChapter3andde taileddescriptions of various types of aircraft and their

classication are provided inChapter 4.A diagram of aircraft with major subassemblies as components is

provided herein.Indeed, aircraft design has become highly modular in the interests of the familyconcept

, which facilitates low development cost by maintaining a high degree of parts commonality.Air

craft span, length, and height are currently restricted by the ICAO to 80 m,80 m, and 80 ft, respectively,

for ground handling and storage considerations. Theheight is in feet but the span and length are in meters; this

restriction may change.Section 1.6 highlighted the mix of SI and FPS units in aerospace engineering. In thefuture, only

SI units will be used.

Civil Aircraft and Its Component Congurations

In general, the civil aircraft

category includes ve types: (1) small club trainers,(2) utility aircraft, (3) business aircraft, (4) narrow-body

commercial transporters(regi onal aircraft to midsize), and (5) wide-body large transporters. The

varioustypes of available conguration options are described inChapter 4.The aircraft components

shown inFigure 2.3are some of the obvious ones (e.g., wing, fuselage,nacelle, and empennage); others (e.g., winglets, strakes,

and auxiliary control surfaces) are less obvious but play vital roles otherwise, they would not be included.Becaus

e there are many options, components are associated in groups for conve-nience, as described in the following

subsections (refer to Figure 2.3).

Survey, and Airworthiness Figure 2.3. Lockheed 1011 diagram (courtesy of Michael Niu [10]) Fuselage Group

This group includes the nose cone, the constant midsection fuselage, the tapered aftfuselage, and

the tail cone. The fuselage belly fairing (shown inFigure 2.3as severalsubassem bly components below the

fuselage) may be used to house equipment atthe wingfuselage junction, such as the undercarriage wheels.

Wing Group

This group consists of the main wing, highlift devices, spoilers, control surfaces, tipdevices, and

structural wing box that passes through the fuselage. Highlift devicesinclude leading-edge slats or trailing-

edge aps. InFigure 2.3,the leading-edge slats are shown attached to the main wing and the trailing-edge aps and

spoilers areshown detached from the port wing. Spoilers are used to decelerate aircraft

ondescent; as the name suggests, they spoil lift over the wing and are useful as liftdumpers on touchdown. This allows the

undercarriage to more rapidly absorb theaircrafts weight, enabling a more effective application of the brakes. In

some air-craft, a small differential deection of spoilers with or without the use of ailerons isused to stabilize an

aircrafts rolling tendencies during disturbances. In Figure 2.3,the wing is shown with winglets at the tip; winglets

are one of a set of tip treatmentsthat can reduce the induced drag of an aircraft.
Empennage Group

The empennage is the set of stability and control surfaces at the back of an aircraft.InFigure 2.3,it is shown as a vertical tail

split into a n in the front and a rudder at

3.15 Aspect Ratio Correction of 2D Aerofoil Characteristics for 3D Finite Wing 73

forces over the span gives the following:

=
L

cos

qS
W

and
C
Di

=
L

sin
/

qS
W

(the induceddrag coefcient)For small angles,

, it reduces to:
C
L

=
L
/

qS
W

and
C
Di

=
L
/

qS
W

=
C
L

(3.28)
C
Di

is the drag generated from the downwash angle, , and is liftdependent (i.e.,induced);

hence, it is called the

. For a wing planform, Equations3.27and3.28 become:

C
Di

=
C
L

=
C

C
L

AR

=
C
L

AR

(3.29)Induced drag is lowest for an elliptical wing planform, when

1; however, itis costly to manufacture. In general, the industry uses a trapezoidal planform witha taper ratio,


0.4 to 0.5, resulting in an
e

value ranging from 0.85 to

0.98 (anoptimal design approaches 1.0). A rectangular wing has a ratio of

=
1.0 and a deltawing has a ratio of

0, which result in an average

below 0.8. A rectangular wingwith its constant chord is the least

expensive planform to manufacture for havingthe samesized ribs along the span.
3.14.1

Induced Drag and Total Aircraft Drag

Equation3.19giv es the basic denition of drag, which is viscous-

dependent. Theprevious section showed that the tip effects of a 3D wing generate additional dragfor an

aircraft that appears as induced drag,

. Therefore, the total aircraft drag

inincompressible ow would be as follows:aircraft drag

=
skin-friction drag

+
pressure drag

+
induced drag

=
parasite drag

+
induced drag ( 3 . 3 0 ) Most of the rst two terms does not contribute to the

lift and is considered parasitic in nature; hence, it is called the

. In coefcient form, it is referred toas

. It changes slightly with lift and therefore has

a minimum value. In coefcientform, it is called the

,
C

DPmin

, or
C
D0

. The induceddrag is associated with the generation of lift and must be

tolerated. Incorporatingthis new denition, Equation3.30can be written in coefcient form as follows:

=
C
DP

+
C
Di

(3.31)Chapter 9addresses aircraft drag in more detail and the contribution to dragdue to the compressibility

effect also is presented.

Aspect Ratio Correction of 2D Aerofoil Characteristicsfor 3D Finite Wing

To incorporate the tip effects of a 3D wing, 2D test data need to be corrected for Reand span. This section describes an example of

the methodology.Eq uation3.25indica tes that a 3D wing will produce

at an attitude when theaerofoil is at the angle of attack, . Because

is always less than , the wing produces less

corresponding to aerofoil

C
l

(seeFigure 3.28). This section describes

C o n s i d e r a t i o n s Figure 3.27. Liftcurve-slope correction foraspect ratio

how to correct the 2D aerofoil

data to obtain the 3D wing lift coefcient,

, versusthe angle of attack,

, relationship. Within the linear variation, d

/d needs to beevaluated at

low angles (e.g., from

2 to 8 deg).The 2D aerofoil liftcurve slope

=
(
dC
L

(3.32)where

=
angleofattack(in cidence)
.

The 2D aerofoil will generate the same lift at a lower of

(see Equation3.25)tha n what the wing will generate at (

>

2D

). Therefore, using the 2Daerofoil data, the wing lift coefcient

can be worked at the angle of attack, , asshown here (all angles are in degrees). The

wing lift at an angle of attack, , is asfollows:

=
a

eff

+
constant

a
0

+
constant ( 3 . 3 3 ) or
C
L

=
a

57
.

3
C
L

AR

+
constantor
C
L

+
(57
.

3
C
L

a
0

AR

=
a
0

+
constantor
C
L

=
(
a

)
/

[1

(57
.

a
0

AR

)]

+
constant
/

[1

+
(57
.

a
0

AR

] (3.34)Differenti ating with respect to

, it becomes:d
C
L

=
a

[1

+
(57
.

3
/

AR

)]

=
a

lift curve slope of the wing (3.35)The wing tip effect delays the stall by a few degrees because the outer-wing

owdistortion reduces the local angle of attack; it is shown as

. Note that

max

is the shift of
C
Lmax

; this value
max

is determined experimentally. In this book,the empirical relationship of

=
2 deg, for AR
>

5 to 12,
max

=
1 deg, forAR
>

12 to 20, and
max

=
0 deg, for AR
>

20.Evidently, the wing-lift-curve slope, d

/d

=
a

, is less than the 2D aerofoil-liftcurve slope,

. Figure 3.27 shows the degradation of the wing-liftcurve slope,d

/d

, from its 2D aerofoil value.

3.15 Aspect Ratio Correction

of 2D Aerofoil Characteristics for 3D Finite Wing 75 Figure 3.28. Effect of t/c on d C

/d

The 2D test data offer the advantage of representing any 3D wing when cor-rected for its aspect ratio. The

effect of the wing sweep and aspect ratio on d

/d is shown inFigures

3.28and 3.29 (taken from NASA).If the ight Re is different from the experimental Re, then the correction for

C
Lmax

must be made using linear interpolation. In general, experimental data pro-vide

C
Lmax

for several Res to facilitate interpolation and extrapolation. Example

: Given the NACA 2412 aerofoil data (see test data in Appendix D),construct wing
C

versus graph for a rectangular wing planform of aspectratio 7 having an

Oswalds efciency factor,

=
0.75, at a ight Re

1.5

10
6

.From the 2D aerofoil test data at Re

=
6

10
6

, nd d
C

/d

=
a
0

0.095 per degree (evaluate within the linear range:

2 to 8 deg).
C
lmax

is at

=
16 deg.Use Equation3.26to obtain the 3D wing-lift-curve slope:
dC

=
a

=
a

[1

+
(57
.

3
/

AR

)]

=
0
.

095

[1

+
(57
.

3
/

75

3
.

14

7)]

=
0
.

095
/

1
.

348

=
0
.

067From the 2D test data,

for three Res for smooth aerofoils andone for a rough surface, interpolation results in a wing
C

lmax

=
1.25 at ight
Figure 3.29. Effect of sweep on d
C
L

/d

7 6 A e r o d y n

a m i c C o n s i d e r a t i o n s Figure 3.30. Wing planform denition (half wing shown)

Re

=
1.5

10
6

. Finally, for AR

=
7, the
max

increment is 1 deg, which meansthat the

wing is stalling at (16

+
1)

=
17 deg.The wing has lost some

lift-curve slope (i.e., less lift for the same angle of attack) and stalls at a slightly higher angle of attack compared to the

2D testdata. Draw a vertical line from the 2D stall

1 deg (the point where thewing maximum lift is reached). Then, draw a horizontal line with
C

Lmax

=
1.25.Finally, translate the 2D stalling characteristic of

to the 3D winglift-curveslope joining the portion to the

point following the test-data

pattern.This demonstrates that the wing

versus the angle of attack,

, can beconstructed (seeFigure 3.27).

Wing Denitions

This section denes the parameters used

in wing design and explains their role. Theparameters are the wing planform area (also known as

the wing reference area, S

);wing-sweep angle, ; and wing taper ratio,

(dihedral and twist angles are givenafter the reference area is established). Also, the reference area

generally does notinclude any extension area at the leading and trailing edges. Reference areas areconcerned with the

projected rectangular/trape zoidal area of the wing.

Planform Area, S
W

The wing planform area acts as a reference area for computational purposes. Thewing

planform reference area is the projected area, including the area buried inthe fuselage shown as a dashed line

inFigure 3.30.However, the denition of the wing planform area differs among manufacturers. In commercial

transport aircraftdesign, there are primarily two types of denitions practiced (in general) on

eitherside of the Atlantic. The difference in planform area denition is irrelevant as longas the type is known and

adhered to. This book uses the rst type (Figure 3.30a), which is prevalent in the United States and has straight edges extending

to the fuse-lage centerline. Some European denitions show the part buried inside the fuselage