UNIT 1 - Direct Current Circuits

Do not withhold good from those who deserve it,

when it’s in your power to help them.

మేలుచేయుట నీ చేతనైనప్పుడు దాని ప ొందదగినవారికి

చేయకుొండ వనుకతియయకుము.
Objectives: After completing this
module, you should be able to:
• Determine the effective resistance
for a number of resistors connected
in series and in parallel.
• For simple and complex circuits,
determine the voltage and current
for each resistor.
• Apply Kirchoff’s laws to find currents
and voltages in complex circuits.
 Electrical Circuit Symbols
Electrical circuits often contain one or more
resistors grouped together and attached to
an energy source, such as a battery.
The following symbols are often used:
Ground Battery Resistor
+ -

+ - + -
- + - + -
 Voltage
• It is the amount of
potential energy between
two points on a circuit.
One point has more
charge than another.
• This difference in charge
between the two points is
called voltage. It is
measured in volts
• a water tank at a certain height The pressure at the end of the hose can represent
voltage.
above the ground. The water in the tank represents charge.

• At the bottom of this tank there The more water in the tank, the higher the charge,
the more pressure is measured at the end of the
is a hose. hose.
 Current
think of the amount of water flowing through the hose from the tank as
current.
The higher the pressure, the higher the flow, and vice-versa

• Water = Charge
(measured in Coulombs)
• Pressure = Voltage
(measured in Volts)
• Flow = Current (measured
in Amperes, or “Amps” for
short)
• Hose Width =
Resistance
 Resistors
• The job of a Resistor is to limit the
current flowing through an electrical
circuit.
• Resistance is measured in Ohm’s and is
given the symbol Ω
• Carbon, Film and Wire wound are all
types of resistors.
• Resistor colour codes are used to identify
the resistance and tolerance rating of
small resistors.
• Tolerance is the percentage measure of
the accuracy of a resistor from its
preferred value with
the E6 (20%), E12 (10%), E24 (5%)
and E96 (1%) series of tolerance values
available
• In order to light up a LED (light emitting diode), it is
necessary to apply a voltage of about 2V across its two
terminals.
• Therefore, the voltage is not enough to light up the LED with
one single dry cell (about 1.5V)
Types of Resistor
• Carbon Composition Resistor – Made of carbon dust or graphite
paste, low wattage values
• Film or Cermet Resistor – Made from conductive metal oxide
paste, very low wattage values
• Wire-wound Resistor – Metallic bodies for heatsink mounting,
very high wattage ratings
• Semiconductor Resistor – High frequency/precision surface
mount thin film technology
The Standard Resistor Colour Code Chart
Standard Resistor Values and Color
 Resistor Power Rating
• The larger the power rating, the greater the physical size of
the resistor to dissipate the heat.
• All resistors have a maximum power rating and if exceeded will
result in the resistor overheating and becoming damaged.
• Standard resistor power rating sizes are 1/8 W, 1/4 W, 1/2
W, 1 W, and 2 W.
• Low ohmic value power resistors are generally used for current
sensing or power supply applications.
• The power rating of resistors can be calculated using the
formula:

• P=VI= I2R=V2/R
 Resistances in Series
Resistors are said to be connected in series
when there is a single path for the current.
The current I is the same for
R1 each resistor R1, R2 and R3.
I R2
VT R3 The energy gained through E
is lost through R1, R2 and R3.
Only one current
The same is true for voltages:

For series I = I1 = I2 = I3
connections: VT = V1 + V2 + V3
Equivalent Resistance: Series
The equivalent resistance Re of a number of
resistors connected in series is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances.

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 ; (V = IR)
R1 ITRe = I1R1+ I2R2 + I3R3
I R2
VT R3 But . . . IT = I1 = I2 = I3

Equivalent Resistance Re = R1 + R2 + R3
Example 1: Find the equivalent resistance Re.
What is the current I in the circuit?
Re = R1 + R2 + R3
2
3 1 Re = 3  + 2  + 1  = 6 
12 V
Equivalent Re = 6 

The current is found from Ohm’s law: V = IRe

V 12 V
I= = I=2A
Re 6 
Example 1 (Cont.): Show that the voltage drops
across the three resistors totals the 12-V emf.
Re = 6  I=2A
2
3 1
Current I = 2 A same in each R.
12 V
V1 = IR1; V2 = IR2; V3 = IR3

V1 = (2 A)(1 ) = 2 V V1 + V2 + V3 = VT

V1 = (2 A)(2 ) = 4 V 2 V + 4 V + 6 V = 12 V

V1 = (2 A)(3 ) = 6 V Check !
 Sources of EMF in Series
The output direction from a - + b
a
source of emf is from + side: E
Thus, from a to b the potential increases by E;
From b to a, the potential decreases by E.
A
Example: Find V for path AB -
and then for path BA. R
9V
AB: V = +9 V – 3 V = +6 V 3V

+
- +
BA: V = +3 V - 9 V = -6 V B
 A Single Complete Circuit
Consider the simple series circuit drawn below:
D A Path ABCD: Energy and V
2 -
increase through the 15-V
4 15 V source and decrease
3V through the 3-V source.
+
- +
C B E = 15 V - 3 V = 12 V

The net gain in potential is lost through the two

resistors: these voltage drops are IR2 and IR4,
so that the sum is zero for the entire loop.
 Finding I in a Simple Circuit.
Example 2: Find the current I in the circuit below:
D A  E = 18V − 3 V = 15V
2 -
R =3  + 2  = 5 
3 18 V
3V Applying Ohm’s law:
+
- +
C B  E 15 V
I= = I=3A
R 5 

In general for a E
I=
single loop circuit: R
Summary: Single Loop Circuits:

R2
Resistance Rule: Re = R
E E2
Current : I= R1
R E1

Voltage Rule: E = IR

 Complex Circuits
A complex circuit is one
containing more than a
I3
single loop and different
current paths. R3 E2
R1
At junctions m and n: m n
I1 = I2 + I3 or I2 + I3 = I1 I1
R2 E1
Junction Rule:
I2
I (enter) = I (leaving)
 Parallel Connections
Resistors are said to be connected in parallel
when there is more than one path for current.
For Parallel Resistors:
Parallel Connection:
V2 = V4 = V6 = VT
2 4 6
I 2 + I 4 + I6 = I T

For Series Resistors:

Series Connection:
I 2 = I 4 = I6 = I T
2 4 6 V2 + V4 + V6 = VT
Equivalent Resistance: Parallel
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 Parallel Connection:
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 VT
R1 R2 R3
V
Ohm’s law: I =
R
VT V1 V2 V3 1 1 1 1
= + + = + +
Re R1 R2 R3 Re R1 R2 R3
N
The equivalent resistance 1
=
1
for Parallel resistors: Re i =1 Ri
 Example 3. Find the equivalent resistance
Re for the three resistors below.
N
1 1
= VT R1 R2 R3
Re i =1 Ri
2 4 6
1 1 1 1
= + +
Re R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
= + + = 0.500 + 0.250 + 0.167
Re 2  4  6 
1 1
= 0.917; Re = = 1.09  Re = 1.09 
Re 0.917
For parallel resistors, Re is less than the least Ri.
Example 3 (Cont.): Assume a 12-V emf is
connected to the circuit as shown. What is
the total current leaving the source of emf?

VT R1 R2 R3 VT = 12 V; Re = 1.09 
2 4 6 V1 = V2 = V3 = 12 V
12 V IT = I1 + I2 + I3

V VT 12 V
Ohm’s Law: I = Ie = =
R Re 1.09 

Total current: IT = 11.0 A

 Example 3 (Cont.): Show that the current
leaving the source IT is the sum of the
currents through the resistors R1, R2, and R3.

VT R1 R2 R3 IT = 11 A; Re = 1.09 
2 4 6 V1 = V2 = V3 = 12 V
12 V IT = I1 + I2 + I3
12 V 12 V 12 V
I1 = =6A I2 = =3A I3 = =2A
2 4 6

6 A + 3 A + 2 A = 11 A Check !
Short Cut: Two Parallel Resistors
The equivalent resistance Re for two parallel
resistors is the product divided by the sum.
1 1 1 R1 R2
= + ; Re =
Re R1 R2 R1 + R2

Example: (3 )(6 )
VT R1 R2 Re =
3 + 6 
6 3
Re = 2 
Series and Parallel Combinations
In complex circuits resistors are often connected
in both series and parallel. R
1

In such cases, it’s best to VT R2 R3

use rules for series and
parallel resistances to
reduce the circuit to a
simple circuit containing
one source of emf and VT Re
one equivalent resistance.
Example 4. Find the equivalent resistance for
the circuit drawn below (assume VT = 12 V).
(3 )(6 )
4 R3,6 = = 2
3 + 6 
VT 3 6
Re = 4  + 2 
Re = 6 

4

12 V 2 12 V 6
Example 3 (Cont.) Find the total current IT.
Re = 6 
4
VT 12 V
VT 3 6 I= =
Re 6 
IT = 2.00 A

4
IT
12 V 2 12 V 6
 Example 3 (Cont.) Find the currents and the
voltages across each resistor

4 I4 = I T = 2 A

VT 3 6 V4 = (2 A)(4 ) = 8 V

The remainder of the voltage: (12 V – 8 V = 4 V)

drops across EACH of the parallel resistors.

This can also be found from

V3 = V6 = 4 V V3,6 = I3,6R3,6 = (2 A)(2 )

(Continued . . .)
Example 3 (Cont.) Find the currents and voltages
across each resistor

V4 = 8 V V6 = V3 = 4 V 4

V3 4 V VT 3 6
I3 = = I3 = 1.33 A
R3 3 
V6 4 V
I6 = = I6 = 0.667 A I4 = 2 A
R6 6 

Note that the junction rule is satisfied:

I (enter) = I (leaving) IT = I4 = I3 + I6
Kirchoff’s Laws for DC Circuits
Kirchoff’s first law: The sum of the currents
entering a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.

Junction Rule: I (enter) = I (leaving)

Kirchoff’s second law: The sum of the emf’s

around any closed loop must equal the sum
of the IR drops around that same loop.

Voltage Rule: E = IR

 Sign Conventions for Emf’s
▪ When applying Kirchoff’s laws you must
assume a consistent, positive tracing direction.
▪ When applying the voltage rule, emf’s are
positive if normal output direction of the emf is
with the assumed tracing direction.

▪ If tracing from A to B, this +

A B
emf is considered positive. E

▪ If tracing from B to A, this +

A B
emf is considered negative. E
 Signs of IR Drops in Circuits
▪ When applying the voltage rule, IR drops are
positive if the assumed current direction is
with the assumed tracing direction.

▪ If tracing from A to B, this +

A B
IR drop is positive. I

▪ If tracing from B to A, this +

A B
IR drop is negative.
I
 Kirchoff’s Laws: Loop I
1. Assume possible consistent +
flow of currents.
2. Indicate positive output I1
directions for emf’s. R1 Loop I E1
3. Indicate consistent tracing E2 R2
direction. (clockwise)
I2
Junction Rule: I2 = I1 + I3 R3 E3
I3
Voltage Rule: E = IR
E1 + E2 = I1R1 + I2R2
 Kirchoff’s Laws: Loop II
4. Voltage rule for Loop II:
Bottom Loop (II)
Assume counterclockwise
positive tracing direction. I1
R1 Loop I E1
Voltage Rule: E = IR
E2 R2
E2 + E3 = I2R2 + I3R3
I2
Would the same equation R3 Loop II E3
apply if traced clockwise? I3
Yes! - E2 - E3 = -I2R2 - I3R3
+
 Kirchoff’s laws: Loop III
5. Voltage rule for Loop III: Outer Loop (III)
+
Assume counterclockwise
positive tracing direction. I1
R1 Loop I E1
Voltage Rule: E = IR
E2 R2
E3 – E1 = -I1R1 + I3R3
I2
Would the same equation R3 Loop II E3
apply if traced clockwise? I3
Yes! E3 - E1 = I1R1 - I3R3
+
 Four Independent Equations
6. Thus, we now have four Outer Loop (III)
+
independent equations
from Kirchoff’s laws: I1
R1 Loop I E1
I2 = I 1 + I 3 E2 R2

E1 + E2 = I1R1 + I2R2
I2
E2 + E3 = I2R2 + I3R3 R3 Loop II E3
I3
E3 - E1 = -I1R1 + I3R3
+
 Example 4. Use Kirchoff’s laws to find the
currents in the circuit drawn to the right.

Junction Rule: I2 + I3 = I1 +

Consider Loop I tracing I1 5 

clockwise to obtain: Loop I 12 V
Voltage Rule: E = IR 10 

12 V = (5 )I1 + (10 )I2 I2

20 
Recalling that V/ = A, gives
I3
5I1 + 10I2 = 12 A
6V
Example 5 (Cont.) Finding the currents.

Consider Loop II tracing

clockwise to obtain:
I1 5 
Voltage Rule: E = IR
12 V
6 V = (20 )I3 - (10 )I2 10 

Simplifying: Divide by 2 I2
and V/ = A, gives Loop II 20 
I3
10I3 - 5I2 = 3 A +
6V
 Example 5 (Cont.) Three independent equations
can be solved for I1, I2, and I3.
(1) I2 + I3 = I1

(2) 5I1 + 10I2 = 12 A I1 5 

12 V
(3) 10I3 - 5I2 = 3 A 10 

Substitute Eq.(1) for I1 in (2): I2

5(I2 + I3) + 10I3 = 12 A Loop II 20 
Simplifying gives: I3
+
5I2 + 15I3 = 12 A 6V
Example 5 (Cont.) Three independent
equations can be solved.
(1) I2 + I3 = I1 (3) 10I3 - 5I2 = 3 A

(2) 5I1 + 10I2 = 12 A 15I3 + 5I2 = 12 A

Eliminate I2 by adding equations above right:

10I3 - 5I2 = 3 A Putting I3 = 0.6 A in (3) gives:
15I3 + 5I2 = 12 A 10(0.6 A) – 5I2 = 3 A
25I3 = 15 A I2 = 0.600 A

I3 = 0.600 A Then from (1): I1 = 1.20 A

 Summary of Formulas:
Rules for a simple, single loop circuit
containing a source of emf and resistors.

Single Loop
Resistance Rule: Re = R D A
-
E 2
Current : I= 3
18 V
R
3V

+
- +
Voltage Rule: E = IR C B
 Summary (Cont.)
For resistors connected in series:

For series I = I1 = I2 = I3
connections: VT = V1 + V2 + V3

Re = R1 + R2 + R3 2
3 1
12 V
Re = R
 Summary (Cont.)
Resistors connected in parallel:

For parallel V = V1 = V2 = V3
connections: IT = I1 + I2 + I3
N
1 1
= Parallel Connection
Re i =1 Ri VT R1 R2 R3

2 4 6
R1 R2
Re = 12 V
R1 + R2
 Summary Kirchoff’s Laws
Kirchoff’s first law: The sum of the currents
entering a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.

Junction Rule: I (enter) = I (leaving)

Kirchoff’s second law: The sum of the emf’s

around any closed loop must equal the sum
of the IR drops around that same loop.

Voltage Rule: E = IR

CONCLUSION: Chapter 28A
Direct Current Circuits