Principles of Ecology

 1.2.1 Adaptation
 1.2.2 Variation
 1.2.3 Speciation
 1.2.4 Mutation
 1.2.5 Natural Selection
 1.2.6 Evolution
 1.2.7 Extinction

ADAPTATION :
 Every organism is suited to live in its particular habitat.
 You know that the coconuts cannot grow in a desert while a camel cannot survive in an
ocean.
 Each organism is adapted to its particular environment.
An adaptation is thus, “the appearance or behaviour or structure or mode of life of an
organism that allows it to survive in a particular environment”.
Adaptation is any attribute of the organism (morphological, physiological, behavioural) that
enables the organism to survive and reproduce in its habitat. Many adaptations have evolved
over a long evolutionary time and are genetically fixed.

Examples of basic adaptations that help animals and plants to survive in their respective
environments.
 Shape of bird’s beak.
 The thickness or thinness of fur.
 Presence of feathers and wings in birds.
 Evergreen and deciduous nature of trees.
 Presence and absence of thorns on leaves and stems.

Variation :

 However, species are generally composed of a number of distinct populations which freely
interbreed even though they appear to be different in appearance.
 Difference in colour of skin, type of hair; curly or straight, eye colour, blood type among
different ethnic groups represent variation within human species.
Variations are induced by changes in genetic makeup due to addition or deletion of certain genes.
Mutations (a change in genetic material that results from an error in replication of DNA) causes,
change in climate, geographical barriers etc. induce variations over a period of time.
Competition and natural selection determines as to which variation will succeed and survive.
Those variations that enable a species to survive in the struggle for existence are encouraged and
promoted.

Adaptive radiation

 In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms

diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms,
particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, creates
new challenges, or opens new environmental niches.

SPECIES FORMATION: SPECIATION

 A species is defined as; “a group of similar populations of organisms whose

members are capable of interbreeding, and to produce fertile offspring (children)”.
 Humans belong to species of Homo sapiens.
 Only members of the same species can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
 The number of species surviving in the world today is the outcome of two processes
speciation and extinction.
 Speciation is the process by which new species are formed and evolution is the
mechanism by which speciation is brought about.
 A species comprises of many populations. Often different populations of a species
remain isolated due to some geographic barrier such as mountain, ocean, river, etc.
 The most common way a population undergoes speciation is by geographic isolation
(Allopatric speciation or geographic speciation).
  After a long period of time, the sub-populations become very different and get
isolated, reproductively, i.e. they no longer interbreed.
 Later even when the barrier is removed the sub-populations are unable to interbreed
and thus subsequently the sub-populations become two different species.

Mutation

 Mutation (a change in genetic material that results from an error in replication of DNA)
causes new genes to arise in a population.
 Further, in a sexually reproducing population, meiosis and fertilization produce new
combination of genes every generation, which is termed recombination.
 Thus members of the same species show ‘variation’ and are not exactly identical. Variations
are heritable.

Natural Selection

 Natural Selection is the mechanism proposed by Darwin and Wallace. Natural selection is
the process by which species adapt to their environment.
 It is an evolutionary force that selects among variations i.e. genes that help the organism to
better adopt to its environment. Such genes are reproduced more in a population due to
natural selection.
 Those offsprings which are suited to their immediate environment have a better chance of
surviving, reaching reproductive age and passing on the suitable adaptations to their
progeny.

Evolution:

A valid theory of evolution was propounded by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace in 1859. This
theory has been extended in the light of progress in genetics and is known as Neo-Darwinism.
 Evolution is defined as the idea of adaptation of characters causing further enhancements
in organisms to survive different environmental circumstances. Evolution occurs due the
basic phenomenon - survival.
  Evolution occurs due to mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, natural selection etc.
 Evolution involves the processes of natural selection, adaptation, variation etc.
 A valid theory of evolution was propounded by Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace in 1859.

 Evolution refers to the change in the genetic make up of the entire population of an area
involving many species over a long period of time, and it may or may not result in the
formation of a new species.

Evolution occurs from genetic change. Thus, the accidental ‘re-positioning’ of a gene within
the DNA of an offspring will produce change, and such change can occur many times in the
life-cycle of a given species.

SOME such changes can be to the advantage of the offspring, and as such the ‘advantaged’
offspring is likely to have a greater chance of successfully breeding (thus conferring the
advantage on future generations.

What is the basic difference between Speciation and

evolution?

Evolution is a PROCESS. Evolution MAY lead to speciation.

Evolution is said to have “occurred” when even a small change leads to better survival.

Speciation (the PHENOMENON of formation of new, reproductively isolated species) is the

result of evolution. Evolution CAN produce different species but doesn’t necessarily end up
in speciation.

Eg: Let’s say a population of black ants and anteater predators coexist in a hypothetical
environment. The environment is full of red maple leaf trees.

A mutation causes the production of a new allele of the colour gene which imparts RED
colour. Anteaters cannot see the red ants over the red maple leaves hence increasing the red
ants’ safety.

THIS IS EVOLUTION BUT NOT SPECIATION

A wind causes some leaves to blow to the other side of a nearby river. It brought along a lot
of black ants and some red ants from the original population (which still exists by the way) .
The black soil of this bank of the river helped the black ants camouflage better than the red
ants. Hence, the little red ants that did come also died.

Slowly, as the black and red populations separately grew in different environments, they
became different species.

THIS IS EVOLUTION RESULTING IN SPECIATION

Extinction

 Ever since life evolved on earth, new species better suited or adapted to the environment
have appeared and older less successful forms have died or become extinct.
 The primary reason for these extinctions is environmental change or biological competition.
 Extinction occurs when species cannot evolve fast enough to cope with the changes taking
place in their environment.
 Extinction may take place due to catastrophic natural phenomena such as tsunami,
volcanoes etc.
 In recent time, human activities such as deportation, over exploitation, environmental
pollution and environmental change are other factors responsible for extinction.

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