CLASSICAL NOTES – 2020

TOPICS:

1. Waves
2. Electromagnetism
3. Radioactivity
4. Thermionic emission
5. Electronics
6. Elementary astronomy
7. Geophysics

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 TOPIC–1 WAVES
Wave: Is a progressive disturbance propagated from a point in a medium
(matter) on space without the movement of the points
themselves.
OR Is a periodic disturbance that transfers energy from one point to another
For example, light, sound and water waves

Terms Used
1. Period: Is the time taken by the wave to repeat itself.
OR Is the time taken for the wave to complete one
cycle. It is represented by letter T. Its SI unit
is second (s)

2. Amplitude: Is the maximum displacement of the wave from the equilibrium

position.
It is represented by letter A. Its SI unit is meter (m).
3. Crest: Is the point of maximum positive displacement of the
wave from the equilibrium position

4. Trough: Is the point of maximum negative displacement of the

wave from the equilibrium position

5. Wavelength: Is the distance between two successive or adjacent crest

troughs.

OR Is the distance travelled by the wave to complete

one cycle It represented by letter Lambda (λ)

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 6. Frequency: Is the number of crests or troughs that pass a given point per
unit time.
OR Is the number of cycles per unit time.
It is represented by letter f. Its SI unit is hertz

Then 𝒇
(Hz). 1hertz (Hz) = 1per second (s-1)

=
𝟏 , where T is a periodic time
𝑻
7. Wave velocity: Is the speed at which the wave moves through a medium
OR Is the displacement of the wave per unit time.
It is represented by letter v

= 𝝀 × = 𝝀 ×𝒇
Mathematically

𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 (𝑽) =𝝀 𝟏
=
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

Therefore: 𝒗 =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑻 𝑻

𝝀𝒇

Examples:
1. Sound waves have a frequency of 16 kHz. What is the periodic
time for the waves?
Soln:
Given: 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔𝒌𝑯𝒛 = 𝟏𝟔 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛
From: 𝒇 =
→𝑻 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒔
𝑰 𝟏
𝟏
=
𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑻 𝒇 𝟎
2. A radio station transmits waves at a frequency of 95.6 MHz.
What is the wavelength of the waves transmitted? (c = 3.0 x
108 m/s)
Soln:
Given: 𝒇 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔𝑴𝑯𝒛 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑯𝒛, c = 3.0 x 108 m/s
From 𝟖
𝒗 𝟑.𝟎 𝒙𝟏𝟎
:
𝒗=𝝀𝒇 → 𝝀= = = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎
𝒇 𝟔
𝟗𝟓.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎

Class Activity – 1:1

1. From the diagram below, determine the amplitude, period and
frequency of the wave

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 ANS: Amplitude, A = 0.5m Period, T = 0.2 Frequency = 5Hz
2. From the diagram below, determine the wavelength and velocity of
the wave, frequency of the wave is 5Hz (ANS V = 10m/s)

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 3. What is the amplitude and wave length of the wave in the diagram
below?

ANS: A = 0.03m, Wavelength = 0.08 m

4. A periodic and repeating disturbance in a lake creates waves which
emanate outward from its source to produce circular wave patterns. If
the frequency of the source is 2.00 Hz and the wave speed is 5.00m/s
then the distance between adjacent wave crests is meter.(ANS:
Wavelength = 10 m)
5. Calculate the wavelength of red light in air if the frequency of red light
is 4.3 x
1014 Hz, C = 3.0 X 108 (ANS: 6.98 x 10-7m)
6. A pendulum makes exactly 40 vibrations in 20.0 s. Its period is (ANS:
0.5 s)
7. If the frequency of a wave is doubled and if the speed remains
constant, its wavelength is (ANS: halved.)
8. A wave whose speed in a snake is 4.4 m/s enters a second
snakey. The wavelength changes from 2.0 m to 3.0 m. The wave
in the second snakey travels at approximately . (ANS:
6.6 m/s.)
9. A 2.0-meter long rope is hanging vertically from the ceiling and
attached to a vibrator. A single pulse is observed to travel to the
end of the rope in 0.50 s. What frequency should be used by the
vibrator to maintain three whole waves in the rope? (ANS: 6.0
Hz)
10. Transverse stationary waves are set up in a long string using a
suitable vibrator of frequency 60 Hz. The average distance between
successive nodal points is measured to be 50 cm .Calculate the
velocity of transverse waves in the string ANS: V = 60 M/S
11. The distance between successive crests of water ripples in a
ripple tank experiment is 3.2 cm and their wave speed is 26 cm/s.
Determine the wavelength ,Frequency and period of the ripples ANS: f
= 8.125 Hz, λ=3.2cm T=0.123 Hz

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 Types of waves
 Electromagnetic wave
 Mechanical wave

Electromagnetic Wave:
 Is the type of wave which does not require a medium to transfer
energy.
Mechanical Wave:
 Is the type of waves in which a medium is required to transfer energy.

Difference between Mechanical and Electromagnetic Waves

Mechanical waves Electromagnetic waves
 Are disturbances which are  Are disturbances made
transported through a medium due to up of electric and
particle to particle interaction magnetic fields
 Requires a material  Do not requires
medium to transfer materials medium to
energy transfer energy
 Cannot travel through vacuum  Can travel through vacuum
 Examples are water waves,  Examples are X – rays,
sound waves etc Visible light etc

Types of Wave motion

 Transverse wave
 Longitudinal wave

Transverse Wave
 Is the mechanical wave in which particles of the medium vibrate in a
direction perpendicular to the direction of movement of the
wave.
 For example, water wave
 This wave enables a duck in a lake floating in the same position as
the wave passes (This is due to the vertical displacement of water waves ie
transversely)
Diagram:

 This vibration of medium cause a boat on the ocean moves up and

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 down while the waves themselves move toward the shore

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Longitudinal Wave
 Is the mechanical wave in which particles of the medium vibrate in a
direction parallel to the direction of movement of the wave.
 For example, sound wave
 It consists of compressions and rarefactions
 Compression: Is a region in a longitudinal wave where the
particles are closest together
 Rarefactions: Is a region in a longitudinal wave where the
particles are furthest apart

Differences between Transverse wave and Longitudinal waves

Transverse wave Longitudinal wave
Particles of the medium vibrate The particles of the medium vibrate
perpendicular in the same direction in which the
to the direction in which the wave wave advance
advances
It is formed of crests and troughs It is formed of a series of
compressions
and rarefactions
It can propagate only in solids and at It can propagate in all types of
the surface of liquids media (solid, liquid and gas)
There is no pressure variations The pressure and density are
maximum at compressions and
minimum at rarefactions
Examples are: Examples are:
 Ripples produced on the  Sound waves travel through
surface of water when stone is air
dropped into it  Waves in a coil (helical)
 Waves produced in a rope spring
fixed at one end when the  Vibrations of air column in
free end is moved up and organ pipes
down rapidly  Earthquake P waves
 Waves in the stretched strings
 Earthquake S waves

Properties of Waves
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  Reflection of waves
 Refraction of waves
 Interference of waves
 Diffraction of waves

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Reflection of Waves
 Is the abrupt change in the direction of propagation of a wave that
strikes the boundary between two different medium.
See the figure below
Reflection of Mechanical Waves

Laws of reflection of waves

1st.”The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection”
2nd. “The incident direction of propagation, the reflected direction of propagation and
the normal all lie in the same plane”

Applications of Reflection of Waves

 Is used in the designing of plane mirrors
 Reflection of waves(sound waves) used in measuring distances
 Sonar system rely on the reflection of sound waves to assist
ships in navigating, communicating and detecting other
vessels
 In geology, it is important in the study of seismic waves
N.B SONAR = Sound Navigation and Ranging
Ripple Tank Experiment
 Ripple tank Is a shallow glass tank of water used in schools and
colleges to demonstrate the basic properties of
waves.
 It is useful in demonstrating wave properties such as reflection and

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 refraction.

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Main Parts of Ripple Tank
(a)Shallow tank of water
 Shallow tank of water is the source of waves in which an
oscillating paddle generates parallel water waves
(b)Motor
 The rotating armature (axle) of an electric motor makes the wooden
(metal bar) to vibrate on water surface and generating ripples
(c)Oscillating paddle
 Oscillating paddle is the one in which transform mechanical energy
generated by motor by off centre mass to wave energy in a Shallow
tank of water
(d)Lamp (Bulb/ filament)
 Bulb or filament which is used to illuminate the water surface to see the
water waves onto the white board or white sheet below the ripple tank
(e)Paper sheet
 Paper sheet used to display shadow of the wave pattern placed under the
tank
(f) Various obstacles
 Various obstacles is paced in the tray to observe properties of waves e.g.
reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction. Example, laying glass,
rectangular barrier, curved barrier (concave and convex barrier) etc
(g)Stroboscope
 The stroboscope enables the observer to see the waves as stationary
(h)Laying glass
 Laying glass used to vary the depth (tray thickness) of the water.
This allows observing waves travelling from one to another
medium
(i) Metal bar
 A metal bar (wooden bar) is screwed to the electric motor and suspended
above the ripple tank with rubber (elastic) bands and touching the water
surface
(j) Power supply
 Power supply for electric motor
Refraction of Waves
 Is the change in direction of waves as they pass from one media to
another due to change in speed and wave length
 It obeys Snell’s law: ie

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Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 13
 waves decrease with decrease in wavelength. 𝒗 ∝ 𝝀
 The speed of waves depends on the medium i.e velocity of the

That is: 𝒗 = 𝒌𝝀
= → =
𝒗𝟏 𝝀𝟏
→
𝒗
𝒗𝟏

𝝀 𝝀𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝝀𝟐

, is the refractive index of the second medium

𝒗𝟏
But the ratio
𝒗𝟐
relative to the first medium
N.B
 The length of water waves in shallow water is usually shorter than in deep
water
 When wave is refracted into a less medium, the speed of wave increases and
vice versa
 When wave is refracted into a less medium, the wave length of
wave increases and vice versa

Applications of Refraction of Waves

 It is used in optical instruments which focus or spread light. For
Example, microscopes and telescopes
 It is used in dispersion of light waves
 It is used to determine the eye’s refractive error

Individual task
1. During the day sound from distant sources are not very clear unlike during
the night
ANS: During the day sound waves are refracted upwards from the hot
earth, while at night, sound waves are refracted downwards, hence
are much louder.
2. Give reason why the amplitude of the wave does not change as it
crosses the boundary
ANS: Because there is no LOSS of energy therefore amplitude does not
change

Interference of Waves
 Is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant
wave of greater, lower, or the same amplitude
OR
 Is the pattern formed when two or more waves overlap in medium
Types of Interference
 Constructive Interference
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  Destructive Interference
Principle of Superposition
It states that
“The resultant displacement at any points is equal to the sum of the
displacements of different waves at the point”

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NB:
 When two different crests meet at the same point in the same
direction results a greater amplitude than individual, this refers as
constructive interference

 When crest and trough meet at the same point in the opposite
direction results smaller amplitude than individual, this refers as
destructive interference

N.B
 Soft sound occurs in regions where sound waves interfere destructively
 Loud sound occurs where sound waves interfere constructively
 Node: Is a point on a stationary wave where particles have zero
displacement
 Antinode: Is a point on a stationary wave where particles have maximum
displacement

Applications of Interference of wave

 Creation of hologram. holograph is a photograph of an interference
pattern which is able to produce a three dimensional image when
suitably illuminated
 Noise reduction system. For example, earphones capture environment
sound which destructed by second computer sound
 Concert halls and auditoriums designed to reduce the amount of
destructive interference by introducing sound absorber

Diffraction of Waves
Diffraction: Is the change in the direction of waves as they pass through an
opening or around a barrier in their pass
OR Is the spreading of waves around obstacles

NB:
 It is possible to hear sound round obstacles but not possible to see light. This is
because sound waves have longer wavelengths therefore are more readily diffracted
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 unlike light waves , which have very short wavelengths therefore not readily
diffracted
 Diffraction of wave is greater when the wave length and width of the gap is
the same
 We hear someone sound even she/he behind the building due to diffraction of wave
sound

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Factors affecting diffraction

o The size of the opening gap (the size of gap ∝

𝟏
o The wavelength (the shorter wavelength, the greater the of angle of diffraction)

𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆
)

Applications of diffraction of Waves

 It is used in determining the crystal structure of materials
 It is used in measuring the coefficient of thermal expansion, crystalline
size and thick of thickness of thin films
 It is used in determining the types and phases present in a specimen
where the spacing of obstacles (atoms) is between 1 and 3nm

Sound Waves
 Sound wave is a longitudinal wave that produced by vibrating object.
 For example, turning fork
Propagation of Sound Wave
 Sound travels by vibration of particles to transfer energy to the next
particles until the sound reaches another point
Qn: Why solid materials transfer sound faster than liquid/gas
Answer: The molecules/particles of solid materials are packed together

Sources of Sound Wave

 Almost everything ranging from people, animals, plants and machines

Factors affecting speed of sound in air

 Temperature
V ∝ T, e.g, Vda = V a + 0.6 Tc (Vda = velocity of sound in dry air)

o In the same direction : V ∝ W

 Direction of Wind

𝑉 ∝
1
𝑊
o In opposite direction:

𝑽 ∝
𝟏
 Humidity
𝑯

𝑽 ∝
𝟏
 Density of Air
𝝆

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Audibility Range
 Audibility range is the range of frequency detected by human ear
NB:
o The human ear is most sensitive to sound with a frequency around
3000Hz
o Sound below 20Hz is called infrasonic Sound
o Sound above 20000Hz is called ultrasonic sound
o Dogs, cat, bat and dolphins detect ultrasonic sound
o Bats can fly in the dark without hitting anything because they are
guided by ultrasonic waves produced by them
o Human ear can distinguish two simultaneous sound if their
frequencies differ by at least 7Hz

The Human Ear

 Human ear is the human organ responsible for conversion of sound
energy to mechanical energy to nerve impulse that transfers to
the brain for interpretation. It can distinguish frequency,
amplitude and direction.

Parts of human Ear

It consists of three basic parts include
 outer ear
 Middle ear
 Inner ear

Mechanism of Hearing
 Earflap collect sound waves, which pass through the ear canal to
hit drum which results vibrations of interconnected bones where
vibrate cochlea fluid through (oval window) results vibrations of
hair cells which transform mechanical energy to electrical impulses,
which transmitted to the brain where they are decoded and
interpreted as sound

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N.B Hearing: Is the process by which the ear transforms sound vibrations
in the external environment into nerve impulses that are
conveyed to the brain where they are interpreted as sounds

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Echo
 Echo is a reflected sound which is heard distinctly from the original sound
 Since sound waves go and bounce back its distance becomes 2d.

 Hence speed (v) of sound associated with echo is calculated by, v = 𝟐𝒅

𝒕
NB: Always echo reaches the ear more than 0.1s
From: v = 𝟐𝒅
𝒕
Then: 2d = v x t = 0.1 x 340, d = 17m
 Therefore: An obstacle must be at least 17 m away for a distinct echo to be
heard

The accoustics of buildings

 Is the science of controlling the quality and amount of sound inside a
building
 It is used to allow for pleasant sound in a concert hall and to reduce
echoes and noise within an office building
 When a hall has many people, most of the sound (including echoes) is
absorbed by clothes and skins of the audience, thus echoes do not occur
(noise reduced)
 It also concerns suppressing sound coming from outside the building such as
apartments
Reverberation
 Are the multiple reflections of sound produced when it travels in an enclosed
room
Reverberation time
 Is the time required for the sound to decay in a closed space or cavity

Examples
1. An echo sounder produces a pulse and an echo is received from the
sea – bed after 0.4 seconds. If the speed of sound in water is 1500
m/s, calculate the depth of the sea –bed
Soln:
Given: v = 1500 m/s, total time = 0.4 s
From: 𝑣 = → 𝒔= = = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒎
2𝑠 𝒗𝒕 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎.𝟒

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 𝑡 𝟐 𝟐

2. In determining the depth of an ocean an echo sounder produces

ultrasonic sound. Give reasons why ultra sound is preferred for
this purpose
ANS: (a) Ultra sound penetrates deepest (b) Ultra sound is reflected easily by tiny grains of sand

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Class Activity – 1:2
1. A gun was fired and the echo from a cliff was heard 8s later. How far was
the gun from the cliff? (ANS: d= 1400m)
2. (a) Define an echo
(b) Name any two factors that affect the speed of sound in air
(c) Explain briefly why sound produced in hall with many people is
heard more clearly than when the hall has few people?
(d) A person standing 99m from the foot of mountains claps his hands and
hears
an echo 0.6 second later. Calculate the speed of the sound in the air (AN: V
= 330m/s) ANS (c) When a hall has many people, most of the sound (including
echoes) is absorbed by clothes and skins of the audience, thus echoes do not
occur
3. It is possible to hear sound round obstacles but not possible to see light. Give
reason
4. Two sets of transverse waves arrive at the same time. Under what conditions
do they:
(i) Cancel out (ANS: trough from one arrive at the same time as crest from the other)
(ii) Produce a larger wave (ANS: A crest from one arrive at the same time as a
crest from the other (constructive interference))
5. A fathometer produces sound in a ship and receives two echoes where
there is a raised sea bed one after 2.5 seconds and the other after
3.0 seconds. Find the height of the raised sea bed (Take V in water
= 1460 m/s) (ANS: h1-h2 = 365 m)
6. A girl standing 200 m from the foot of a high wall claps her hands and
the echo reaches her 1.16 seconds later. Calculate the velocity of
sound in air using this observation (ANS: V = 344.8 m/s)
7. From the figure below, give reason why, an observer moving along
the line AB hears loud sound at same point and soft sound at other
points. How is the sound along the line OC? (when he moves along

line OC hears loud sound only)

8. A person stands 100 m from the foot of a tall building claps his hands
and hears an echo 0.588 seconds later .Calculate the velocity of sound
in air (ANS: 340 m/s)
9. The velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s, Find the wavelength in water
of sound wave of frequency 660 Hz if the velocity of sound in
water is 1. 32 km/s
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10. A source of sound produces waves of wavelength 0.8 m in air.
The same source of sound produces waves of wavelength 4.0 m in air. If
the velocity of sound in air is 332 ms-1 , find the velocity of sound in
water (ANS: v = 332 m/s)
11. How far does sound travel in air when a turning fork of
frequency 250 Hz completes 50 vibrations? The speed of sound in air
is 340 m/s. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 𝒎)
12. A bat emits
ultrasonic sound of frequency 100 kHz in air. If this sound meets a
water surface, what is the wavelength of (i) the reflected sound (ii) the
transmitted

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 sound? If the speed of sound in air = 340m m/s and in water = 1486 m/s

(i) 𝝀 = 𝟑. 𝟒 x 10-3 m (ii) 𝝀 = 1.486 x 10-3 m)

(ANS:

the waves. The speed of radio waves = 3 x 108 m/s. (ANS: 𝝀 =

13. If the frequency of radio waves is 600 kHz, find the wavelength of

𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎)
14. A stone is dropped into a well 19.6 m deep and the impact of sound
is heard after
2.056 seconds. Find the velocity of sound in air (ANS: v = 350 m/s)
15. A personal with deep voice singing a note of frequency 200Hz is
producing sound waves whose velocity is 330m/s. find the sound's wave
length. (ANS: λ = 1.65m)
16. A hospital uses an ultrasonic scanner to locate tumours in a
tissue. What is the wavelength of sound in a tissue in which the speed

4.2 MHz. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟓 𝒎)

of sound is 1.7 kms-1? The operating frequency of the scanner is

17. Calculate the velocity of the wave whose

wavelength is 1. 7 x10 m and frequency 2x1014Hz (ANS: 3.4
-2

1x1012m/s)
18. Find the wavelength of sound wave whose frequency is
550Hz and speed is 330m/s (ANS: The wavelength is
0. 6m) NB: The higher the frequency of a wave, the shorter the
wavelength and the lower is the frequency on the wave, the longer is
the wavelength.
19. The radio waves
have a velocity of about 3.0 x10 m/s and the wavelength of
8

1500m. Calculate the frequency of these waves? (ANS: f =

2. 0 x 10 Hz)
5

20. Consider the figure below illustrates part of a wave traveling

across the water at a particular place, Calculate;
(a) The frequency of the wave (ANS: f = 10 Hz)
(b) The wavelength of the wave (ANS:  = 0.1 m)
(c) The amplitude of the wave (ANS: A = 0.2 m)
(d) The velocity (ANS: v = 2m/s)

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21. The wavelength of signals from a radio transmitter is 1500m and
the frequency is the 200 KHz. To what speed does the radio wave

KHz? (ANS: V = 3 x 108 m/s, 𝝀= 3. 0 x 102m)

travel?.What is the wavelength of a transmitter operating at 1000

22. A certain wave has a periodic time of 0.04 second and

travels at 30 x 10 m/s Find its wavelength. (ANS:  = 1.2 x 107 m)
7

23. A signal is sent to the seabed from the bottom of a ship. The signal
comes back in one – fifth of a second .How deep is the water?

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24. The commercial Programme of radio
Tanzania is broadcast on wavelengths of 1500m and 247 m. The
frequency of the 1500 m wave is 200 kHz. What is (a)The
velocity of the wave? (b)The frequency of the 247 m wave?

25. Sound travels 1.7 Km in 5 seconds .The time between a flash of

lightning and the thunder is 10 s. How far away is the storm?
26. Explain how bats can fly in the dark without hitting anything

Uses of Echo
 Used to find depth of ocean (lakes)
 Looking at babies in the womb ( pre – natal scanning ) by Ultrasound
 To detect the submarines
 To detect large groups of fish
 To detect the wrecked ships
 To detect the dangerous rocks

Musical sounds and noise

 All sounds which produce sensation of hearing may be roughly dived
into two classes namely (i) musical sounds (ii) noise
(a) Musical sound
 Is a pleasant, continuous and uniform sound produced by regular and
periodic vibrations
OR
 Is a sound produced by continuous and regular vibrations
 Example sound produced by turning fork, flute and piano
(b) Noise
 Is an unpleasant ,discontinuous and non–uniform sound produced by
irregular succession of disturbances
OR
 Is the random and non-structured sound musical scale that not
appealing to the human ear
 Example is sound produced by a falling brick, the clapping of two wooden
blocks
NB:
 Tone (Musical note) is a sound of regular frequency
Properties of Musical Sounds
 These are loudness, pitch and timbre (quality)
Loudness
 Loudness is the intensity of the sound as perceived by the human ear.
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  The large the amplitude, the louder the sound

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Pitch
 Is the degree of highness or lowness of a tone.
 The higher the frequency, the higher the pith produced.
Timbre
 Timbre is the quality of sound produced by an instrument.
 For example, different instruments produce different sound
N.B:
 The difference between sounds are caused by intensity, pitch and tone
 For example a violin sounds different than a flute playing the same
pitch. This is because they have a different tone or sound
quality

Musical Instruments
 Musical instrument is a device constructed or modified for the
purpose of making music

Categories of musical instruments

String Instrument
 Is the instrument which produces sound from stretched strings
that are plunked, bowed or struck
 Example, guitar is plunked, violin is bowed and piano is struck
Percussion Instrument
 Is the instrument which produces sound by struck with an implement,
shaken, rubbed, scrapped or by any other action which sets the
object into vibrations
 Example drum, cymbals, tambourine, marimba and xylophone.
Wind Instrument
 Is the instrument which produces sound by blowing.
 Example recorders, flutes, vuvuzela and trumpets

Stationary Waves
 A stationary wave is the wave which occurs when two waves are
travelling in opposite direction with the same speed and

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 29

 frequency are superposed

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 NB:
 When adding together producing maximum displacement (amplitude)
called
antinodes and when cancel out producing zero displacement called nodes

 Distance between adjacent nodes or antinodes is equal to half wave

length,
i.e L = λ/2
Fundamental Frequency(note)
 Is the lowest frequency of a vibrating object
Fundamental note: Is the primary note of the harmonic series
Fundamental harmonic
A harmonic: Is a wave whose frequency is an integral (whole number)
multiple of the fundamental frequency
OR
 Is a note whose frequency is a whole number that of the fundamental
frequency

Overtone (Fundamental Overtone)

 Is any frequency higher than the fundamental frequency of a sound
NB:
 The fundamental note is equal to first harmonic
 The second harmonic is equal to first overtone
 Stationary wave in a string have certain fixed wavelength
Consider the diagrams below
For fundamental note (1st harmonics)

From: 𝑳 = → λ = 2L
𝝀
𝟐
→ 𝒗 = 2Lf Then: 𝒇 =
𝒗

𝟐𝒍
From: V = λƒ

∴ 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍
Written
�𝒗=𝟐
by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 31
 For 1st overtone (2nd harmonic)

From: L = 2 × ( ) → λ =2( 𝑳)
𝜆

2 𝟐

Then: f1 = =
𝒗
= 𝟐𝒇
𝒗
From: V = λƒ
𝒗
𝟐 𝒗
= × =𝟐× �
𝝀 𝒍 𝟐 𝒍 𝟐𝒍
�

∴ 𝟏 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 ( 𝟐 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄), 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝒇𝟎

𝒔𝒕 𝒏𝒅

For 2nd overtone (3rd harmonic)

:L=𝟑 ×( ) →𝝀=
From 𝝀 𝟐𝒍

𝟐 𝟑

= 𝟑𝒇
From: V = λƒ
𝒇
𝑣 𝟑𝒗
= =𝒗 = 𝟑 ×
Then:
𝟐 𝟎
𝟐 𝟐𝒍
𝝀 𝒍

∴ 𝟐 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝟑 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄), 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟑𝒇𝟎

𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒅

Generally the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 overtone of a stationary wave is given by

𝒇𝒏 = (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒇𝟎 … … … … (𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏,
𝟐, 𝟑 … . . )

Sonometer
 Sonometer is an instrument used to study the properties of stationary
wave
 It is an apparatus made of a hollow box having two holes

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 32

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 33
  It is used to study the relationship between the frequency of the sound
produced by a plucked string, and the tension, length and mass per unit
length of the string.
 N.B: Stringed musical instruments are provided with a hollow box in
order to amplify the sound made by the vibrations of the strings of the
instrument.

Factors affecting the frequency of a vibrating string

 Length of wire, L
 Tension of the wire, T
 Mass per unit length, μ (diameter and density)

Length (L) of stretched string (Wire)

 When the length of the string is changed, it will vibrate with a
different frequency. The shorter strings have higher frequency and
therefore higher pitch
 Example when a musician presses her finger on a string, she
shortens its length .The more fingers she adds to the string ,the
shorter she makes it and the higher the pitch will be
𝟏
 Therefore: The frequency of a stretched string is inversely proportional to
𝑳
its length (f ∝ …...........(i) )
𝟏
If 𝒇∝ →
𝒌
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇 = → 𝒇𝒍 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒍 𝒍

𝒐 𝒇 = 𝒍
∴ 𝒇𝟏𝒍𝟏 = �𝟏 𝟐 𝟐�
𝒇𝟐𝒍𝟐 𝒓 𝟏
� �

Tension (T) of the stretched string

 Tension refers to how tightly the string is stretched
 Tightening the string gives it a higher frequency while loosening it
lowers the frequency
 Example when string players tighten or loosen their strings , they
are altering the pitches (frequencies) to make them in tune
 Therefore: The frequency of a vibrating string is directly proportional to

If 𝒇 ∝ √𝑻 → 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇 = 𝒌√𝑻 →
𝒇
the square root of the tension T (f ∝ √𝑇..........ii)

√𝑻 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 34

 ∴ 𝒇 = 𝒇 𝑶 𝒇 = 𝑻
√𝑻𝟏
𝟏 √𝑻𝟐
𝟐 𝑹 𝟏 √ 𝑻
𝟏
𝒇 𝟐

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 35

Mass per Unit Length (𝝁) of a vibrating string
 This includes the thickness (diameter) and heaviness (density) of a sting
 Thus the thicker and heavier a string is, the lower is its frequency
for a given length and tension and vice versa
 Example a thin string with a 10 mm diameter will have a frequency
twice as high as one with a larger, 20 mm diameter
 Also the instruments often have strings made of different materials.
The strings used for low pitches will be made of a more dense
material than the strings used for high pitches
 Therefore: The frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of

mass per unit length, μ (𝒇 ∝ √ 𝒊𝒊𝒊)

𝟏...................
the

If 𝒇 ∝
𝟏 → 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇√𝝁 = 𝒌 → 𝒇√𝝁 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
√
𝝁

𝒐 𝒇 𝝁
∴ 𝒇𝟏√𝝁𝟏 = �𝟏 𝟐
=
𝒇𝟐√𝝁𝟐 𝒓 √ 𝝁
𝟐
� 𝟏

 Also for a diameter and density (𝒇 ∝ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇 ∝√ )

𝟏
𝟏 𝝆
𝑫
Now combine the three equations

𝒇 ∝ √
𝟏 …................Remove proportionality constant
𝑻
𝑳 𝝁

𝒇 = 𝒌√
𝟏𝑻

𝑳 𝝁

𝒇 = √
Where 𝟏 𝑻
: k = 1/2, (experimentally) Then:
𝟐𝒍 𝝁

𝟏 𝟏√
∴𝒇 𝑻 √ =
= 𝟐𝒍
𝟐𝒍 𝒎
(fundamental frequency/first

Since 𝝁 =
𝒎

𝒍
(mass per unit le ngth)
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 36
From: V = 𝝀𝒇 → 𝒗 = 𝟐𝒍 (
𝟏
=)
√ =√
𝑻
𝑻 𝑻𝑳
√
𝟐𝒍 𝝁 𝝁 𝒎

Since𝒍 =
𝝀 → 𝝀 = 𝟐𝒍 (for fundamental frequency)
𝟐

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 37

 ∴
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 , 𝑣 = =√
𝑻
𝑻𝑳

√
𝝁 𝒎

Therefore for the nth harmonic is given by

𝒇� = √ =𝒏(
𝒏 𝑻𝑳 𝟏
𝟐𝑳 𝟐𝒍
√� )𝒎
𝑻𝑳
𝒎
(𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑦 𝒇𝒏 = frequency of n harmonic, n = 1,2,3,4 etc)
th

Example
1. The vibrating length of a stretched wire is altered at constant
tension until the wire oscillates in unison with a turning fork of
frequency 320 Hz. The length of the wire is again altered until it
oscillates in unison with a fork of unknown frequency. If the two
lengths are 90 cm and 6o cm, respectively , determine the unknown
frequency
Solution
Given that: f1 = 320 Hz, L1 = 90 cm, L2 = 60 cm, f2 =?
From: 𝒇 ∝
→ =
𝟏 𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟐

𝒍 𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟏

∴𝒇 = = = 𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝑯𝒛
𝒍 𝟏𝒇 𝟏 𝟑𝟐𝟎×𝟗𝟎

𝟔𝟎
𝟐
𝒍𝟐

Class Activity – 1:3

Use acceleration due to gravity, g = 10 m/s2

1. A string has a length of 75cm and a mass of 8.2g, the tension in

the string is 18N.Calculate the 1st harmonic and 3rd harmonic (ANS:
f1 = 27Hz, f3 = 81Hz)
2. A string of length 1 m and mass 5 x 10-4 kg fixed at both ends
is under a tension of 20 N. It is plucked at a point situated 25 cm
from one end. What would be the frequency of vibrations of the
string? (ANS: f = 200 Hz)
3. A wire of length 140 cm and mass 0.52 x 10-3 kg is stretched by
means of a load of 16 kg. Calculate the frequency of the
fundamental note.(ANS: f = 234 Hz)
4. The vibration length of a stretched wire is altered at constant tension
until the wire oscillates in unison with a turning fork of frequency 320
Hz. The length of a wire is again altered until it oscillates in unison
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 with a fork of unknown frequency. If the two lengths are 90 cm and
65.5 cm, respectively, determine the unknown frequency (ANS:
ƒ2 = 440 Hz)
5. The length of a sonometer wire between two fixed ends is 110
cm. Where should the two bridges be placed so as to divide the wire
into three segments whose fundamental frequencies are in the

(from: 𝒇 ∝ f1L1 = f2L2 = f3L3, Thus L1=60 cm,L2 =30 cm and L3 = 20 cm)
ratio 1:2:3?
𝟏
,
𝒍

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 39

 6. A 90 cm long wire of a sitar has a fundamental frequency of
256Hz. At what distance from the upper end should the wire be
compressed so that a note of frequency 384 Hz is produced? (ANS:
L = 30 cm)
7. A nylon string is stretched between supports 1.2 m apart. Given that
the speed of sound in the string is 800 ms-1,find the frequency of
the fundamental vibration and the first two overtones (ANS: f0 =333 Hz,
f1 = 666 Hz and f3 = 1000 Hz)
8. A Sonometer wire of length 40cm between two bridges produces
a note of 512Hz when plucked at the midpoint. Calculate the
length of the wire that would produce a note of 256Hz with the
same tension (ANS: L2 = 0.8m)
9. A sonometer wire of length 40 cm between two bridges produces a
note of 512 Hz when plucked at the mid point .Calculate the length
of the wire that would produce a note of 256 Hz with the same
tension
10. The frequency obtained in a plucked string is 500Hz when the tension is 3 N
.calculate
(i) The frequency when the tension is increased to 10 N (ANS: 912.8 Hz)
(ii) The tension needed to produce a note of frequency 800 Hz
(ANS: T =7.7 N)
11. A plucked string of length 30 cm has a mass per unit length of 0.5
kg/m .If the tension in the string is equal to 40 N ,Find :
(a)
The fundamental frequency (ANS: f0 = 14.9 Hz)
(b)
The first overtone frequency (ANS: f1 = 29.8Hz)
(c)
The second overtone frequency (ANS: f2 = 44.7 Hz)
12. A plucked wire of 10 m long and radius of 7mm has a density of 500
kg/m3. Calculate
(i) The fundamental frequency (ANS: f0 = 0.5 Hz)
(ii) The first overtone frequency (ANS: f1 = 1.0 Hz) needed to
produce a tension of 8 N
13. A string has a length of 75cm and a mass 0f 8.2g. The tension
in the string is 18N. Calculate the velocity of the sound wave in the
string. (ANS: V = 40.5m/s.)
14. Given that the velocity of the sound
wave emitted from a string is 50m/s the Length of the string is
40cm and the mass of the string is 0.0004kg calculate the tension
of the string. (ANS: T = 2.5N)
15. A sonometer wire of length 50cm vibrate with frequency 384Hz.
Calculate the length of the sonometer wire so that it vibrates with
frequency of 512Hz.(37.5 m)
16. A sonometer wire of length 40cm between two bridges produces
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 40
 a note of frequency 512Hz when plucked at midpoint. Calculate the
length of the wire that would produce a note of frequency 256Hz
with the some tension.(L = 80cm)
17. The frequency obtained from a plucked string is 400Hz when the
tension is 2 Newton. Calculate;
a) The frequency when the tension is increased to 8N (ANS: f= 800Hz)
b) The tension needs to produce a note of frequency 600Hz (ANS: T =
4.5N)
18. Given that the frequency obtained from a plucked string is
800Hz when the tension is 8N. Calculate;
(a)The frequency when the tension is doubled (ANS: f = 1131. 2
Hz)
b) The tension required when the frequency is halved (T = 1.414 N)

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 41

 19. Under constant tension the note produced by a plucked string is
300Hz when the length is 0.9m;
a) At what length is the frequency 200Hz? (ANS: L2 = 1.35m)
b) What frequency is produce at 0.3m (ANS: f = 90Hz)
20. A string fixed between two supports that are 60cm a part. The
speed of a transverse wave in a string is 420m /s. Calculate
the wavelength and the frequency for Fundamental note,
Second overtone and Fifth overtone (ANS: fo = 350 λ = 1.2 m,
f3 = 1050 λ = 0.4 m , f5 = 2100 λ = 0.2m)
21. A string is fixed two ends 50cm a part. The velocity of a wave
in a string is 600m/s. Calculate;
(a) The first five over tone (ANS: 1200Hz, 1800Hz, 2400Hz, 3000Hz, and
3600Hz).
(b) The tenth overtones (The tenth overtone is 6600Hz)
NOTE: In stationary wave a string does note compose up to ten
overtones, though mathematically is possible. In real practical of the
sonometer by using turning, is possible for the second and third
overtone.
22. Given that the refractive index of glass is 1.52. The wavelength of the
radio waves in vacuum is 1.5 x 103m .Calculate the wavelength of the radio
waves in glass.(λ =986.8 m)
23. A guitar wire fixed between two supports 60cm a part
produced wave of frequency 500Hz. Calculate;
(a) The frequency of a wave when the length of the guitar wire is
reduced to quarter
(b) The length of the guitar wire when the frequency of the wave
produced is 2000Hz(ANS: f = 2000Hz ,L = 150m)
24. A string A is 2m long and has a linear mass density of 9 g/cm3.
String B has has a linear mass density of 18g/cm3 .If the tension in
both strings is the same
,how long must string B be for it to be raised to hear the next peak in
intensity
25. What is the approximate distance of a thunderstorm when you note a

between the flash of lighting and the sound of thunder? (d ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎 ≈ 𝟏

3 s delay

𝒌𝒎)
26. How long does it take for a radio signal sent from the earth to
reach the moon? The distance from the earth to the moon is 3.84 x
106 m
27. During a storm ,thunder is heard 7 s after the lightning is
seen .If the temperature of the air is 28 0C ,how far away is the
storm ( C = 3 x 108 m/s)

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 28. In a resonance tube experiment ,the smallest value of L for
which a peak in sound intensity occurs is 9.0 cm .How much must
the tube be raised to hear the next peak in intensity
29. A helicopter is hovering at an altitude of 200 m above the
surface of a lake. A speaker on the helicopter is sending out sound
waves ,which are reflected from both the surface of the water and
the bottom of the lake .If the difference in arrival times of the two

(The atmospheric temperature is 20 0 C) (ANS: h ≈ 𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒎)

echoes is measured to be 0.24 s, what is the depth of the lake ?

30. Matter expands when heated and contracts when

cooled .Explain why a musician must re – tune a stringed
instrument if its temperature changes
31. Explain why it is not advisable for soldiers to march across a bridge
in rhythm.

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 32. Guitars have strings of varying thickness .Which of the strings
(thickest or thinnest) produces the highest frequency of musical notes?
Explain your answer .
33. A loud sound is made and the echo from a distant cliff is heard 8 s
later .If the atmospheric temperature is 220 C, how far away is the
cliff?

Forced Vibration and Resonance

Forced Vibration
 Is the vibration in a system as a result of impulse received from
another system vibrating nearby
OR
 Is type of vibration in which a force is repeatedly applied to a mechanical
system
RESONANCE
 Is the tendency of a system to oscillate at maximum amplitude at certain
frequencies from another system.
OR
 Is a phenomenon that occurs when the frequency at which a force is periodically
applied is equal or near equal to one of the natural frequencies of the system
on which it acts
OR
 Is a large increase in amplitude of vibration in a body when it
interacts with another vibrating body
OR
 Is the phenomena where by the response of the system that is set into forced
vibration when the driving frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the
responding system.
NB:
A resonance is said to occur when a body or system is set into vibration
or oscillation at its own natural frequency as a result of impulses received
from another system which is vibrating at the same frequency.
OR
A Resonance is said to occur when the amplitude of an object’s oscillations
are increased by the matching vibrations of another object

Example of Resonance
1. A group of troupes was marching towards the bridge the bridge
collapsed even before it is approached.
2. If a very loud sound is produced near the mouth of the glass bottle, the
glass is likely to break.
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 3. The buildings are likely to collapse following the occurrences of the earth
quake
4. Applied when turning the knob of a radio. This occurs when changing the
natural frequency of the receiver, it matches the transmission frequency of
the radio station. When the two frequencies match ,energy transfer occurs
and we listen to the selected channel

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Resonance in a Closed Pipe
 When a turning fork is sounded at the top of a tube with one end open
and the other closed, the air in the tube vibrate freely (resonates) at
a certain length of a tube. The resonance is observed as a loud sound
produced in the tube when the proper length obtained
Consider the figure below

 Considering the end correction, + 𝒄 = 𝝀...........................

𝟒
(i)

𝒍𝟏

length is increased to 𝒍𝟐
 For second harmonic or first overtone is produced when the

+𝒄=
𝟑𝝀......................

then 𝒍𝟐
 Considering the end correction,
𝟒
(ii)

Now, consider 𝒍the two equations

𝝀 + 𝒄 = → 𝒄 = −
𝝀

𝒍
…..............(iii)
𝟏 𝟏
𝒍 𝟒 𝟒

𝟑𝝀+ 𝒄= → 𝒄=
𝟑𝝀

−𝒍
…..............(iv)
𝟐 𝟒 𝟒 𝟐

− 𝒍
Compare the two equations ((iii) and (iv))
= − 𝒍
𝝀 𝟑𝝀
𝒍 → − 𝒍 𝟑𝝀
−
𝝀

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 → 𝒍
− 𝒍
𝟐=
𝝀
𝟏 𝟐 𝟒 𝟐 𝟏
𝟒 𝟒 𝟏 𝟐
𝟒

∴ 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒕𝒉, 𝝀 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐
− 𝒍𝟏)

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 47

 Whereby: V is the speed of sound in air column and ƒ is frequency of sound
in air

Class Assignment – 2:3

1. A turning fork of frequency 512 Hz is sounded at the mouth of a tube
closed at one end with a movable piston. It is found that resonance
occurs when the column of air is 18cm long and again when the

(ANS: 𝝀 = 0.66m and VA = 338m/s)

column is 51cm long. Find wave length and velocity of sound in air

2. In a closed pipe, the first resonance is at 23cm and second at 73cm.

(ANS: c = 0.002 m, 𝝀 = 1.0 m)

determines the wave length of the sound and the end correction of pipe

3. A resonance tube produces a loud sound for the first time when the length
of the air column is 17 cm and a loud sound at the second time when the
length of the air column is 51 cm .The turning fork frequency used is 500
Hz .Determine the speed of the air in the tube (ANS: V = 340 m/s)
4. The first resonance in the tube of resonance occurs when the length
of the air column is 20 cm. What are the lengths of air column in the
second resonance and third resonance respectively (ANS: 60 cm and
100 cm respectively)
5. (a) Identify three characteristics of sound which distinguish one note from
another. Hence state the physical factors which correspondingly define the
mentioned characteristics
(b) A resonance tube whose one end is closed and other open, resonance
to a
note of frequency 560Hz when the length of the air column is 15cm.
determine the wave length of this sound in air. What is the shortest
length of the air column which resonates in similar conditions to a
note of frequency 1000 Hz (ANS: a. frequency, Loudness (amplitude) and
Quality of music note (Timbre) .b L2 = 0.0504m)
6. A turning fork of frequency 250Hz is used to produce resonance in an
opened pipe.
Given that the velocity of sound in air is 350m/s. find the length of tube which
gives
(a)First resonance (b) Third resonance (ANS: L = 1.4m)
7. The length of a closed pipe is 160mm. calculate the wavelength and the
frequency of (i) The first overtone (ii) The third harmonic (λ = 0.213,
f2 ≈1500,Hz, f3 = 2500Hz)
8. A pipe closed at one end has a length of 100 cm. If the velocity of
sound in air of the pipe is 340m/s. Calculate the frequency of;
(a) The fundamental (f0 = 85 Hz) (b) The
first overtone ( f1 = 255 Hz)
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 48
Resonance in a closed Pipe (without end correction, c)

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 49

  From: 𝑣 = 𝜆 𝑓 →𝑓 =
𝑣

𝜆
𝑙 =�
→ 𝜆 = 4𝑙
But
�
4

∴ 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍
= 𝟒𝒍
𝒗
𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 , 𝒇𝟎

For the 1st overtone (2nd harmonic)

 From: 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 →𝑓 =
𝑣

𝑙 =3
→ 𝜆=
But 4𝑙
𝜆
3
4

= =𝟑×
𝟑𝒗
, 𝒃𝒖𝒕
𝒗
𝒇
𝟒𝒍 = 𝒗
𝒇 =
𝒗
𝟎
𝟏 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍
𝟑

∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟑𝒇𝟎

For the 2nd overtone (3rd harmonic)

𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇=
From: 𝒗

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 𝝀

𝒍= → 𝝀=
𝟒𝒍
𝟓𝝀
But
𝟓
𝟒

𝟓𝒗
= =𝟓× , 𝒃𝒖𝒕
𝒗
𝒇 = 𝒗
𝒇 =
𝟒𝒍 𝒗
𝟎
𝟐 𝟓 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍

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 ∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟓𝒇𝟎

Generally the 𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 ;

𝒇𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒇𝟎 … … … … … 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 =

1,2,3,4 𝑒𝑡𝑐
Since the resonance tube (closed at one end) produces odd harmonics then
the equation of the length of tube (length of air column) is given by

𝐋=𝐧
𝛌 → 𝐧 = 𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕 … ..
𝟒

Resonance in Opened Pipe

Consider the diagram below
Fundamental note (First resonance)

 From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇= 𝒍=
𝒗
𝝀
, But → 𝝀 = 𝟐𝒍
𝝀 𝟐

∴ 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟐𝒍
𝒗

𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝒇𝟎

For the first overtone (second harmonic/second resonance)

From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇=
𝒗

𝒍= 𝝀
𝒇
But
𝑽 = =
𝟐𝒇 ,𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒇
𝒗
= = =
𝟐 𝒗 𝒗
𝑽
× = 𝟐 ×
𝟏 𝑳 𝟐 𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝟎
𝟐𝒍
𝝀

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 �

∴ 𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝒇𝟎

�

For the 2nd overtone (Third harmonic/third resonance)

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  From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇=
𝒗

𝒍= → 𝝀=
𝟐𝒍
𝟑𝝀
But
𝟑
𝟐

𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, = 𝟐𝒍 = 𝟑 ×𝟐𝒍
𝒗
𝒗

𝒇𝟐 𝟑

∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = , 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆

= 𝟐𝒍
𝒗
𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟐 𝟑𝒇𝟎 𝒇𝟎

Generally the 𝑛 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝒇𝒏

𝑡ℎ

= (𝒏 + 𝟏 )𝒇𝟎

Whereby (n = 1,2,3,4..............)

 Since the resonance tube(opened at both ends) produces integral

of air column) at 𝒏𝒕𝒉 harmonic is given by

multiples of harmonics, then the equation of the length of tube (length

𝑳=
𝒏𝝀
→ 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, … ..
Exampl 𝟐
e
1. A turning fork of frequency 256 Hz is sounded at the mouth of a tube
closed at one end with a movable. It is found that resonance occurs
when the column of air is 15 cm long and again when the column
is 80 cm long. Determine the velocity of sound in air.
Soln:
Given: L1 = 15 cm, L2 = 80 cm, f = 256Hz, V = ?
From: 𝑽 = 𝝀𝒇 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏)𝒇

∴ 𝑽 = 𝝀𝒇 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏)𝒇 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝒙𝟐(𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) = 𝟓𝟏𝟐 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 =

𝟑𝟑𝟐. 𝟖 𝒎/𝒔

Class Activity – 1:4

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 1. The speed of sound waves in air is found to be 340m/s. Find;
(a) The fundamental frequency (b) The
frequency of the 3 harmonic
rd

(c) The frequency of 9th harmonic (d) The frequency of 51st

harmonic Given that the sound waves are probating in a closed
pipe of length 700m. ANS: f0 = 121.5Hz, f3 = 850.5 Hz, f9 =
2308.5 Hz, f51 = 12514.5 Hz

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 2. In a closed pipe, the first resonance is at 23 cm and second at 73 cm.
Determine the wavelength of the sound and the end correction of the
pipe. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟏 𝒎, 𝒄 = 𝟐 𝒄𝒎)
3. A pipe closed at one end has a length of 10cm. If the velocity of
sound in the air of the pipe is 340m/s. Calculate the
frequency of;
(a) The fundamental (b) 1st overtone (ANS:
f0 = 850 Hz, f1 = 2550 Hz)
4. A pipe closed at one and has a length of 2.46m. Find the
frequency of the fundamental and the first two overtones. Take
343m/s as the speed of sound in air. (ANS: f0 = 34.85Hz, f1 = 104.55
Hz, f2 =174.25 Hz)
5. When a tuning fork of 512Hz is sounded at the top of the
measuring cylinder which contains water. The first resonances are
observed when the length of the air column (the distance from the
mouth to the level of the water is 50 cm) and the second resonance
is observed when the length of the air column (the distance from
the mouth to the level of water) is 80 cm; using these
observations. Calculate the velocity of water in air.(ANS: v = 307
.2m/s)

Beats
 A beat is a rise or fall in loudness of sound when two sources of
sound of nearly equal frequencies produce sound together.
 The Beat frequency (number of beats):
 Is the difference between the two frequencies of sound
That is Bf = f1 – f2 or f2 – f1

Example
1. A 256Hz turning fork produces sound at the same time with a
249Hz turning fork. What is the beat frequency? (ANS: Bf = 7Hz)
2. What is the beat frequency when a 262 Hz and 266 Hz turning
forks are sounded together? (ANS: BF = 4 Hz)

Electromagnetic Waves
 Are a self – propagating transverse wave of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields
 OR: Are the waves which are propagated through space or matter by the
vibration of an electric field and magnetic field at right angles to one another
 Self propagating means a change in electric field produces a
change in magnetic field and vice versa

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  Examples are Radio waves ,Microwaves, Infrared radiation, Visible
light , Ultraviolet rays , X–rays, Gamma rays
NB:
 It is produced when electrically charged particles oscillate or change
energy
 The greater the energy change, the higher the frequency of the
resulting wave
 Electric field and magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to
each other

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 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
o They do not require material medium to travel through
o They undergoes reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction
o They travel at the speed of light (i.e C = 3 x108 m/s in vacuum)
o They carry no electric charge

obey the wave equation, C = 𝒇λ

o They transfer energy in form of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
o They
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Is a continuous band of all electromagnetic waves arranged in
order of increasing or decreasing frequencies or wavelength
change.
 It is divided into seven regions or bands
Tables of Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelength (m) Region (band) Frequency (Hz)
>10-1 Radio waves >3 x 109
10-1 – 10-4 Micro waves 3x109 - 3x1012
10-4 – 10-7 Infrared 3x1012 - 4.3x1014
7x10-7 – 4 x 10-7 Visible light 4.3x1014 - 7.5x1014
4x10-7 – 10-9 7.5x1014 - 3x1017
Ultraviolet light
X-rays 3x1017 - 3x1019
10-9 – 10-11
<10-11 Gamma rays >3x1019
Electromagnetic Spectrum Observation
 It is continuous: means each band merges into next and there is
no gap between their frequencies
 Some Wave length overlap: in some cases there is an overlap of wave
length so we have to name according to source not to the wave
length, for Example, X-rays and Gamma rays

Sources, Detectors, and uses of EMW

Radiation Source Detector Uses
Gamma rays  Radioactiv  Photographi  in medicine to
e c plate locate internal
substanc  Geiger muller body organs
e tube  sterilize
surgical
equipment
 To detect flaws in metals
X –rays  x –rays tubes  fluoresce  Detect fractured
nt bones and
screens dislocations
 photographic  Treatment of cancer
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 film  Study of crystal structure
Ultra violet  the sun  photographic  Detect forgeries
 sparks films e.g bank notes
 photocells
 mercury  paper  Source of vitamin D
vapor lamp smeared  To kill bacteria in water
with
vaseline
Visible light  The sun  The eye  Ordinary
 Luminou  Photocells photography
s  Photographic  Enables the eye to see
objects films  Photosynthesis
Infra red  The sun  Thermometer  Infrared
 Fires with blackened photography
 Hot bodies bulbs  Drying substances
 Thermopile  locate overheating
 Bolometer in electric
system
 Used in remote
control, night vision
device, fibre- optic
telecommunication
and security
system
 Are used for
welding plastics,
drying prints, etc
Microwave  Magnetrons  Solid state  For cooking in
s in diodes microwaves
microwave ovens
oven  Satellite
communication
 Radar
communication
Radio  Oscillating  Aerials  Used for broadcasting
waves electric  Diodes of information by
circuits radio and television
 Earphones
 Objects in channels
space
in electric  Used by astronomers
e.g circuits to collect and study
planets,stars radio waves from
etc distant stars and
galaxies.
N.B: RADAR = Radio Detection And Ranging
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Example
1. What is the wavelength of radio waves of frequency 95.6MHz ?(c = 3.0 x

From: 𝒗(𝒄) = 𝒇𝝀
108 m/s) Soln:

𝒗 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖
∴𝝀= = = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎
𝒇 𝟗𝟓.𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔

Class Assignment – 1
1. (a) Explain why radio waves are similar to light waves but not sound
waves
(b) A radio station transmits a signal of wave 1500m. Calculate the
frequency of this signal (ANS: ƒ = 200 KHz)
2. Light of frequency 4.6 × 1014Hz travels at a speed of 1.24 × 108ms-1 in

light. (ANS: 𝝁 = 2.42)

diamond. Calculate the refractive index of diamond for this color of

3. (a) What is diffraction of wave?

(b) Illustrate how plane water wave fronts are diffracted on passing through a
narrow gap

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 (c)(i) Is it possible for light to be diffracted on passing through an open
window?
(ii) Give an explanation on your answer above
4. (a) What is the fundamental frequency of a vibrating string?
(b) Sonometer consists of a taut steel wire fixed between two
bridges 100cm apart. Defining the first harmonic, second harmonic,
third harmonic and fourth harmonic, explain how overtones can be
obtained
5. How an echo differs from the reverberation?
 ANS: Echo occurs when long distances are considered WHILE
reverberation is when short distances are considered.
 Echo is due to the reflection of sound wave by obstacles or end points like
wall etc. BUT Reverberation is due to the collection of reflection sounds
from the surface which is enclosed completely
6. Sound travelling towards a cliff 700m away takes 4.2 seconds for an
echo to be heard. Calculate the velocity of sound in air.(ANS: Va =
333.33m/s)
7. A boy standing 100m from the foot of a high wall claps his hands and
the echo reaches him 0.5 second later. Calculate the velocity of
sound in air using this observation. (ANS: V in air is 400m/s)
8. A student standing between two vertical walls and 480m from the
nearest wall, shouted. She heard the first echo after 3 seconds and
the second after two second later use this information to
calculate;
(i) Velocity of sound in air (Va =320m/s) (ii) Distance between the two walls.(d
=1280 m)
9. An old woman sitting in a gorge between two large cliffs gives a short
sharp sound. She hears two echo, the first after 1 second and the next
after 1.5sec. The speed of sound is 340m/s what is the distance between
the two cliffs? (ANS: d=425 m)
10. A sonar signal (a high frequency
sound wave) sent vertically downwards from the ship is refracted
from the ocean floor and detected by a microphone on the keel. 0.4
sec after transmission. If the speed of sound in water is 1550m/s. What
is the depth of the ocean in meters? (ANS: The depth of the ocean is
300m)
11. A man sees steam coming out from a
factory whistle and 3 seconds later he hears the sound. The
velocity of sound in air is 360m/s. Calculate the distance from the
man to the factory. ANS: d = 1080m
12.(a) (i) Distinguish between longitudinal wave and transverse wave
(ii) Explain how beats are formed
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 (b) A light wave is refracted into an optically dense medium. What
change will occurs in
(i) The frequency?
(ii) The speed?
(iii) The wavelength?
(c)(i) what is an echo
(ii) A sound is sent out from the ship and its reflection from the
ocean floor returns one second later. Assuming that the velocity
of sound in water is 1500m/s. how deep is the ocean?
(ANS: d= 750m)
13.(a) (i) What is a sonometer?
(ii) Briefly explain when resonance is said to occur.

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 (b) Two boys are stand 200m apart on one side of a high
vertical cliff at the same perpendicular distance from it. When one
fires a gun, the other hears the sound 0.65 seconds after the flash and
the second sound 0.25 second after the first sound. Calculate the
perpendicular distance of the boys from the cliff
(c) A diagram below illustrates part of the displacement-time
graph of a wave travel with velocity of 2m/s.

Calculate.
(i). The amplitude (ii). Frequency (iii). Wave length
(b) ANS: d = 84.27m (c) (i). A = 0.2m (ii) f = 10Hz (iii). λ = 0.2m
14. Which of the following has the shortest wavelength?
(i) Radio waves (ii) X – rays (iii) Red light
15. A column of air 26.25 cm long in a closed tube resonates to a
sounding tuning fork. If the velocity of sound in air is 33 600 cm/s,
what is the frequency of the fork? (ANS: f = 320 Hz)
16. If the shortest length of the tube for resonance is 0.12 m and the
next resonant length is 0.37 m, what is the frequency of vibrations?
Take the speed of sound in air as 340 m/s. (ANS: f = 680 Hz)
17. Explain the following
(a) Strings of different thickness are used on a stringed
instrument such as a violin or a guitar
(b) The same note played on a violin and a flute sound different
(c) The strings of a stringed instrument are usually mounted on
a hollow box of special shape
(d) Matter expands when heated and contracts when cooled.
Explain why a musician must retune a stringed instrument if
its temperature changes
(e) How does the size of the gap in the barrier affect the diffraction
of waves?
18. The commercial program of
Radio Annur is broadcast on wavelengths of 1500 m and 250 m. The
frequency of the 1500 m wave is 200 kHz what is
the frequency of 250 m wave?
19. Explain briefly how the concept of wave is applied in each of the
following fields
(i) Medicine (ii) Communication(iii) Scientific research
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 20. A light wave is refracted into an optical
less dense medium. What change will occur in (i)The frequency
(ii) The speed (iii)The wavelength
21. A solid is sent out from the ship and its reflection from the
floor of the ocean returns half a second later. Assuming that the
velocity of sound in water is 1500 m/s, how deep is the ocean?

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 22. Gamma rays bursters are objects in the universe that emit pulses of
gamma rays with high energies. The frequency of the most energetic

(a) What is the wavelength of these gamma rays? (ANS: 𝝀 =1.0 x 10-13 m)
burst has been measured at around 3.x 1021 Hz.

(b) What could be their period? (ANS: T = 3.33 x 10-22 s)

23. Differentiate between ultrasonic and infrasonic vibrations
24. An FM radio station broadcasts electromagnetic waves at a
frequency of 150 MHz .The radio waves have a wavelength of 2.0 m.
Calculate the speed of the radio waves (ANS: v = 3 x108 m/s)
25. The diagram below shows the electromagnetic spectrum. Region
D represents visible light

(a) Which region contains radiation produced in nuclear reactors?

(b) Which region represents radiation capable of promoting the
production of vitamin D in the skin?
(c) Which region is contains radiation used in radar system?
26. Explain why a duck remains floating at the same place as wave
passes by the water in a lake
27. Two similar sonometer wires of the same material produces 2
beats per second. The length of one is 50 cm and that of the other is
50.1 cm. Calculate the
𝟏
frequencies of the two wires 𝒇 . f1 =1002 Hz, f2 = 1000 Hz)
(From: ∝ 𝑳
28. Explain why it is not advisable for soldiers to march across a bridge
in rhythm
29. A note of 100 vibrations per second is reflected back to an
observer from a wall 34 meters away in 0.2 seconds. Calculate the
speed of sound and the wavelength of tone
30. A note of frequency 100 is sounding. What is the frequency of a
note (a) one octave higher (b) two octave higher?
31.

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 Topic – 2 Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism: Is the effect produced by the interaction of an electric
current with a magnetic field
Direction of Current and magnetic field
 Is determined by applying two rules which are:-
(a) Right hand grip rule
(b) Maxwell’s right hand screw rule
Right hand Grip Rule
For solenoid, the rule states that
“When you wrap your right hand around a solenoid with your fingers pointing in
the direction of conventional current, your thumb points in the direction of the
magnetic north pole”

For conductor ,the rule for conduct States that

“Wrapping right hand around a conductor your fingers point in the direction of
magnetic field and the thumb points in the direction of current”
OR
“Imagine the wire carrying the current is gripped by the right hand with the
thumb pointing in the direction of the conventional current (from positive to
negative), the fingers will curl around the wire pointing in the direction of
the magnetic field”

Maxwell’s Right Hand Screw Rule

The rule states that:
“If a right-hand screw advances in the direction of the current, then the
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direction of rotation of the screw represents the direction of the magnetic field
due to the current.”

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Diagram:

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

It describe the direction of force produced by conductor carrying current, which
state that “If you hold the index finger, the middle finger and the thumb of your
left hand mutually perpendicular to each other so that the index finger points in the
direction
of the magnetic field and the middle finger points in the direction of current in the
conductor, then the thumb will point in the direction of the force (motion) acting on
the conductor.”
See the fig below:

Force in Parallel Conductors

 When the current pass through a two conductors in the same
direction the conductors are attracted to each other
Diagram:

 When the current pass through a two conductors in the opposite

direction the conductors are repulsed to each other
See the fig below:

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Electromagnetic Induction
 Electromagnetic induction is the production of electromotive force
whenever there is change in the magnetic flux (lines) linking a
conductor
OR
 Electromagnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force
across a conductor when it is exposed to a varying magnetic field
See the fig below:

NB:
 An EMF is only induced in a conductor when there is relative motion
between the conductor and the magnetic field
 EMF produced is called induced electromotive force and Current
produced is called induced current
 The conductor should moves in perpendicular to magnetic field
 No current when conductor moves parallel to magnetic field

Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

 Lenz’s law
 Faraday’s law
Lenz’s Law
States that: "the direction of the induced electromotive force is such that
it tends to oppose the effect (change) producing it”

 According to experiment of Lenz’s law of electromagnetic

induction, the following were observed

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(a) When North Pole approaches to the end of the coil, the current in
the coil flows such that a North Pole is formed at that end. When the
North Pole is moved away, a South Pole is formed. See the fig below

(b) When South Pole is pushed towards the coil, a South Pole is formed at the
end of
the coil, and when the South Pole is moved away, a North Pole is formed. See the
fig below

N.B
 When the N –Pole of a magnet is moving into a coil the magnetic
flux increases, According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, when there is a change in flux, an EMF and hence
induced current is induced in the coil and this current will create its
own magnetic field. Now according to Lenz’s law ,this magnetic field
created will oppose its own increase in through the coil
 When the N –Pole of a magnet is moving out of the coil the
magnetic flux decreases, which induces an e.m.f in the coil. The
resulting induced current must be in the direction to oppose this
decrease in flux. The induced (secondary) magnetic field must be
in the same direction as the primary field

Faraday’s Law
It states that: “The magnitude of induced electromotive force (EMF) is proportional to
the rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the conductor”

Factors affecting magnitude of Induced E.M.F

 The strength of magnetic field
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  The rate of change of magnetic flux (speed )
 Cross section Area of the conductor
 Number of turns (N)

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The Strength of magnetic field
 When strong magnet is used, it results strong magnetic field which
produce high magnitude of induced e.m.f and vice versa
The rate of change of magnetic flux
 Increasing the speed results of the magnet high rate at which
magnetic flux change in which produces high magnitude of
induced e.m.f
Cross Section Area of the Conductor
 Increase in cross section area of the conductor results high
magnitude of induced e.m.f (e.m.f  A)
Number of Turns (N)
 Increasing number of turns results high magnitude of induced e.m.f
(e.m.f  N)

Self-Induction
 Is the phenomenon in which a change in electric current in a coil
produces an induced e.m.f in the coil itself
OR
 Is the production of e.m.f in a conductor as a result of varying current in
the same conductor/solenoid
NB:
 If the original current is increasing, then the induced current is
smaller than it would be
 If the original current is decreasing, then the induced current adds to
it and the measured current is greater than it would be if no self –
induced magnetic field was produced in the conductor
 Back e.m.f is the voltage induced in the coil due to variation of
electric current flowing in the same coil

 In constant current no induced current

See the figure below:

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Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 73
Mutual Induction
 Is the production of e.m.f in one conductor or solenoid as a result of
changing current in another conductor or solenoid

NB:
 The coil which varies current is primary coil while the coil with
induced current is secondary coil

Mechanism
 Primary coil produces magnetic flux which change magnetic flux in
secondary coil to produce electromotive force
Application of Mutual Induction
 Is used in transformers
 Used in the ignition system
 Used in flash tubes in cameras and strobe light
 In wireless telegraphy
 Generators and motors

Eddy Current
 Are induced current loops circulating within a
conductor See the figure below:

Damping of Eddy Current

 Eddy current can be minimized by insulator materials which have high
resistance in which eddy current cannot make loops circulation within a
conductor
Diagram:

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Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 75
Methods used to minimize Eddy Current
Therefore Eddy current can be minimized by the following methods
 Laminated core: this is the reason to why all instruments use
principle of electromagnetic induction are laminated like motor
armature, dynamos armature, transformer coils are wrapped
by insulator sheets
 Magnetic material with high resistivity e.g. ferrite
Advantages of Eddy Current
 Useful in heating metals
 Useful in electrical damping
 Crack detection
 Measurement of material thickness
 Measurement of coating thickness
 Measurement of conductivity
Disadvantages of eddy currents
 Complicate construction of cores of electromagnetic coils
 Causes heating in electrical components appliances
 They cause energy losses as heat e.g in transformers

APPLICATION OF ELECTROMAGNET
(a) MOVING COIL GALVANOMETERS

 A galvanometer is an instrument used to detect the presence of an

electric current in a circuit.
 A moving coil galvanometer is the galvanometer where by the moving part is
the coil.

 Mode of Action: The pointer rotates due to the force developed on

the coil (by Fleming’s left hand rule). When the current passes through
the coil will be magnetized hence different poles will be formed.

Advantages

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  The scale is uniform.

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 77

  Moving coil galvanometer is more accurate.
 The sensitivity of moving coil galvanometer is very high.
 A moving coil galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter and
voltmeter.

Factors affecting the Sensitivity of the Galvanometer

1. The quantity of the current passing through the coil. The bigger is
the current the higher is the sensitivity and vice verse.
2. The strength of a magnet. The stronger the magnet, the higher is the
sensitivity.
3. The number of turns of the coil. The bigger number of turns in the coil
the greater the sensitivity.
4. Cross sectional areas of the coil. The bigger is the cross – sectional
area of the coil, the higher is the sensitivity.

Conversion of Moving Coil Galvanometer into an Ammeter

 Ammeter Is an electrical device used to measure the quantity of an
electric current in amperes.

How to convert:

 By replacement of the wires with low resistance.

 By connecting the resistor of low resistance called SHUNT parallel to the
galvanometer

 If I = IS + IG
 Potential difference across the shunt is equal to the Potential difference
𝑰𝒈𝑹𝒈
across the galvanometer VG., ie VS = VG
 Then: VS = ISRS and VG = IGRG  ISRS = IGRG  RS = , (Since: IS + IG = I)
𝑰𝑺
 Shunt, R is a small resistance which can be connected parallel
to the galvanometer to give out ammeter reading ,ie RS =
𝑰𝒈𝑹𝒈
𝑰−𝑰𝒈

The Conversion of a Moving Coil Galvanometer into a Voltmeter

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 78

  A voltmeter is electronically device used to measure the potential
difference.

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 79

How to convert:

 By replacement of the wire of high resistance.

 By replacing a resistor of high resistance known as Multiplier
connected in series with the moving coil galvanometer.

Where: Rm = Resistance of multiplier

RG = Resistance of the coil of
galvanometer Vm = Potential
difference across multiplier VG =
Across galvanometer
V = Total Potential difference of the full scale
deflection

 For series connection: V = Vm + VG (where I is constant) 𝑽

− 𝑹
�
→
 Then: Vm = IR ,VG = IRG 𝑰

Thus: V = IRG+ IRm → V = I (Rm + RG) 𝑹𝒎

�

=


𝑹𝒎 = 𝑽−𝑰𝑹𝑮
𝑰

 Multiplier: I s the large or high resistance which is connected in

series with the galvanometer to give voltmeter reading , Rm =
𝑽−𝐈𝐑𝐆
𝐈

Individual task – 2:1

1. A moving coil galvanometer has a coil of resistance 25 and can

carry a maximum of 15mA.

(a) What is the value of the shunt required to enable the

galvanometer to register 10A full scale deflection. (ANS: RS
= 0.03Ω)
(b)What is the value of the multiplier required to enable the
galvanometer to register 10V full scale deflection. How will be
connected? (Rm = 646.67Ω)

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 80

 2. A moving will galvanometer has a resistance of 20 and gives a
full scale deflection when a current of 50mA passes through it.
Calculate the value of the resistance which must be used so that the
meter may measure the potential difference up to 100V.(ANS: A
multiplier of resistance 1980 must be connected in series with the galvanometer
so that the meter may measure up to 100V)

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 3. A moving coil galvanometer which gives a full scale deflection of
0.005A is converted to a voltmeter reading up to 5V using an
external 975 Resistance what is the resistance of the
galvanometer(ANS: RG = 25 )

4. A galvanometer has a resistance of 50mA passes through it.

Calculate the value of the resistance which must be used so that
the meter may measures the current up to 2A (ANS: A shunt of
0.5128  must be connected to the galvanometer to give a reading of 2A.)
5. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 40 and the full scale
deflection current 15mA. If it is to be converted so that it gives a full scale
deflection current 1. 5A, then the required shunt will have a resistance of
what size? (ANS: Rs = 0.1)

(b) Electric Bell

 Is a mechanical bell that functions by means of an electromagnet
 It consists of a gong, an electromagnet , an iron strip and a
contact screw Consider the diagram below

Mechanism (working of an electric bell)

 When the switch is pressed and current flows through the circuit, the
electromagnet is powered and generates a magnetic field that attracts
the iron strip towards it
 The striker strikes the gong, when the striking arm strikes the gong,
the contact is broken and current stops flowing through the circuit.
This causes the electromagnet to lose its magnetic field.
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  The connected spring arm returns the striker to its original rest position
 The contact is restored and current flows through the circuit
 The process is repeated from the beginning.

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Individual task– 2:2
1. In the electric bell, explain what would happen if the armature is made of
steel.

 ANS: If the armature is made of steel the hammer hits the gong
and remains there/ the bell rings once this is because steel acquires
permanent magnetism
2. Why is the core of the electromagnet of an electric bell made of soft iron and not
steel?
 ANS: Because iron gains and looses magnetisms easily. It is only magnetized
if there is a magnetic field around it and losses its magnetism immediately
when the field is removed. It also requires very little energy to magnetize
and demagnetize Reasons for steel:
(i) Steel forms a permanent magnet
(ii) Steel is not easily magnetized and demagnetized

Induction Coil (Spark coil)

 Is an electrical device consisting of two coils (primary and
secondary coil) where secondary coil wound over primary coil
on an iron core.
 OR Induction coil is a device for getting a high voltage from a low one.
The fig below:

Mechanism
 When switch is closed to complete the circuit, the primary coil
produces magnetic fields which cause secondary coil to induce high
voltage due to large number of turns,
 Induced magnetism on soft iron attracts iron hammer which open
the circuit that incomplete the circuit by opening the gap in
platinum contacts cause the soft iron to lose magnetism where
spring pullback to platinum contacts to complete the circuit. This
cycle of events is repeated automatically

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Application of Induction Coil
 It is used commonly in ignition system of internal combustion engines
 It is used to trigger the flash tubes used in cameras and strobe lights
 It is also used in wireless telegraphy

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 Generators
 Generator : Is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy
 OR: Is the device which produces electricity on the basis
of electromagnetic induction by the continuous motion of either a
coil or a magnet
 OR: Is a device consists of a coil rotating in an external magnetic field
to produce electricity
Types of Generators
 Alternating current generator (A.C Generator)
 Direct current generator (D.C Generator)
Alternating Current Generator (Alternator)
 Is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
 OR Is the device which produces electricity on the basis of
electromagnetic induction by the continuous motion of
either a coil or a magnet
 OR Is a device which consists of a coil rotating in an external
magnetic field to produce alternating current.

NB:
o The direction of motion, current and magnetic field can be shown by
Fleming right hand rule which states that
“If three fingers of the right hand are held mutually perpendicular to each other,
then the thumb points in the direction of motion, fore finger (index finger) points in the
direction of the field and the middle finger points in the direction of the induced current”

Mechanism of Alternator (A.C Generator)

 Starting with the coil in the horizontal position, sides AB and CD are
cutting the magnetic lines of force. Maximum E.M.F is therefore
induced in the coil. Current flows from A to B and from C to D
 When the coil is in the vertical position, sides AB and CD are moving
along the magnetic lines of force .The induced E.M.F drops to zero and
current stops flowing
 During the second quarter rotation, the coils start cutting the lines of
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 force and induced E.M.F increases from zero to a maximum value
when the coil is in a horizontal position again. Current flows from B to
A and from D to C, i.e is reversed
 This cycle of events is repeated automatically hence electricity is
produced (See the fig below)

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  The direction and magnitude of the induced e.m.f changes with time
depending on the position of the coil
Direct Current Generator
 Is a device that consists a coil rotating in an external magnetic field to
produce direct current
See the fig below:

 In d.c generator the Slip Rings are replaced by a commutator in

order to prevent reverse of current. Each half commutator is called
commutator segment which is insulated from other half
commutator
Mechanism of D.C Generator
 When the coil is vertical NO e.m.f is produced due to no cutting of the
magnetic field on the coil
 When the armature rotates at 900 (parallel to magnetic field) the
motion of coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field hence maximum
e.m.f is induced
 When the coil is vertical (at 1800) NO e.m.f produced due to no
cutting of the magnetic field on the coil
 When the armature rotates after 180 0, starting from vertical position and
the side of commutator segment interchange the loop which cause the
loop of current remains in the same direction
 This cycle of events is repeated automatically hence electricity is
produced See the fig below

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Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 89
Advantage of alternator
1. Commutators are complex and costly to construct, therefore
many d.c generators are being replaced with a.c generators by
using rectifiers Rectifiers are devices that allow current flowing in
one direction only.
2. Transformer works on a.c current only
Helps in conservation of electric power during transmission by stepping up
and down
N.B:
 In both a.c and d.c generators, the induced current can be increased by:
(a) Using stronger magnet
(b) Increasing the number of turns of the coil
(c) Increasing the speed of rotation of the coil
(d) Winding the coil on a soft iron core so as to increase the
magnetic flux trough the coil
Electric Motor
 Is an electrical device used to convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy

Main parts of Electric motor

 Carbon brushes
 Commutator split ring
 Magnetic field
 Rectangular coil of wire
Rectangular coil of wire
 It is formed by winding several turns of wire on a soft iron core
Magnetic field
 Magnetic fields are formed by two unlike poles of permanent magnet
Commutator (split ring)
 It is formed by dividing copper ring into two equal halves. It is used
to reverse direction of electric current flowing through the coil by
changing the contact
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Carbon brushes
 Connect power supply and rectangular coil

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Mechanism of Electric motor
 When current is passed through the coil a force is created on side
AB in the upward direction and on side CD, in the downward
direction. These cause the coil to turn in the anticlockwise direction
 When the coil passes through the vertical position, no force acts on it,
since the sides AB and CD are moving along the lines of force and
are not cutting the lines. However , due to its momentum, the coil
continues with its motion

Transformer
 Is a device that transfers an alternating current from one circuit to
another by the principal of mutual induction either by increasing or
decreasing the voltage
OR
 Is a device that uses mutual induction between two coils to convert
alternating
voltage across one coil to a larger or smaller alternating voltage across the other
coil
OR
 Is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or
more circuits
 The coil connected to the source is called primary coil and the coil in
which
e.m.f is induced is called secondary coil

Types of Transformer
o Step up transformer
o Step down transformer
Step up Transformer
 Is the transformer that convert low alternating voltage from primary
coil to high alternating voltage in secondary coil
OR
 Is a transformer that increases voltage from primary coil to secondary
coil
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Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 93
 Step down Transformer
 Is the transformer that convert high alternating voltage from primary
coil to low alternating voltage in secondary coil
 OR Is a transformer that decreases voltage from primary coil to
secondary coil

Difference between Step – down and Step – up transformer

Step – down transformer Step – up transformer
Decreases the output voltage Increases the output voltage
Has many number of turn in primary coil Has many number of turns in secondary
coil
Primary voltage is higher than secondary Secondary voltage is higher than
voltage primary voltage
Current is high on the secondary Current is low on the secondary
winding. winding.
Secondary winding is made up of thick Primary winding is made up of thick
insulated copper wire insulated copper wire.
It is used in doorbell, voltage converter, It is used in Power plant, X-rays
etc machine, microwaves, etc.
Rating of output voltage 110v ,24v, 20v, Rating of output voltage is 11000
10v, etc. volts or
above

Transformer Equation
 From the factors affecting the induced e.m.f (Faraday’s law)
For primary coil
𝑵𝑷 ∝ 𝑽𝑷 → 𝑁𝑃 = 𝑘𝑉𝑃

𝑵𝑺 ∝ 𝑽𝑺 → 𝑁𝑆 = 𝑘𝑉𝑆
For secondary coil

Divide equation (i) to equation (ii)

𝑵 𝑵𝒔
𝑷

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=
𝑲
𝑽𝑷
�

∴ 𝑷𝑵 =𝑽
𝑽 𝑵𝑷
�
𝑽
𝑺 𝒔 𝑺

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Suppose no Power Loss (For ideal transformer)
PP = P S
But: P = IV
Then: IP x VP = IS x VS……………….. the subject
make
𝑽𝒑

𝑽𝒔

=𝑰𝒑
𝑽𝒑 𝑰𝒔
𝑽𝒔

=𝑺 = 𝑵𝒔
𝑵𝒑
𝑰
Therefore:
𝑽𝒑 𝑰
𝑽𝒔 𝑷

Where:
 NP and NS are the number of turns in primary coil and secondary coil
respectively
 VP and VS are primary and secondary voltage respectively
 IP and IS are primary and secondary currents
 PP and PS are the power in primary coil and power in secondary coil

Transformer Efficiency
 Is the ratio power in secondary coils to power in primary coils
expressed as a percentage
 Mathematically:
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
× 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
=
𝑷𝒔

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝑷𝒑

𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍

 But: Ps = Is x Vs and Pp = Ip
x Vp

∴ 𝑷 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% 𝑰𝑺 𝐱
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝑺 = 𝑽𝑺 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷 𝑰𝑷
Examples
1. A transformer with primary coil of 400 turns and secondary coil
200 turns is connected to 240 V ac mains. Calculate the
secondary voltage.
Soln:
Given: NP = 400, NS = 200, VP = 240 V, VS =?

= 𝑽𝑺
From:
𝑵𝑷
𝑽𝑷

𝑵𝒔

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 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝟐𝟎𝟎 = → = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽
𝑽𝑺
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝑽
𝑺

2. A transformer with primary coil of 1200 turns and secondary coil

600 turns is connected to 240 V mains. If the primary current is 3.0A
and secondary is 5.0A. What is its efficiency?
Soln:
Given: VP = 240 V, NP = 1200, NS = 600, IP = 3.0A, IS = 5.0A
Required: Efficiency=?

= 𝑽𝑺
From:
𝑵𝑷
𝑽𝑷

𝑵𝒔

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 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎
=
𝟐𝟒𝟎
→ = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽
𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑽
𝑽
𝑺𝑺

𝑨𝒍𝒔𝒐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% =
𝑷𝒔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝑰𝑺𝑽𝑺
𝑷𝒑
𝑰𝑷𝑽𝑷
∴
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎% =
𝑰𝑺𝑽𝑺 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟖𝟑%
= 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟓
𝑰𝑷𝑽𝑷 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝐱𝟑

Sources of energy/ Power loses in a Transformer

 There are four main causes of energy/ Power loss in a transformer.
These are
1. Resistance of coils (Copper losses)
 This is caused by high resistance of copper wire, which leads to
energy loss in form of heat
 The copper losses can be minimized by using thick copper wires
2. Flux leakage
 This leads to energy loss as a result of magnetic flux produced by the
primary coils failing to link up with the secondary coils
 It can be minimized by winding the secondary coils over the primary coil
3. Hysteresis losses
 This is the energy lost due to continuous magnetization and demagnetization of
the core
 It can be minimized by the use of soft iron core which is easily
magnetized and demagnetized
4. Eddy currents
 Eddy currents circulating through the core produces a lot of heat
 It can be minimized by laminating the core

Transmission of electricity
 Electricity generated at the power stations is usually at low voltage and high
current.
 Before transmission, the voltage is first stepped up to very high voltages
then
transmitted over a network of transmission cables known as the national grid
system
 The national grid system is a network of transmission cables
connecting all power stations in a country to each other and to
the consumers
 Advantage of the national grid system of transmission is that “to
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 ensure that the power is available to consumers even when one of the
stations fails’’
N.B:
 The transmission of power over long distance is usually done at
very high voltage and low current as opposed to low voltage
and high current
Reason: High voltage transmission of electricity minimizes power loss during the
transmission

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Summary of steps involved during the transmission of electricity

Power loss during transmission

 Power loss during transmission , P is given by:
P = I2R
Whereby: P–Power lost during transmission, I–Current in the cables, R–Resistance of the cables
Example
1. A power line from a power substation to a town some distance away,
has a resistance of 0.10 ohms per kilometer. Determine the rate of
energy loss in the transmission of power over 50 km at a current of 60
Amperes
SOLN:
Given: Total resistance over 50 km = 0.1 x 50 = 5, I = 60 A

∴ 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐𝒙 𝑹 = 𝟓𝒙𝟔𝟎 𝒙𝟔𝟎 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

From: P = I2R

𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒂𝒔𝒌 – 2:3

(a) The resistance of a length of power transmitting cables is 10  and is
used to transmit 11 kV at a current of 1.0A. Determine the power
loss (ANS:P = 10 W)
(b) If this voltage is stepped up to a 160 kv by a transformer , determine
the power loss (Assume the transformer is 100% efficient) (ANS:P =
0.048 W)
(c) By what factor is the power loss reduced when the power is transmitted at 16
kV as
opposed to 11 kV (ANS: Power factor = 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 )
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟒
𝟖

Dangers of high voltage transmission

 Risk of electric shock due to the high
voltage
 Risk of fire when the cables touch each
other
 Strong electric fields set up by high voltages are harmful to animals and human
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 beings
Precaution
 To minimize the dangers of high voltage transmission, the cables are
supported high above the ground

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Uses of transformer
 Transformers are used in power stations to step up voltage for
transmission from the station to the area of consumption
The stepping up reduces the current so that losses due to resistance in
the transmitting wires are reduced
 The transformers are used to step down the voltage to the area of
consumption as for as the value of voltage required for domestic
use is connected.
 Electricity is transmitted from one part of the country to another part by grid
system
 It can increase or decrease the value of capacitor, an inductor or
resistance in an AC circuit. It can thus act as an impedance
transferring device.
 It can be used to prevent DC from passing from one circuit to the other.
 It can isolate two circuits electrically.

Class activity – 2
1. A transformer is used to step down 240V mains supply to 12V for
laboratory use. If the primary coil has 600 turns, determine the
number of turns in the secondary coil (ANS: Ns = 30 turns)
2. A current of 0.6A is passed through a step up transformer with a
primary coil of 200 turns. A current of 0.1A is obtained in the
secondary coil. Determine the number of turns in the secondary coil
and the voltage across if the primary coil is connected to 240V
mains. (ANS: Ns = 1200 turns, Vs = 1440V)
3. A step up transformer has 10000 turns in the secondary coil and 100
turns through the primary coil. An a.c of 5A flow in the primary coil when
connected to a 12V a.c supply, Calculate
(a) The voltage across secondary coil (ANS: Vs = 1200V)
(b) Current in secondary coil if transformer efficiency is 90% (ANS: Is =
0.045A)
4. With a secondary transformer output of 1,320 watts and a
primary input of 1,800 watts, calculate the efficiency of the
transformer. (ANS: 73.33 %)
5. How Does a Transformer Work?
Answer:
 Transformer consists of two coils. If one coil is connected with ac
voltage source then it will produce alternating flux in the core.
Most of the flux is linked with second coil hence mutually
induced emf will be produced in the second coil as per
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 102
 faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

6. Can DC be applied to Transformers?

ANS: NO
 Because: Transformer works on Faraday's law of
Electromagnetic Induction for which current in coil must
change. If DC is applied current

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 103

 will not change and transformer will not work. Practically
winding resistance is very small. For DC, inductive
reactance is zero and frequency is zero. Therefore
impedance is low. Thus winding draws more current which
may damage the winding.

7. What is the difference in energy transformation between a D.C motor

and a D.C generator?
8. State five ways by which the electric motor can be made to rotate
faster (ANS:- (i)By increasing the current flowing through the coils
(ii) By using stronger
magnets
(iii) By using many number of turns of the wire
(iv) By increasing the area of the coil in the magnetic field
(v) By using many coils with more split ring parts in many planes
9. What is the main structural difference between the D.C generator and
the A.C generator? (ANS: In the D.C generator a split ring (commutator) is
used , while in an A.C generator, a set of slip rings are used)

away, has a resistance of 0.4 Ω per kilometer. Determine the current

10. A power line from a power substation to a town some distance

flowing through the power lines if the rate of energy loss in the
transmission of power over 100 km is 100,000 W (ANS: P = 50 A)
11. What is meant by the national grid system?
12. What is the advantage of having a national grid in power
transmission?
13. Why is the electricity transmitted at very high voltage and low
current?
14. During the transmission of electricity over long distances, an
alternating current is passed over alluminium cables at high
voltages and low current.
(a) Why is alternating current (a.c) used in preference to direct
current (d.c)?
ANS
(i) Alternating current can be easily stepped up and down since
transformers work only on a.c not on d.c
(ii) Direct current requires thick overhead cables which will be
expensive to buy and support
(b) Why are alluminium cables preferred to copper for
long distance transmission of electricity (ANS:)
(i)Alluminium has lower density than copper.(It is lighter than copper,
therefore easy to support. Use of copper wires will require very strong
poles to support since copper wires are fairly heavy)
(ii)Alluminium is a better conductor of electricity than copper
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 (iii) Alluminium does not corrode easily, unlike copper
15. A transformer is used to step down 120V mains to 24volts, for
kitchen use. If the primary coil has 400 turns, find the number of turns
is the secondary coil (NS = 80)
16. Explain why soft iron is better material to be used for the core than steel?
17. A step up transformer has 5000 turns in the secondary coil.
And 500turns through the primary coil. An alternative current of 5A
flows in the primary coil when connected to a 12V A.C supply.
(a) Calculate the voltage across the secondary coil. (ANS: VS = 120V)

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 105

 (b) If the transformer has an efficiency of 90% what is the current in
the secondary coil? (IS = 0.45A)
18. A step down transformer is used to light a
12V, 24W lamp from 240 volts mains. The current through the
primary coil is 125mA. What is the efficiency of the transformer?
(ANS: Eff = 80%)
19. A transformer is used to step down 24V mains supplier to 12V for
laboratory use, if the primary coil has 600turns. Find the number of turns in
the secondary coil. (Ns = 30 N)
20. A current
of 0.6A is passed through a step up transformer with a primary
coil of 200 turns. A current of 0.1 A is obtained in the secondary
coil. Find the number of turns in the secondary coil and the voltage
across if the primary coil is connected to 240V mains (ANS: NS = 33
N, VS = 39.6V)
21. The figure below shows a step – down transformer connected to a
240 V mains socket. The primary coil P, has 4000 turns while the
secondary coil, S, has 200 turns. The efficiency of the transformer is
60% and a current of 50 A flows through P. Calculate the current
through S

22. A Transformer has 1000 turns in its primary coil, which is connected
to a 250 V
a.c supply. The secondary coil is connected to an ammeter via a
100 ohm resistor .Determine the number of turns in the secondary
coil if the ammeter reads 1.5 A (ANS: NS = 600)
23. A student is designed a transformer to supply a current of 10 A at
a potential difference of 60 V to a motor from an a.c mains
supply of 240 V. If the efficiency of the transformer is 80%.
Calculate
(a) The power supplied to the
transformer (ANS: PIN = 750 W)
(b) The current in the primary coil
(ANS: IP = 3.125 A)
24. A low voltage outdoor lighting system uses a transformer to step
down a 240 voltage house hold voltage to 24 voltages. The
lighting system has 6 lamps with a total resistance of 10Ω
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 106
 (a) What is the current in the secondary coil of the transformer
(ANS:I =24 A)
(b) What is the current in the primary coil (ANS: I = 2.4 A)
25. The ratio of the number of in the secondary coil in a transformer
to that in the primary coil is 16:1.If the current in the secondary
circuit is 4.0A. What is the current in the primary circuit?
(ANS: IS = 0.25A)
26. Could a transformer be used to increase the voltage of a battery?
Explain
27. Explain the function of the commutator in a DC electric generator
28. A transformer is used on a 240 V a.c supply to deliver 12 A
at 120 V to a heating coil. If 20% of energy taken from the supply is
dissipated in the transformer

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 107

 (a) What is the current in the primary coil? (ANS: IP = 7.5 A)
(b) Give three causes of 20% energy dissipation in the
transformation above
29. Sketch the magnetic field patterns due to a current passing through:
(a) a long straight line (b) a
circular coil
(c) a long solenoid. Indicate clearly the direction of current and
magnetic field
30. Two transformers T1 and T2 are connected as shown in the figure
below

Given that N1 =10, N2 = 200, N3 =100, N4 = 50 and V1 =240 V, what is the value of V4?

31. A laptop computer is plugged into the 230 V mains .The lap
top is left on standby .Its power consumption from the mains is
3.2 W .The lap top’s transformer changes the 230 V mains to 9.2 V
which goes to the laptop .What is the current passing through the
laptop?
32. Transformers are designed to use alternating current .Describe
what change happens when a step – up transformer is used
33. What is meant by the national grid system?
34. Explain how transformers are used to improve the
efficiency of power transmission in the national Grid.
35. A step – down transformer in a mobile phone charger converts
230 V mains into 5 V .The phone needs a current of 3 A when
charging .What current is required from the mains?
36. Describe the structure and working of a simple d.c motor
37. A d.c generator has a resistance coil of 10 ohms and is connected
to a bulb of resistance 100 ohms .Calculate the induced e.m.f if the
current flowing in the bulb is 5 amps
38. A step – down transformer has a secondary winding of 100 turns
and primary winding of 200 turns .If the output voltage is 150 V
,find the input voltage
,assuming the transformer is 100 % efficient
39. Describe the structure of a step – up transformer
40. A transformer with primary and secondary windings of 200
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 and 100 turns respectively is connected to 250 V mains .Calculate
the secondary voltage if the transformer is 75 % efficient

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 109

 Topic –3: Radioactivity
 Radioactivity is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses
energy
by emitting radiation in the form of particles or electromagnetic wave.
OR Radioactivity is the spontaneous breaking up of unstable nuclei
with the emission of one or more types of
radiation
OR Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of the nucleus of
unstable elements with the emission of radiations
NB:
 Radioactivity is also called radioactive decay
 Disintegrated atom is called parent nuclide
 The new atom formed is called Daughter nuclide

Terms used
Matter
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight. Eg, water, iron,
meat,etc
Element
 Is a pure substance that is made up of only one kind of atom and
cannot be broken down into simpler parts by a chemical means.
 For example, helium (H), hydrogen (He), iron (Fe) etc
Atom
 Is the smallest particle of an element that has all the chemical
characteristics of an element. For example, helium (H), hydrogen
(He), iron (Fe) etc
Molecule
 Is a group of atoms. For example, water molecule (H2O), hydrogen
molecules (H2)
Strong Force
 Is the force that hold protons and neutrons present in the nucleus
oppose and overcome repulsion between protons
Binding Energy
 Is the energy that holds protons and neutrons present in the nucleus
oppose and overcome repulsion between protons

Nuclear Binding Energy

 Is the energy required to split the nucleus of an atom into its components

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Structure of Atom
According to Rutherford atom
“Atom has a structure like a small solar system, in which the planet is electron and the
place of the sun is taken by a small heavy positive charged particle called

nucleus (Protons and Neutrons)” (see the fig. below)

 Therefore atoms are made up by subatomic (three types of)
particles namely Protons(p), Neutrons(n) and Electrons(e)
Protons
 Proton is the positively charged particle of an atom.
 It is denoted by small letter p. its charge and its mass is +1.6 x
10-19 C and 1.6726 x 10-27 kg respectively
Neutrons
 Neutron is the neutral charged particle of an atom.
 It is denoted by small letter n. Its charge and its mass are 0 C and
1.6749 x 10- 27 kg respectively
Electrons
 An electron is the negatively charged particle of an atom.
 It is denoted by small letter e. Its charge and mass are -1.6 x 10 −19 C
and 9.1094 x 10−31 kg respectively. The electron always revolve
around the nucleus

Atomic Number
 Atomic number is the number of protons present in a nucleus of a particular atom.
 It is denoted by capital letter Z
Mass Number
 Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons particles.
 Also is called atomic mass/weight. It is denoted by capital letter A
Mathematically: A = Z + N

�
 In a given atom/elements (X) mass number (A) located as Superscript while
𝐴
atomic number (Z) located as Subscript. i.e �
Isotopy ��
 Is the existence of atoms of the same element with the same atomic
number but differ in atomic mass.
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  Elements which can form isotopy are called isotopic elements (isotopes)

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 112

Isotopes
 Are the atoms of the same element having the same atomic
number but different mass number

Isotopic Elements and their Isotopes

Elements Z Isotopes A
Hydrogen 1 Hydrogen - 1 1
Deuterium 2
Tritium 3
Carbon 6 Carbon - 12 12
Carbon - 13 13
Carbon - 14 14
Oxygen 8 Oxygen - 16 16
Oxygen - 17 17
Oxygen - 18 18
Chlorine 17 Chlorine - 35 35
Chlorine - 37 37
Uranium 92 Uranium - 234 234
Uranium - 235 235
Uranium - 238 238
lead 82 Lead - 202 202
Lead - 206 206
Lead - 207 207
Lead - 208 208

1 (1 𝑛 )
NB:
0
 The different isotopes always differ by one neutron
 Isotopes of particular element/atom; the larger the mass
number (A) the heaviest of element and vice versa
Isobars
 Isobar is the different elements having the same mass number but
different atomic number.
Isotones
 Isotones are different elements having the same number of neutrons.

𝟏𝟕𝑪
Example 1
𝟑𝟕

𝒍
3. One isotope of chlorine has the
symbol

A = Z + N → 37 = 17 + 𝑁→ 37 − 17 = 20
Calculate the number of neutrons in this isotope

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 20

Soln: from

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Individual task – 3:1
1. Tin (Sn) has a total of twenty-five isotopes; the lightest is
represented by the symbol 108Sn50. Given that all twenty-five
isotopes of tine exist, write down the 𝟓
𝟎
symbol for the heaviest tin isotopes 𝟏𝟑𝟐
𝑺𝒏)
(ANS:

Stable Atom
 Is the atom whereby its binding energy is strong enough to hold nucleus of an
atom together.
 N.B: Stability of an atom decreases as the atomic number increases

Unstable Atom
 Is the atom whereby its binding energy is not strong enough to hold nucleus of
an atom together.

Types of Radioactivity
 Natural radioactivity
 Artificial radioactivity

Natural Radioactivity
 Is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by
emitting radiation in the form of particles or electromagnetic
wave
OR
 Is the spontaneous disintegration of unstable atoms (nuclei).
 For example, unstable isotopes such that carbon-14 and heavy
elements such as lead and uranium etc
NB:
 In natural radioactivity the nucleus of the elements disintegrate on their
own accord
 Materials exhibit radioactivity is called radioactive material
 In the periodic table all elements above lead exhibit natural radioactivity
 Examples of radioactive material are thorium (Th), uranium (U), Radon
(Rn), Radium (Ra), Polonium (Po) etc

How Natural Radioactivity Occurs?

 Natural radioactivity occurs when atomic nucleus has many number of
protons in the nucleus, due to the law of charges, like charges repel
therefore repulsion force is larger enough to overcome strong force
(binding energy) resulting unstable atomic nucleus disintegrate
(decay) into smaller nuclei (daughter nuclide) which are smaller and
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 114
 more stable than parent nuclide

Nuclear Radiation
 Is the energy or particles or electromagnetic waves emitted by
unstable atom (radioactive element)

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 115

Types of Radiation
 Alpha (𝛼) particle
 Beta (β) particle
 Gamma (γ) rays

Alpha Particle (𝛼)

particle2 (4𝐻𝑒),i.e 𝜶 = 4𝐻𝑒

 Is the particle emitted by radioactive material which is equivalent
2
to helium nucleus

Effect on Nucleus
 When a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha particle its atomic
number decreases by two and mass number decreases by
4.
 The effect tend to form other element and the nuclear equation is given

�� +24𝐻𝑒
� 𝐴−
by:
4
� � → 𝑍−
�
𝑌 2
 𝐴𝑍�
 Whereby:

 4� � nuclide Is
Is parent
𝐴−
𝑍− �
2 daughter nuclide
 The parent nuclide can give more than one daughter nuclide
 Example 1: Uranium-238 undergoes an alpha decay to produce thorium-

Solution: 238𝑈 → 234𝑇ℎ + 4𝐻𝑒

234
92 90 2

𝑅𝑎→ 218𝑅𝑛 + 4𝐻𝑒

 Example 2: Radium-222 undergoes an alpha decay to produce radon-218
222
88 86 2
Solution:

Properties of Alpha Particles

 It is helium in nature
 It is a positively charged particle. it has relative charge of 2+
 It has very low penetrating power since it is the heaviest particle
 It can be stopped/shielding by a few cm of air, thin sheet of paper, skin,
clothes etc
 It can cause some materials to fluorescence i.e. to give out light
 It affects/blackens photographic plate (film)
 It is a heaviest particle due to its biggest mass and charge
 It has very high ionizing power, since it is a heaviest particle
 It is emitted up to speed of 0.1of light
 It can be deflected by electric and magnetic field
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Beta Particle (β)
 Is the particle emitted by radioactive material which is equivalent to

(−0𝑒 ) (β −= 0𝑒)
electron

1 1

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 117

Effect on Nucleus
 When a radioactive nucleus emits beta particle its atomic number
increases by one (1)and mass number remains constant.
 The effect tend to form other element and the nuclear equation is given
as:
𝑨 𝑨
𝒁�
→ 𝒁+𝟏� + −𝟏 𝟎
�
� � �
 Example 1: Carbon-14 undergoes beta decay to produce nitrogen-14
Solution: 614𝐶 → 714𝑁 + − �
0

1 �
 Example 2: Iodine-131 emits beta particles to produce xenon-131
5𝐼 →
Solution: 131 131
5 𝑋𝑒 + −0 �
3 4 1 �

Properties of Beta Particles

 It is electron in nature
 It is a negatively charged particle. It has relative charge of -1
 It has high kinetic energy electrons
 It has moderate penetrating power due to its low mass
 It can be stopped by a few mm of metals like aluminium, Plastic, glass, light
metals etc
 It has moderate ionizing power due to its low mass
 It is emitted up to speed of 0.9C where C = 3 x 108 m/s
 It affects/blackens photographic plate (film)
 It causes some materials to fluorescence i.e. to give out light
 It has smaller mass and charge than the alpha particle
 It can be deflected by either electric or magnetic field
N.B
 Beta particles have less ionizing powers compared to alpha
particles. This is because beta particles have smaller mass than alpha
particles

Gamma Rays (𝛾)

 Are electromagnetic waves with very short wavelengths and high
frequencies
 It is released during emission of alpha or beta particle (γ). It is also
called
gamma radiation
Effect on Nucleus
 When a radioactive nucleus emits gamma rays its atomic number
Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 118
 and mass number remain the same.
 The effect tend to form other element and the nuclear equation is given
by:
𝑍� � + −1 � +
𝐴 𝐴 0
→ 𝑍+1
�
Chemical �
reaction � alpha particle
with
� → +24𝐻𝑒 + γ
𝐴

�
𝑍 𝑌
𝐴−4

𝑍−2

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 119

 Example 1: Cobalt-60 by emitting a beta particle to produce nickel-60

𝟐𝟕𝑪
and gamma rays
𝟔𝟎 𝟎
→𝟐 + −𝟏
𝒐 𝟔𝟎𝑵𝒊
�+
𝟖 �γ
Example 2: Iodine-131 emits beta particles to produce xenon-131 and
gamma rays

𝟓𝟑�
𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟎
→ 𝟓 + −𝟏 �+
�𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟒
𝑿𝒆
�γ
Properties of Gama Rays
 They are electromagnetic waves in nature
 They are neutral in charge i.e have zero relative charge
 They have very high frequency electromagnetic radiation
 They have very high penetrating power since they have no mass
 They can be stopped by a thick layer of steel or concrete, dense metal,
but even a few cm of dense lead doesn't stop all of it
 They have lowest ionizing power since have no mass
 They have no mass since they are rays (radiations)
 They move with a speed of light i.e 3 x 108 m/s
 They affect/blacken photographic plate (film)
 They cause some material to fluorescence i.e. to give out light
 They cannot be deflected by electric field or

magnetic field Consider the figure below showing

the penetrating powers

The figure below shows the deflection in an electric field

Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 120

  Alpha particles deflected toward south pole, beta particles
deflected toward north pole while gamma rays is not deflected

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Individual task – 3:2
1. Uranium 9238𝑈 emits an alpha particle to become another element, as
shown in 2the following equation 238𝑈 → 𝐴𝑋 + 𝐴𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒.
92
Determine the value of A 𝑍
and Z (ANS: A = 234 , Z = 90)
2. The element Thorium (Th) has atomic number 90 and mass number
234. The element decays by emitting a beta particle to form
nuclear equation for this decay (ANS: 𝟐𝟑𝟒𝑨 → 𝟐𝟑𝟒𝑷𝒂 + 𝟎𝒆)
Protactinium (Pa). Write a
𝟗𝟎 𝟗𝟏 −𝟏
3. The following reaction is part of a radioactive series. Identify the

𝟖𝟑 � 𝟖𝟒 � 𝒁�
reaction x and determine the values of c and z
𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝑪
(ANS: x is beta particle, c = 206, z = 82)
� � �
𝑈 decayed to Polonium 𝑷𝒐 by 𝛼-particle emission
4. (ii) Define the terms isotope
238 𝟐𝟐𝟐
(ii) Uranium 9 𝟖
2 𝟒
stage via 234𝑇ℎ, 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝑹𝒂 and 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝑹𝒏 . Following this stage 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝑷𝒐
at each
decayed to𝑥 𝒙 𝒛 𝟖𝟒

𝟖𝟔𝑹 by 𝛽-particle only

𝒒

𝒏𝟐𝟐𝟔Write balanced equation of the stage decay process from 𝑈 𝑡𝑜

238
𝑹𝒏
(a)
92 𝒛
and determine the value of x, y, z
and q

𝑹𝒏 and 𝑹𝒏, Isobars is 𝑷𝒐 and 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝑹𝒏)

(b) Identify isotopes and𝟐𝟐𝟔isobars 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟔 𝟖𝟔 𝟖𝟒 𝟖𝟔
(ANS Isotopes is Radon;
5. A uranium nucleus, U-238 with atomic number 92, emits two 𝛼-particles

𝛽-particles and finally forms a thorium (Th) nucleus. Write the nuclear
and two

𝒆
this process 𝟗 → 𝟐𝟒𝑯𝒆 → −→ 𝟐𝟑𝟒𝑻𝒉)
equation for
𝟎

(𝟐𝟑𝟖𝑼 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏
𝟗
6. Radioactive uranium 𝑈 emits an 𝛼-particle to become thorium.
� 238 𝟎
�

Thorium emits a 𝛽-particle

9
2
another 𝛽-particle. What are the atomic number, mass number and
to become praseodymium which then emits

number of final atom produced?

(ANS: Uranium has atomic number 92 therefore the final product is uranium)

Application of Natural Radioactivity (Radio isotopes)

In hospital (medicine)
(a) Gamma rays from cobalt 60 are used to sterilize surgical
equipment
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 (b) Radioactive sodium is used to monitor blood circulation
(c) Used to trace and treat maligned growth. E.g. cancer and
tumors
(d) Used to measure correct patient dosages of radioactive
pharmaceuticals
(e) Used in molecular biology and genetics research.
(f) Radioactive iodine 131 is used to monitor the function of thyroid
gland

In industry
(a)Used to measure and control the thickness or density of metal and plastic
sheets
(b) Used in preservation of food by killing microorganisms that cause
spoilage

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In agriculture
(a) It is used to kill weeds
(b) It is used to check cracking in pipes used for irrigation purpose
(c) It is used to measure the moisture of materials stored in soils
(d) Itis used to measure amount of moisture content stored in grains and
control pests
In transport
(a) It is used to inspect passenger’s luggage before boarding the plane
(b) It is used to inspect airline luggage for hidden explosives
Science Field
(a) It is important aid to biomedical researchers studying the cellular
functions and bone formation in mammals
(b) It is used in research in red blood cell survival studies
(c) It is used to tell researchers whether oil wells are plugged by sand or
not
(d) It is used in biological research, agriculture, pollution control, and
archeology
(e) It is used to analyze electroplating solutions

Archaeological field.
(a) It is used for carbon – dating to determine the age of ancient
remains

Artificial Radioactivity
Artificial radioactivity is the emission of radiation due to
bombardment of small and stable nuclei by high energetic
particles.
It is also called induced radioactivity or man – made radioactivity
In artificial radioactivity, the nucleus must be excited by injection of
a neutron for radioactivity to start

How Artificial Radioactivity Occurs?

 Artificial radioactivity occurs when an atom is bombed with an
accelerator or exposing it to slow moving neutrons in a nuclear
reactor

Method of Inducing Radioactivity

 Neutron activation
 Photonuclear reaction
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Neutron Activation
 Is the process whereby neutron radiation induces radioactivity in
materials
 Example: Stable cobalt-59 undergo neutron radiation to emit cobalt-60
𝟓𝟗
𝟐𝟕𝑪
𝟎� → 𝟐𝟕𝑪
𝟏 𝟔𝟎

𝒐 𝒐
+
�

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Photonuclear Reaction
 Is the radioactivity induced by bombarding the target nucleus with
high energy X-rays or gamma rays
 Example: In each of the nucleus reaction listen below what is the
atomic number, mass number and a name of the
particle produced?
5 𝐵 bombarded with a neutron gives lithium
(i) Boron 10 𝐿𝑖
7
3

(ii)Aluminium1 27𝐴𝑙 bombarded by 𝛼-particle to give1silicon 30𝑆𝑖

particle

particle 1 3 4
1
(iii) Sodium 23𝑁 is bombarded by 𝛼-particle to give aluminium
1 3 27
𝐴𝑙
𝑎
Chlorine 351𝐶𝑙 is bombarded with proton gives Sulphur 𝑆 particle
particle
35
(iv) 1
7 6
ANS: (i) Particle is alpha (helium) (ii) Atom produced is proton
(iii) Atom produced is neutron (iv) Two electrons are produced

Application of Artificial Radioactivity

 Neutron activation is one of the most sensitive and accurate methods
of trace- element analysis
 Neutron activation uses nuclear reactors for nuclear energy generation
 Neutron activation uses nuclear reactors for making nuclear bombs

Hazards/Effects of Nuclear Reaction

 Skin burning and Redding when exposed in radiation
 Death by killing human body cells
 Cancerous tumors
 Genetic mutation

Precaution to be taken from hazard

 Limiting the time of exposure
 Increase the distance from the source of radiation
 Using materials such water, concrete or lead to absorb the radiation
 Hold radioactive material by using mechanical tong
 Keep it out of the environment a material containing the radiation
source

Types of Nuclear Reaction

Nuclear

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 fission
Nuclear fusion

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Nuclear Fission
 Is the process whereby unstable nucleus of an atom split into two

92� + 5140𝐵𝑎 + 10𝑛

or more smaller nuclei.
238
 Example: → 3
6 6

𝐾𝑟
NB: �
94
2
 Nuclear fission of heavy element is a highly exothermic reaction that
is why it is used as a source of energy in form of heat
 If neutron is bombarded with atom the decay will continue until
stable atom form, since neutron decreases to finish. This chain is
called chain reaction

Application of Nuclear Fission

 It is used in nuclear power plants to generate electricity
 It is used in making nuclear bombs

Nuclear Fusion
 Is the process whereby lighter nuclei joining together to form heavier
nucleus.
 Example: Nuclear fusion of deuterium and tritium yield helium,

𝟏� + 𝟏� → 𝟐� + 𝟏� � + energy
neutron and heat energy
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

NB: � � � ��
 Nuclear fusion of heavy element than iron or nickel is endothermic
reaction
 Nuclear fusion of lighter element is exothermic reaction
 Nuclear fusion occur naturally in stars
 Nuclear fusion occur artificially in human enterprises

Application of Nuclear Fusion

o It is used in nuclear power plants to generate electricity
o It is used in making nuclear bombs. For example, hydrogen bomb

Carbon – 14 Dating
 Is the scientific method which is used to determine age of dead living
and non- living organism

Half-life of Radioactive Nucleus (Decay)

 Half-life is the time required for one half of the nuclei present to decay.
 It is represented by the symbol (𝑡1/2)
 Each radioactive material has its own half-life
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Activity
 Is the rate of disintegration of radioactive material with time
OR
 Activity is the number of atoms decayed per unit time
 Activity also is called count rate. SI unit of activity is count rate per second,
(c.p.s)
Mathematically
=−
𝜟𝑵
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝑨)
(−𝜟𝑵) =
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎
𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒅 𝜟𝒕
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏(,𝜟𝒕)
NB:
 Negative means as time goes the number of atoms decrease
 Activity is directly proportional to the original number of atoms presents

Activity (A) ∝ Original number of atoms presents (N)

Mathematically

𝐴 ∝ 𝑁 – removing the proportionality constant

𝐴 = 𝑘𝑁
But: 𝐴 = −
𝛥𝑁

𝛥𝑡

− = 𝑘𝑁 = 𝜆𝑁(𝑘 = 𝜆 = Proportionality/decay
𝛥𝑁

constant)
𝛥𝑡

But: Decay constant, 𝜆 is given by

𝜆=
𝑙𝑛2
𝑡1/2
(Where by ln2 = 0.693)

𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡1 =
0.693
∴ 𝜆=
0.693
𝑡1/2 2 λ

 Generally the final amount remaining after time t is given by

𝑵
=
𝒕
𝒐𝒓 𝑵 = � 𝟐
(−𝒕𝟏/ ) 𝑵=𝑵 �
𝑵𝑶
𝑵 𝒆
𝟐 𝟐
or
𝒏 � −𝝀𝒕 �

N = Final mass/activity/Amount
remaining after time t NO = Initial (Original)
Where by

amount/fraction/activity/percentage t = Total

t1/2 = Half life

time taken/Time taken to decay

𝜆 = Decaying constant
𝒏 = 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 − 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔, 𝒏 =
𝒕

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 𝒕𝟏
𝟐

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The half life of a radioactive element can be calculated by using

1. Linear method
 This involves dividing the initial mass/ percentage /fraction by two after each
half life
 In general, If No is the initial mass and t1/2 the half life then:
𝑵𝑶
𝑵𝑶
NO
𝑵𝑶 𝑵𝑶 𝟏𝟔
𝟐 𝟒 𝟖
Example: The count rate of a radioactive indium falls from 3200 counts per
minute to 200 counts per minutes in 220 minutes. Determine the half – life
of the radioactive isotope Soln:
3200 1600 800 400 200
Total number of half lives = 4
Total time taken = 220 minutes

 𝒕𝟏/𝟐
= 𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔
=
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝟒

2. Formula method
 The formula used is:
𝑵
𝒕
� 𝟏 𝒕𝟏/𝟐
�= ( 𝑶 =𝒏
) 𝑹 𝟐
𝑵 𝑵𝑶
𝒏=
�
(𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠)
�
−𝒕
whereby:
𝒕𝟏/𝟐
Example: If a radioactive isotope has a half –life of 2.5 hours, how long will it
take for 256 grams of the isotope to decay to 32 grams?
Soln:
𝒕
𝑵 = )
𝒕𝟏/𝟐
From:
(
𝟏
𝑵𝑶
𝟐 𝒕 𝒕
𝟑
= ( ) →𝟐( ) =𝟐 ( )
𝟑𝟐 𝟏 𝟐.𝟓 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐.𝟓
𝟐𝟓𝟔
𝟐
𝒕
𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔, 𝟑= → 𝒕 = 𝟑 𝒙𝟐. 𝟓 = 𝟕. 𝟓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝟐. 𝟓
3. Graphical method
 This method involves plotting a decay curve, then using the curve to
work out the half life
Radioactive Decay Curve
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  Is the exponential curve drawn with number of atoms on the vertical
axis and time for disintegration on the horizontal axis
(Is a graph of either mass, count rate, activity, percentage e.t.c against time)

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Consider the fig below

Whereby;

 1T1/2 = First half life, 2T1/2 =Second half lifeand 3T1/2 =Third half life period

Example 1. From the figure below determine the half life

4. Isotope has a half-life of 1min and 1000 nuclei initially present, after 1min will
decay to 500 nuclei, next 1min will decay to 250 nuclei, and next 1min will
decay to 125 nuclei and so on
Graphically

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NB:
o Half-life is the same for isotope
o Half-life is independent to physical state, temperature and pressure
o Radioactive isotope never decay to zero value

Individual task – 3:3

1. A sample of a radioactive contains 120 nuclei. Calculate the number of half-
life it
takes for the sample to decay so that there are only 15 nuclei left undecayed (ANS:
n =3)
2. What is the half life of a radioactive material if its activity falls to 1/8
of its value in 3360 seconds
3. The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. A sample contains 800g of
iodine-131. How much of the sample will remaining undecayed
after 40 days (ANS: 25 g)
4. The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. A sample contains 16g of iodine-
131
(a) Draw a graph to represents
(b) From the graph determine mass of the sample which
will remain undecayed after 20 days
5. Archaeologist can determine the age of organic matter by
measuring the proportion of carbon -14 present in a sample.
Assuming that carbon -14 has a half –life of 5600 years ,Calculate
the age of a piece of wood found to contain 1/8 as much carbon -
14 as in a living material (ANS: t = 16 800 yrs)
6. Explain why long half –life of nuclear waste products presents a
health hazard (ANS: If the half –life is long/large, the activity remains at a very
high level for a very long time resulting in a health hazard)
7. A radioactive isotope M decays by emitting two alpha and beta particles

𝟖𝒀. What is the atomic number of M. After 224 days, 1/16 of mass of M
to form
𝟐𝟏𝟒

𝟑
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 remained. Determine the half life of M.(ANS: Atomic number = 87, t1/2 = 56 days)

Detection of Nuclear Radiations

 Nuclear radiation is detected by its ability of ionizing the
atom/molecules of gas passed through the detector, we have about
many devices but the first-three are the common detectors
includes

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 (a) Geiger Muller tube (GM tube)
(b) Spark counter
(c) Cloud chamber
(d) Photographic plate (film)
(e) Bubble chamber
(f) Gold leaf electroscope
Geiger Muller Tube
 Is a device which detects radiations by ionization of noble gas such as
argon in a closed tube

Composition of Gm Tube
 Hollow tube consists of noble gas (argon) coated metallic film
maintained at a high negative voltage relative to the collector
 Mica thin window at one end where radiation allowed passing
through mica during detection
 A collector wire at the centre of tube

Mechanism of Gm Tube
 When radiation enters the tube, it causes electrons to be ejected
from the gaseous atoms and are then accelerated toward the
positively–charged collector wire
 Then an electron strikes the wire causing a brief pulse of electric
current to be produced
 Finally the current can cause a ‘’click’’ in a speaker or be counted by a
scalar
Background radiation
 Is the natural radiation that is always present in the environment
 It comes from (sources) the earth’s crust, the atmosphere, cosmic
rays and radioisotopes
Background Count Rate
 Are the radiations present in the environment even when there is no
apparent radioactive material around
OR Is the number of counts recorded by a radiation detector from
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background radiation OR Is the evidence or effect on a detector of radiation
caused by background radiation

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Source of Background Count Rate
 Earth’s radioactive impurities
 Residue of nuclear radiation present in G.M.T
 Cosmic rays escape from outer space through ozone layer
NB:
 A GM tube left well away from a radioactive source will still
count some radioactive emissions (The background count).
 If the GM tube is placed close to a radioactive source, it will
count the emissions from the source and the background
count
 Background radiation count must be subtracted from the total count
registered by a detector to obtain the actual /correct count of the
source
 Example if the background was 5 Bq and the count recorded is 45 Bq,
then the count from the source is ( 45 – 5 = 40 Bq)
 In calculations the Background count rate is treated as zero. i.e. not
allowed (it is subtracted from recorded count rate)

Individual task – 3:4

1. The activity of a radioactive element when measured using the
Geiger Muller tube was found to be 63 counts per minute. Given
that the background radiation was 8 counts per minute,
determine
(a) The actual activity of the radioactive element (Actual Activity = 63 – 8=55
c.p.m)
(b) The half –life of the element if the activity dropped
from 128 counts/minute to 23 counts per minute in 6
hours (ANS: t = 2hrs)
2. In an experiment to determine the half –life of the radioactive
element, the following data was obtained.
Activity (counts) per 52 44 34 28.5 24 19.0 17.5 15
minute
Time (minutes) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
(a) Given that the background radiation is 10 counts per
minute, Plot a decay curve for the element
(b) Estimate from your graph, the half –life of the element (t1/2 = 1.15
minutes)
3. A Geiger Muller tube connected to rate meter is hold near a radioactive
source, the corrected count rate(allowing for Background count rate is 400
c.p.s. 40 min the corrected count rate is 25c.p.s. What is the half-life of the
source? (ANS t1/2 = 10 min)
4. A rate meter records a background count rate of 2 c.p.s, when a
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 radioactive source is held near the count rate is 162 c.p.s. if the half-
life of the source is 5 min. what will the recorded count rate be 20
min? (ANS N = 10 c.p.s)

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Spark Counter
 Spark counter is the device used to detect the presence of radiation
based on their ability to ionize dry air molecules by producing
sparks
Diagram

Composition of Spark Counter

 Piece of wire gauze
 Long wire
 Power supply with voltage below level required to cause a spark
Mechanism of Spark Counter
 When radiation pass through dry air cause dry air to ionize which
increases conductivity of dry air allowing electrons to pass through
them to form sparks
NB:
The number of sparks produced depends on the types of radiation emitted
 When Alpha (𝛼) particles are emitted the largest number of
sparks are produced due to highest ionization effect
 When Beta (β) particles are emitted the least number of sparks are
produced due to moderate ionization effect
 When Gamma (γ) rays are emitted the few number of sparks are
produced due to lowest ionization effect
Wilson Cloud Chamber
 Is a device used to detect presence of radiation by producing tracks of
light
 It is sealed environment containing a supersaturated vapour of
water, alcohol or any other compound that can be kept near its
condensation point by regulating the temperature of the
chamber. Supersaturated vapour of water refers to a vapour of a
compound (water) that has a higher (partial) pressure than the
vapour pressure of that compound (water).

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Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 141
Composition of Cloud Chamber
 Felt ring soaked in alcohol: to supply alcohol vapour to the chamber
 Radioactive source: produce radiation and cause ionization of vapour
 Dry ice: uses to cool the alcohol vapour until it is saturated
 Alcohol vapor condensation: to form liquid droplets around the ionized
molecule
 Lamp: uses to light track which cause to view it clear
 Foam: support dry ice
 Plastic lid: the eyepiece

Mechanism of Cloud Chamber

 The air inside chamber is ionized by the radiation in its path.
 This leads to the formation of air ions
 Alcohol vapor condenses on these air ions forming droplets along
the path ie forms some tracks
 These droplets/tracks are visible and so radiation is detected
 Each radiation forms a definite pattern. The radiation is identified by
analyzing the nature of the pattern formed

Individual task – 3:5

A snap shot photograph of a cloud chamber shows 40 tracks well defined
alpha particle track. A second snap shot taken 2 min later shows only 10
tracks. What is the half-life of the alpha source? (ANS: T1/2 = 1 min)

Photographic Film
 Radiation exposes the film
Bubble Chamber
 It is similar to a cloud chamber but bubbles are formed in a liquid
along the path of the radiation. It detect alpha and beta
particles
Gold Leaf Electroscope
 Charged leaf of the electroscope collapses when a radioactive
source is brought nearby. Then the air surrounding the leaves
become ionized, the charge on the leaf can “leak” away
Advantage of diffusion cloud chamber detector over charged electroscope
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  It can detect alpha, beta and gamma radiations unlike a charged
electroscope which can only detect alpha particles

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Difference between X-Rays and Gamma Rays
 x-rays are caused by energy transition in electron while gamma
rays are caused by nuclear reaction within the nuclear
 metal (e.g. tungsten) used to produce x-rays not decaying while metal
used to produce gamma rays decaying
 Wavelength of x-rays determined by nature of target and operating
voltage
while gamma rays depending on the nuclear for their wavelength
 X-rays are emitted by stable atoms of heavy nucleus while
gamma rays formed nucleus of energetically unstable to
became stable

Class Activity – 3
1. A patient suffering from cancer of thyroid glands is given a dose of
radioactive iodine 131, with a half-life of 8 days, to combat
diseases. He is temporarily radioactive and his nurse must be
changed regularly to project them. If his radiation is initially 4 times
the acceptable level, how long is it before the special nursing
radiations can be dropped (ANS : t = 16 days)
2. The half life of iodine – 131 is 8 days .A sample contains 16 g of iodine –
131
(a) Draw a graph to represent the decay of the sample
(b) From the graph determine
mass of the sample which will remain undecayed after 20 days
(ANS: (a) Draw graph (b) 3g)
3. A sample contains 800 g of iodine – 131.How much of the sample will
remain undecayed after 40 days ? (The half life of iodine – 131 is 8
days) (ANS: 25 g)
4. Isotope A has a half – life of 36 s and decays by emission of alpha
particle to Isotope B . Isotope B has a half life of 18 s and decays
by emission of beta particle to isotope C which is stable .A sample
initially contains 120 mg of pure Isotope A. After 72 s :
(a) What mass of Isotope A remains?
(b) What mass of Isotope B has been produced?
(c) Of the mass of Isotope B produced, how much remains?
(d) What mass of Isotope C has been produced?
(e) After which of the following times would there be less
than 1 mg of isotope A remaining? ((a) 120 s (b) 160 s
(c) 240 s (d) 280 s)
5. The half life of Technetium 99m is 6h. If 12 mg of Technetium 99m is
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 injected into a patient and starts to decay into Technetium
99m .Calculate the amount of Technetium 99m present in the
patient after 24h ANS:
6. After 24 days, 2 mg of an original 128 mg sample remain .What is the
half – life of the sample? (ANS: 4 days)
7. U – 238 has a half life of 4.46 x 109 years .How much U – 238 should
be present in a sample 2.5 x 109 years old .If 2 g was present initially ?
(ANS: 1.36 g remain)
8. How long will it take for a 40 g sample of I–131 (Half – life = 8.04 days)
to decay to 1/100 its original mass? (ANS 53.4 days)

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9. If a radioactive element has a half – life of 40 minutes. Initial count rate
was 1000 per minute , then how long will it take for count rate to drop to
125 per minutes?(ANS:120min)
10. A particular radioactive has a half-life of 2.0 hours. A sample gives
a count rate of 2400 per second at 11:00 am. When will the count have
dropped to approximately 300 per second in the same counting
system?
11. 8 x 108 atoms of Radon were separated from Radium. The half life of
Radon is
3.82 days. How many atoms will disintegrate after 7.64 days? (ANS: = 6 x 108
atoms)
12. The half life of a radioactive element is 10 minute. Calculate how
it takes for 90% of a given mass of the element to decay.(ANS:
Therefore, time = 33min)
13. A radioactive material
has a half life of 16 days. How long will it take for the count rate to fall
from 160 counts /min to 20counts/min? (ANS: t= 48 min)

remain after 2 hours? (ANS: 𝑵 =

𝟏
14. The half life of the Bismuth is 20min what fraction of a sample of this
𝑵𝟎
radioactive bismuth
𝟔𝟒
)
15. A radioactive nucleus is
denoted by the symbol write down the
composition of the nucleus at the end of each of the following stages of
disintegration.
(a) The emission of an alpha particle. (b)
𝟗 −
𝒀 𝟗𝟎� + 𝟐 � ( 𝒃)𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝟗𝟎𝑴 𝒆, 𝒑 = 𝟗𝟏, 𝒏 =
The further emission of a beta particle.
𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝟒 𝟎 𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝟏𝟎
(ANS (a.) 𝟐𝟖𝟖
𝟗
→ 𝟐 � � 𝑿 → + 𝟏𝟗𝟑)
16. The count rate recorded by Geiger Muller tube and counter
close to an alpha particle source is 400 per minute after allowing for
the back ground count. If the half life of the source is 4 days.
(i) What will be the count rate 12 days later?
(ii) What should be determined over period of several minute rather
than over a few second? (ANS: C = 50 count/min, This is because the rate of
emission was so fast).
17. A rate meter record a background count rate of 2 counts per
second when a radioactive source is held near the count rate is 162
counts per second. If the half life of the source is 5 minute what will be
the recorded count rate be 20min later? (ANS: Therefore C = 10counts /sec,
Hence the recorded count rate = 10 + 2 = 12 counts/sec)
18. A Geiger Muller tube connected to a rate meter is held
near a radioactive source. The correct count rate allowing for background
count is 400 counts per second. 40 min later the corrected count rate is
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 25 counter rates per second. What is the half life of the source?
(Half life = 10 minutes)
19. The rate os disintegration of a radioactive substance is recorded
after every 3 days ,as shown in the table below .Back ground radiation is
10 counts/day .Plot an appropriate graph and use it to determine the
half – life of the substance .Show how you obtained your answer
Time(days) 0 3 6 9 12 15
Counts/day 123 95 66 47 34 25

8 𝑁𝑖
2
20.The following symbol represents an isotpe of nickel: 60
(i) What do the superscript and subscript
represent?
(ii) How many protons and neutrons are there in the nickel isotope?

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21. The half – life of Thorium – 234 is 24 days .Calculate the
mass remaining unchanged of 0.64 g of the substance after
(a) 48 days (b) 72 days (c) 96 days
22. Chlorine exists in two forms – chlorine – 35 and chlorine
– 37 .The atomic number of chlorine is 17
(a) What name is given to different forms of the same element ?
(b) Write down the number of protons and neutrons in each type of
chlorine atom
23. Radon has a half – life of 91 h 12 min .How long will it take
until only 1/8 0f a sample of radon remains unchanged ?
24. A radioisotope has a half – life of 8 hours. At 12 noon on 2
march a GM tube measures an activity of 2400 Bq.
(a) Calculate the activity at 4.00 am on 3 march
(b) Determine the time at which an activity of approximately 75 Bq will be
measured
25. The limit of carbon dating is about 50 000 years. Explain why?
26. Archaeologists are analysing ancient bones from a human
settlement. They discover that a sample of bone has one – sixteenth
of the carbon – 14 of modern human bones. Determine the age of
the setllement (Given that the half – life of acrbon – 14 is 5700
years)
27. A radioactive material has a half life of 2 minutes. Explain
what that means . Determine how much of the material will be
left after 8 minutes

only, i.e ∝, 𝛽 𝑜𝑟 𝛾. The source was placed in a holder as shown in the

28. A radioactive source is known to emit one type of radiation

figure below , first without a magnet and then a magnet was

introduced . A detector was placed at positions 1,2 and 3 and the
count rates recorded in the table below

Table
Counts per minute
Detector Magnet not Magnet present
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 position present
1 26 295
2 300 28
3 28 26

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 (e) What is the reason for placing the two metal plates in front of the
source?
(f) What is the value of the background counts per minute? (ANS: 27
c.p.m)
(g) Define the background count
29. A radioactive element has an initial count rate of 1200 counts per
minute measured by a scale and this falls to 150 counts per
minutes in 15 hours
(a) Determine the half – life of the element (ANS: Half life = 5 hours)
(b)If the initial number of atoms in another sample of this element is 3.0 x
1020, how many atoms will have decayed in 25 hours? (ANS: 9.375 x
10 18 atoms)
30. Give any four uses of cathode ray oscilloscope(CRO)

symbol 𝟐𝟖𝟒𝑿 Write

31. State two ways in which X – rays differ from gamma rays
32. A radioactive nucleus is denoted by the𝟗
down the composition of the nucleus at the 𝟎 end of the following

stages of disintegration
(i) Emission of an alpha (∝)particle
(ii) Further emission of beta(𝛽) particle
(iii) Further emission of a gamma (𝛾) radiation
33. A particular radioactive has a half – life of 2.0 hours. A sample
gives a count of 2400 per second at 11:00 a.m. When will the count have
dropped to approximately 300 per second in the same counting
system? (ANS: will be 5:00 p.m)
34. Identify the type of radiation from the evidence supplied below:
(a) Absorbed in a few centimeters of air deflected by a magnetic
field.
(b) Very penetrating rays, not deflected by a magnetic field, harmful to
living things
(c) Mostly absorbed by a few millimeters of alluminium, deflected by a
magnetic field
(d) Has a wavelength of several meters, an aerial is
required for the transmission of these waves

(a) 1 → − + 0 → − +
Complete the following decay equation
(b) 14
35.
𝐶
0
3
𝐻 − � 6 − �
� superscripts and subscripts of the following
Determine1the 1 �

2 �
36.
(a) 6 1 (b) 9 (c) 32
2 0 �
37. 4
𝐶 238
𝐶
s

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Topic – 4 Thermionic Emission
 Thermionic emission: is the discharge of electrons from the surfaces of
heated materials.
OR
 Thermionic emission is the process by which free electrons are
emitted from the surface of a metal when external heat energy
is applied
 N.B The rate of escaping (discharging) of electrons from a metal
surface increases with the increase in temperature
How Thermionic Emissions Occur?
 Thermionic emission occurs when kinetic energy of electrons from
the surface of the heated metal overcome the work function of the
metal
Work Function
 Is the minimum kinetic energy needed by an electron for it to
escape completely from the surface of the metal
OR
 Is the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from a solid to
a point in the vacuum immediately outside the solid surface.

Types of Thermionic Emission

 Cathode rays
 X- rays
Cathode Rays
 Are fast moving electrons emitted from cathode moving to the
anode in a cathode ray tube

Properties of Cathode Rays

 They travel in straight lines.
 They carry negative charges.
 They cause fluorescence (glow) when they strike materials.
 They have energy and momentum.
 They are deflected by electrical and magnetic fields (toward South Pole).

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  Cathode rays can ionize gas atoms if the potential difference is large
and the gas pressure is not high.

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  They can penetrate thin sheets of paper or metal foils depending on their
energy.
 They affect photographic plates.
 They produce X-rays when stopped suddenly

The Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Is an evacuated vacuum tube containing electron gun used to
accelerate and deflect the electron beam(s) onto the phosphorescent
screen to create the image
OR
 Is an electronic tube designed to display electrical data (see the fig.
below)

Why Cathode-Ray Tube is evacuated?

 Cathode-Ray Tube is evacuated so as to minimize air or electric
resistance in order to make electrons travel without colliding with
other particles
OR The tube is evacuated so as to prevent the electrons from losing their energy
as a result of interacting with air particles before reaching the screen

What would happen if CRT not vacuums?

 If gas is maintained in the tube (at atmospheric or high pressure), the
tube will behave like an open circuit (insulator), when p.d across it is
strong enough it will cause an electric spark which will ionize the air and
make it conduct electricity
 Therefore if the gas is maintained in the tube there is no production of
cathode rays thus the fluoroscope screen will not form image
NB:
 Conduction in gases and response of the tube, depend on pressure of
gas. At atmospheric pressure of a gas will behave simply as an
insulator

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Components of the Cathode-Ray Tube
 Electron Gun
 Deflection system
 Fluorescent Screen

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1. Electron Gun
 It is used to produce electrons at a high fixed velocity.
 This is done through the process of thermionic emission
 It consists of Heater, cathode, control grid, accelerating and focusing anode.
(a) Heater
 Its heating element is used to heat cathode to high temperatures from
800°C to
several thousand degrees Celsius either directly by an electric current or indirectly
(b) Cathode
 This is a metal filament such as tungsten heated by electron gun
resulting metal electrons attains enough kinetic energy than a Work
Function of a metal and escape the cathode by thermionic
emission
(c) Control grid
 This controls the brightness (intensity) of the beam by controlling
the rate of flow of electrons
(d) Accelerating anode
 This is a metal disk maintained at a high positive voltage of 5 000 V
to 50 000 V used to pull electrons from cathode to focusing
anode
(e) Focusing anode
 This is a metal disk maintained at a high positive voltage of 5 000
V to 50 000 V used to pull electrons received from accelerating
anode to deflection system up to fluoresce screen
2. Deflection system
 It is used to deflect the electron beam either vertically or horizontally
 It is used to control the image produced by controlling the position
that the electrons hit the screen
 It consists of horizontal (x) deflection plates and vertical (y) deflection plates

(a) Horizontal (X) Deflection Plates

 They are used to deflect the electron beam horizontally (left or right).
(b) Vertical (Y) Deflection Plates
 They are used to deflect the beam vertically (up or down)

3. Fluorescent Screen
 This is the display component of the CRT where image displayed.
 It is phosphor coated so that it emits light wherever the electrons strike
it
NB:
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 The horizontal and vertical deflection plates can direct the beam towards
any point on the screen. In some devices, the electrically charged
plates are replaced by poles of electromagnets.

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 The deflection plates move the electron beam to different points on
the screen resulting in the formation of an image for a short time
about (20-1 sec) or 0.05 Hz

Operation of the Cathode-Ray Tube

Cathode is heated indirectly by a heater (electric gun) until thermal electron
emission. The electrons emitted are controlled by grid towards anode.
After travelling through the hole in the anode the electrons hit the
luminescent screen, causing them to slow down and excite the phosphor
in the screen to fluorescence

Applications of the Cathode-Ray Tube

 computer display (Monitor)
 Televisions (TV)
 As a display device in RADAR
 cathode-ray oscilloscopes (CRO)

Televisions (TV)
 It may be black and white television or coloured television

Operation of black and white television

The signal is first amplified and then applied to the vertical deflection plates
to deflect the beam vertically. At the same time, a voltage is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates thus causing the beam to be deflected
horizontally. The image is formed on the screen by varying the brightness at
thousands of points on the screen. The brightness of a point on the screen
depends on the number of electrons that strike it

Operation of colored television,

The signal is first amplified and then applied to the vertical deflection plates
to deflect the beam vertically. At the same time, a voltage is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates thus causing the beam to be deflected
horizontally. The image is formed on the screen (phosphors of primary

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colour: red, green and blue). The image is formed by varying the intensity
of the electron beam that strikes the different phosphors
NB:
 The intensity of the electron beam can be varied by
changing the voltage on the grid located between the
cathode and the anode

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  The grid has a negative charge and so repels the electrons
coming from the cathode
 By changing the grid’s voltage it allows more or fewer electrons
to pass on to the anode and ultimately to the screen
 Some color televisions use a single electron gun whereas others use
three
 The process where plate voltage (signal) converted to
image on fluorescent screen is called scan
 The horizontal and vertical motion of electrons towards
fluorescent screen is called scanning

The Computer Displays

 Computer displays work in the same way as the television

The Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

 The cathode-ray oscilloscope is typically used to display signals in
wave forms. It operates in a way similar to a television

Operation of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope

 The signal is first amplified and then applied to the vertical deflection plates
to deflect the beam vertically. At the same time, a voltage is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates thus causing the beam to be deflected
horizontally at a uniform (constant) rate. The signal applied to the vertical
plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal
axis serves as a uniform time scale. The screen of the CRO is covered
with a grid to facilitate measurements.

Uses of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

 Measuring frequencies
 Measuring Voltages
 Measuring phase differences
 Measuring small time intervals
 Comparison of frequencies

Advantages of the C.R.O for use as a Voltmeter

 It can measure both direct and alternating current
 It can measure very large voltages without getting damage
 It does not take any current due to its high resistance and therefore
does not interfere with the circuit

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X-Rays
 Are electromagnetic waves with very high frequencies and short
wavelengths
How are they produced?
 X-rays are produced whenever fast moving electrons are sopped
suddenly by metallic targets
The X-Ray tube
 Is a vacuum tube that converts electrical input power into X–Rays
OR
 Is a device for generating X- Rays by accelerating electrons to high
energies and causing them to strike a metal target from which the
X–Rays are emitted
OR
 Is the highly evacuated glass bulb contains cathode and anode
made of platinum and tungsten or heavy metal of high
melting point

X – Rays tube consists of:-

 Heater – produce heat.

 The cathode is concave shaped so that it can focus the electrons onto the target
 The anode is made of a good conductor of heat such as copper. This is
used to ensure that the heat generated when electron hits the
target is quickly conducted away from the target
 The target is made of tungsten because tungsten has a high
melting point therefore can withstand the heat generated
without melting
 Cooling in X –ray tube is enhanced by
(i) The cooling fins outside the tube
(ii) The oil circulating through the channels in the copper anode
(iii) The anode made of a good conductor of heat (copper)
 The tube is highly evacuated so that electrons don’t collide with air
particles on their way to the target. The air particles can cause the
electrons to lose some of their kinetic energy
 X –ray tube is surrounded by lead shield .This is used to absorb and stray X-
rays

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Alternative diagram

How it works to produce X –rays?

 Current flows through the filament, which then becomes hot and
electrons are then emitted by the process of thermionic emission
 The emitted electrons are then accelerated towards the target
(anode) by the high potential difference between the anode and
the cathode
 When the electrons hit the tungsten target, they are stopped and X–rays are
produced
 Only 0.5% of the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted to X –
Rays. The rest is converted to heat
Energy changes occurring in the X –ray tube during the production of X –rays
 Electric energy → 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 → 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 → 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑿 − 𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔

Types of X-Rays
 Soft X-rays
 Hard X-rays
Soft X-Rays
 Are the X-rays that produced by lower accelerating potential
with longer wavelength and lower range of frequency
 They have less energy and less penetrating power
Hard X-Rays
 Are the X-ray produced by high accelerating potential with short
wavelength and higher range of frequency.
 They have high energy and more penetrating power
Differences between hard and soft x-rays
Hard x-rays Soft x-rays
Produced by high accelerating Produced by low accelerating
potential potential
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Have shorter wavelength (high Have longer wavelength (low
frequency) frequency)
They have higher energy They have less energy
Have higher penetrating power Have lower penetrating power

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N.B
 The quality (hardness or softness) of X-rays is controlled by the
potential difference between the filament and the target. The higher the
potential difference, the harder the X –rays produced
 The intensity (amount) of X –rays produced is controlled by the heating
current
.The higher the heating current , the more the electrons emitted and
hence the higher the intensity of the X-rays

Properties of X-Rays
 They travel in straight line at the velocity of light
 They cannot be deflected by electric or magnetic field
 They can produce fluorescence
 They affect photographic film
 They penetrate matter but depend on density of matter
 They ionize gases.

Application (Uses) of X-Rays

1. In the medical field soft X-rays are used
 To detect broken or fractured bones or some disease in soft tissue
 Treatment of cancer
 To detect growth inside the body
 To detect foreign objects in the body
2. Crystallography: Experimental study of the arrangement of
atoms in solid (study of arrangement of crystals)
3. Astronomy: X-rays emitted by celestial objects are used in observational
astronomy
4. X-ray microscopic analysis: involves the use of electromagnetic radiation
in the soft X-ray band to produce image of very small objects
5. X-rays fluorescence: technique in which X-rays are generated within a
specimen and detected. The outgoing energy of the identified
composition of the sample
6. Security installation: They are used for non-invasive security searches at
airports and seaports
7. In industries:
(i) It is used to inspect metal-casting and welded joints for hidden
faults
(ii) They are used to sterilize surgical equipment before packing

Effect of X – Rays to Human Beings

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  Destroy body cells and can cause cancer
 Can cause mutation due to destroy of genitals

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Precautions
 Exposure to X –rays should be limited to short time intervals
 Concrete walls should be used for rooms that store X- rays tubes
 X –rays tubes should be surrounded by lead shield to protect
operators from stray X–rays

Class Activity
1. (a) State one way in which cathode rays differ from electromagnetic
waves and describe an experiment which illustrates this difference
(b) Draw a labeled diagram of a longitudinal section view of the cathode
ray oscilloscope tube showing its main features
5. (a) (i) What are the two types of X – rays?
(ii) X – Rays are said to have harmful effect to human beings
when used for a long time. Explain the effect that X – rays
cause to human beings
(b) Describe how X – rays are produced in X – ray tube
(c) Show the three main parts of cathode ray oscilloscope on a well
labeled diagram
6. (a) Write two properties of(i) X rays (ii) cathode
rays (b)(i) Give any four uses of cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO)
(ii) State two ways in which x – rays differ from gamma rays
7. (a) Explain briefly the following
(i) Thermionic emission
(ii) The production of a stream of electrons in cathode ray
oscilloscope (C.R.T)
(b) What method in a device using the thermionic emission principle
ensures that the electrons produced
(i) Do not accumulate at the
source? (ii) Reach their range
undeviated?
(iii) Travel without meet other forms of particles on their way to the
target?
8. (a) (i) Explain why cathode ray tube (CRT) are evacuated
(ii) What happens to the CRT when a gas is maintained?
(iii) If gas is maintained in a CRT, will the image be formed onto the
screen? Explain
(b) In the production of X – rays what are roles of:
(i) Low voltage (ii) High voltage? (iii) Tungsten target?
(c)How is hard X – rays produced?
9. (a) (i) Define thermionic emission

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 (ii) What is X – rays? (iii) Mention two uses of X – rays
(b) With the aid of a diagram, explain how X – rays are produced
(c) Draw a well labeled diagram of a cathode ray oscilloscope.
10. State one property of X –rays which makes it possible to detect
fractured bones
11. The penetrating power of x –rays is normally varied depending on
the intended use. Explain briefly how this is done
12. X –rays are passed through the air surrounding a charged
electroscope. State what is observed.
13. How can the intensity of X-rays in an X –ray tube be increased

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 14. The figure below shows a circuit of a special type of a cathode ray
tube

(a) Name the parts labeled A and B

(ANS: A = Cathode B = Grid )
(b) C is a metal can mounted inside the tube and is connected
externally to a negatively charged electroscope with its casing
earthed. The p.d across the metal L and M was then adjusted
so that the cathode rays were deflected into the can and it was
observed that the electroscope leaf rose steadily
(i) Why did the leaf rise steadily? (ANS: The leaf rose steadily
due to the extra accumulation of negative charges. Like
charges repel)
(ii)What does the result in (ii) above tell you about the charge
on the cathode rays (ANS: cathode rays are negatively
charged)
(iii)State one other property of cathode rays not mentioned
above
15.(i) What is thermionic emission?
(ii) Name two factors on which the rate of emission depends.
ANS.
(i) Thermionic emission: The phenomenon due to which free
surface of the metal emits electrons, on being heated
(ii) Factors determining the rate of emission of thermion:
 It is inversely proportional to the work function of a material.
 It is directly proportional to the temperature of the surface emitting
thermions.
 It is directly proportional to the surface area of the surface emitting
thermions.

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 16. The figure below shows an X –rays tube

(a) Name the parts labeled A,B and C(ANS: A =cooling fins B=metal target C= Filament
cathode)
(b)Explain how X –Rays are produced in a tube
(c) Why it is necessary to use an evacuated tube? (ANS: In order to
minimize the chance of electrons colliding with air molecules)

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 (d)What are the purposes of high and low voltages.
 Low voltage heats up the cathode filament to emit electrons
 High voltage accelerates electrons towards the metal target
(e) With reason, state the most appropriate metal to be used to make
part B
(ANS: tungsten/molybdenum, It has a high melting point)
17. In the production of X – Rays what are the roles of
(i) Low voltage? (ii) High voltage? (iii) Tungsten target?
ANS: (i) Used for heating the cathode
(ii) Used to provide a high p.d between the electrodes, for accelerating
the electrons
(iii) Used for absorbing highly energetic electrons and emit X – Rays.
(Converting K.E of electrons into electromagnetic waves and heat)

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 Topic – 5: Electronics
Electronics
Is a branch of physics that deals with the emission, behavior
and effects of electrons in materials
OR
Is the study of how to control the flow of electrons
NB:
 The various electronic components connected to each other to form
systems or circuits called Electronic systems (Electronic circuits)
 An electronic circuit is used to perform a wide variety of tasks. The
main uses of electronic circuits are:
o Conversion (ac to dc) and distribution of electric power.
o Controlling and processing of data
Electronic Component
 Is any basic discrete device or physical entity in an electronic system
used to affect electrons or their associated fields
 For example power sources, resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, and
integrated circuits etc.

Types of Electronic Components

(a) Passive Electronic Components
 Are electronic components that consume energy but do not produce energy
 These include power sources (battery or generator), resistors, capacitors and
inductors.

(b) Active Electronic Components

 Are electronic components that consume energy in the form of
voltage or current and supply energy in the form of voltage or
current.
 They include semiconductor devices such as diodes, transistors and integrated
circuits

Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

An Insulator
 Is a material which resists the flow of electrical charges through it.
 Insulator has infinite resistance and zero conductance.
 For example glass, mica, paraffin, hard rubber and also many plastics

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Why resists the flow of electrical charges?
 It has no free electrons which are responsible to pass through electrical
charges
 The atoms have tightly bound electrons

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Conductor:
 Is a material which allows the flow of electrical charges through it
 For example all metals and some non-metals such as graphite (carbon)

A semiconductor
 Is a material in which its electrical conductivity intermediate
between that of conductor and insulator.
 For example silicon, germanium, cadmium sulphide and gallium arsenide
 A semiconductor behaves as an insulator at very low temperature
o Has a significant electrical conductance at room temperature,
however, much lower than that of a conductor

Band theory
 Is the theory which explains about energy levels in a solid in terms of energy
band
Energy Band
 Is a collection of closely spaced energy levels
OR
 Is the series of “allowed” and “forbidden” energy bands that it contains
Diagram:

 We have about three bands in which a band electrons possesses energy

called
energy level
 Conduction band
 Band gap (forbidden band)
 Valence band

Conduction Band
 Is the upper most part of semiconductor in which there is few or no
electrons
 It is sufficient to make the electrons free to accelerate under the
influence of an applied electric field and thus constitute an electric
current
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N.B In conductors some electrons occupy the conduction band

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Band Gap (Forbidden energy gap)
 Is the energy gap between the valence band and conduction band
which cannot be occupied by electrons
 (OR Is the energy required to shift an electron from valence band to
conduction band)

Valence Band
 Is the lower part of semiconductor in which there is completely filled with
electrons
 The valence band is the highest range of electron energies where
electrons are normally present at the absolute zero temperature
Forbidden energy gap (Fermi energy level).
 Is the energy gap between the valence band and conduction band
which cannot be occupied by electrons
 The band obtained by separating conduction band and valence band is
called
forbidden energy band or forbidden gap.
 The figure below shows the conductor, semiconductor and insulator in
terms of their energy level (band gap)

For conductor
 There is no forbidden gap available, the valence and conduction band
overlap each other (figure a)
 The electrons from valence band freely enter into conduction band
 Due to the overlapping of the valence and conduction bands, a
very low potential difference can cause the continuous flow of
current
For semiconductor
 The forbidden gap is very small (fig b)
 There are no electrons in the conduction band. The valence band is completely
filled at 0 K
 With a small amount of energy that is supplied, the electrons can
easily jump from the valence band to the conduction band
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  For example, if the temperature is raised, the forbidden gap is
decreased and some electrons are liberated into the conduction
band
 Germanium and Silicon are the best examples of
semiconductors with forbidden energy gap of 0.7 eV and 1.1
eV respectively

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 For insulator
 The forbidden energy gap is very large (fig c). It is more than 3 eV and
almost no electrons are available for conduction
 Therefore, a very large amount of energy must be supplied to a
valence electron to enable it to move to the conduction band
 If the electron is supplied with high energy, it can jump across the
forbidden gap. When the temperature is increased, some
electrons will move to the conduction band. This is the reason, why
certain materials, which are insulators at room temperature become
conductors at high temperature

Difference between conductor, insulator and semiconductor

Conductor Insulator Semiconductor
The conductivity of The conductivity of The conductivity of
conductor is very high. insulator is very low. semiconductor is
moderate.
It has very low resistivity.It has very high resistivity.
It has moderate resistivity.
It has no forbidden gap. It has large forbidden gap. It has small forbidden gap.
Has positive temperatureHas negative temperatureHas negative temperature
coefficient of resistance. coefficient of resistance. coefficient of resistance
Both the effect of resistanceThe effect of resistance The effect of resistance
and temperature are decreases with the decreases with the of
increasing increase of temperature temperature increases.
There is large number of There is small number of There is moderate number of
electrons available for electrons available for electrons available for
conduction. conduction. conduction.
Examples: are Metals Paper, Wood, Mica glass. Silicon, Germanium.
(aluminium, copper.etc)

How Semiconductor Conducts Electricity

 As the temperature is increased, some of the electrons in the
valence band acquire thermal energy that is greater than the
forbidden gap energy and move to the conduction band. Therefore,
the material becomes a conductor. When an electron moves out of
a valence band it leaves behind a small space called a hole. Electrons
and holes in the conduction and valence bands, respectively, are
referred to as free charge carriers.

Effect of temperature on metal conductivity

 Increase in temperature tends to increase the random motion of
electrons. It reduces the electrical conductivity of metals
Types of Semiconductors
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 o Intrinsic semiconductors
o Extrinsic semiconductors

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 Intrinsic Semiconductors
 These are pure semiconductors in which there is no addition of impurities.
 Examples are silicon and germanium
 Conductivity in intrinsic semiconductors is limited hence ,they do not conduct
electricity

Extrinsic Semiconductors
 These are impure semiconductors materials which contains added impurities
 Examples are N – Silicon , N – Germanium P – Silicon and P – Germanium

Difference between intrinsic from extrinsic semi-conductor

intrinsic extrinsic
Is the pure form of semi-conductor Is an impure form of semiconductor
It has equal number of holes and It has unequal number of holes and
electrons in conduction and valence electron
band respectively
Its electrical conductivity depends Its electrical conductivity depends on
on temperature only both temperature and amount of
doping
It has low conductivity It has high conductivity
It is of no practical use It is used in electronic devices

Doping
Is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconductors to alter
their properties

OR Is process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic crystal to

produce an extrinsic semiconductor.

OR Is the process of adding impurities in a pure semiconductor in

order to increase electrical conductivity

Terms used In Doping

 Hosts are atoms which can accept or donate an electron. Example All
group IV
elements (Tetravalent) ie Silicon and Germanium
 Acceptor atoms are atoms which receive electrons from other
atoms. Example all group III elements (Trivalent)
 Donor atoms are atoms which supply electrons to other atoms.
Example all group V elements (Pentavalent)
 Dopant is the element/impurity which added to modify the conductivity of an
atom
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NB:
o Heavily doping a semiconductor increases its conductivity. That is
why heavily doped silicon is often used as a replacement for
metals

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 o Silicon and Germanium are the best semiconductors as they are
used to make the most common electronic devices/components
such as transistors and diodes (This is because the energy required
to break their covalent bonds is very small ie 0.7 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV
for Si)

Types of Doped Semiconductor (Extrinsic semiconductor)

o N-type semiconductor
o P-type semiconductor

N-type Semiconductor
 Is the type of semiconductor in which the majority carriers are electrons
 Is formed when pure semiconductors are doped with pentavalent
elements
 The purpose of n-type doping is to produce an abundance of mobile
or carrier electrons in the material
Mechanism of Doping
 Consider the silicon with four valences (with four electrons in their
outer most shell) combine with dopant of more than four electrons they
will share the four valences results the extra electrons from dopant
(group V) remaining as extra (free electrons). This extra electron is
only weakly bound to the atom and can easily be excited into the
conduction band, since the silicon atoms with five valence atoms have an
extra electron to “donate”, they are called donor atoms
 Diagram of silicon after doping (n-doping with Antimony, Sb)
[

P-type Semiconductor
 Is the type of semiconductor in which the majority carriers are holes
 Is formed when pure semiconductors are doped with trivalent elements
 The purpose of p-type doping is to produce an abundance of
holes in the valence band.
Mechanism of Doping
 Consider the silicon with four valences (with four electrons in their

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 outer most shell) combine with Dopant (group III) of less than four
electrons in their outer most shell they will share the three electrons
results the semiconductor with less electrons (holes) to attain stability,
since the silicon atoms with three valence atoms have a less electron to
“acceptor”, they are called acceptor atoms

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  Diagram of silicon after doping (P-doping with boron)

COMPARISON BETWEEN N – TYPE AND P – TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

N – TYPE P – TYPE
Produced by adding pentavalent Produced by adding trivalent impurities
impurities to a pure semiconductor. to a pure semiconductor.
The number of free electrons exceed The number of holes exceeds the
the number of holes. number of free electrons.
The majority charges are negative The majority charges are positive charges.
charges.
The donor energy level is just below the
The acceptor energy level is just above
bottom of the conduction band. the valence band.

JUNCTION DIODE

 This is the p–n junction semiconductor material which is connected

to supply voltage.

P–N Junction

 This is the junction made up by two semiconductor material of n –

type and p – type melted together to form a junction.
 The boundary (junction formed) between the p – side and n – side is referred
to as a
p – n junction

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Terms used in P-N Junction
1. Diffusion of charge is the spreading out of charges (holes and electrons)
which can result repelling and attraction of charge
2. Potential barrier is the maximum voltage at the junction when there is no
further diffusion of charge
3. Depletion layer
 Is a region in a P–N junction diode where no mobile charge carriers are
present
 It acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of electrons from n –
side and holes from p – side
Biasing of the P – N Junction
 A p–n junction is said to be biased when a potential difference is applied
across it
 When a P- N junction is connected to a power supply it is said to be
biased
 A P- N junction allows current to flow only in one direction when the p
– side is connected to the positive terminal of the power source
and n – side to the negative terminal of the power source
 There are two modes of action of P-N junction, these are
(a) Forward – bias
(b) Reverse- bias

(a) Forward- Bias of P-N Junction

 A p–n junction is said to be forward biased when the p–type
region is connected to the positive terminal while the n–type region
is connected to the negative terminal of an external cell or
battery

 In forward bias, the positive charge applied to the p–region repels the
holes while the negative charge applied to the n–type repels the
electrons .As the electrons and holes are pushed toward the junction,
the distance between them decreases This reduces the size of
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 depletion layer and lowers the potential barrier
 Therefore the charge carriers interact easily and makes the flow of
an electric current possible
 The graph of voltage against current for forward is given below

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  When the voltage of the battery is greater than potential barrier
majority charge carries (holes and electrons) are pulled towards and large
electric current flowing

(b) Reverse - Bias in P-N Junction

 A p–n junction is said to be reverse biased when the p–region is
connected to the negative terminal of the cell or battery while the n–
region is connected to the positive terminal of the battery

 When the diode is connected in this manner, the holes in the p-type are
attracted away from the junction by the external negative potential.
Also electrons are attracted away from the junction by the external
positive potential. This increases the thickness of the depletion layer
.Thus the potential barrier and hence the resistance of the junction is
increased .A very small current (leakage current) may flow in the circuit
due to the flow of minority charge carries.
 The graph of voltage against current for reverse bias is shown from the fig below

 When the voltage of the battery is greater than barrier potential majority
charge carries (holes and electrons)are pushed away and very small or no
electric current is flowing
N.B
 Potential barrier is the potential required to overcome the barrier at the PN
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 junction
 Zener/Break down voltage Is the reverse Voltage at which p-n junction
breaks down with the sudden rise in reverse current.

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  Knee voltage Is the forward biased voltage at which the current through the
junction starts to increase rapidly.
 Reverse (leakage) current Is the current in a semiconductor device
when the device is reverse biased
 Saturation current (Scale current) Is that part of reverse current of the
reverse current in a semiconductor diode caused by diffusion of
minority carriers from the neutral regions to the depletion layer

Diodes
 A diode is an electrical device that allows current to flow through it in one
direction.

NB:
 When the junction is reverse-biased, the diode blocks the voltage
 When the junction is forward-biased, the diode conducts
 The magnitude of the current through the diode depends on the
current in the external circuit

Types of Diode
 Semiconductor diode
 Metal semiconductor diode
 Light-emitting diode
 Zener Diode
Semiconductor Diode
 Most semiconductor diodes are made up of silicon or germanium.
 Semiconductor diodes are most used for rectification

Metal Semiconductor Diode

 These types of diodes are formed by the deposition of a metal on the
surface of a metal conductor.
 The metal-semiconductor diode is used for very fast switching and
microwave applications.

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Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
 Is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electrical current is
applied in the forward direction of the diode

NB:
 LEDs are made from a variety of semiconductor materials
depending on the wavelength of the light required
 The most commonly used materials for visible LEDs are gallium
phosphide and gallium arsenic phosphide
 LEDs have a wide range of applications, from simple indicator lamps
and huge display screens to optical fiber communication links

Zener Diode
 Zener diodes are specifically manufactured and designed to be
operated in the reverse breakdown voltage.
 Every Zener diode is manufactured for a specific reverse breakdown
voltage called the Zener voltage.
Its symbol:

NB:
 Zener diodes are used as voltage regulator devices.
 It allows required voltage to pass through

Advantage of semiconductor junction diode over vacuum tube diodes

 They are less expensive to make
 They consume less power
 They are reliable in circuits
 They are much easier to produce
 They occupy less space due to their small size

APPLICATIONS OF JUNCTION DIODES IN RECTIFICATION

 A rectifier Is an electrical device used to convert an alternating
current into a direct current by allowing a current to flow through
it in one direction only
 OR Is a device that is used to convert alternating voltage into
a direct (unidirectional) voltage
 Rectification Is the process of converting alternating current to direct
current

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  OR Is the process of conversion of alternating voltage to direct
voltage
 Diodes are used in rectification because they offer high resistance when
reverse biased and low resistance when forward biased

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There are two types of rectification
 Half-wave rectifiers
 Full -wave rectifiers
Half-Wave Rectification
 The half wave rectification is achieved by connecting a single diode
in series with the load across which a unidirectional voltage is
required

Mechanism
 During the first half-cycle of the AC sine wave, A is positive and B is
negative. The diode is forward-biased and current flows around the
circuit formed by the diode, the transformer winding and the load
(R)
 During the second half-cycle, A is negative and, B is positive. The
diode is reverse-biased therefore no current flows in the circuit
NB:
o The output signal can be displayed on a CRO screen which outlines the
above trace
o The output voltage of half wave rectification flows in pulse (half rectified)
because the diode allows current to flow during the first half of the cycle
when it is forward biased and stops the current during the second half
when it is reversed biased
o The diode conducts on every half- cycle
o The rectified voltage is d.c and is always positive in value
o If the diode is reversed, then the output voltage is negative
o The voltage is not steady and needs to be smoothed (by putting
a large capacitor, C in parallel with the load) for it to be
useful (see fig below)

o The capacitor is charged during the positive half-cycle of the a.c. and
discharges through the load in the negative half-cycle
Advantages of half wave rectification
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  Low cost of construction, since it includes few components
 Easy to constructs

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Disadvantages of half wave rectifier
 Power loss. This is because it allows either a positive half cycle or
negative half cycle. So the remaining half cycle is wasted
 Pulsating direct current. It produces impure direct current which is not much
useful
 Produces low output voltage

Full – Wave Rectification

 There are two ways of achieving full – wave
rectification:
(a) Using two diodes and center – tapped transformer
(b) Using four diodes (the bridge rectifier)
(a) Using two diodes
 In this circuit both halves of the a.c. cycles are transmitted but in
the same direction. One way of achieving this is to have a
transformer whose output has a Centre tap, that is, its output can be
taken at two points one being half the other
Mechanism
 In the positive half-cycle, point A is positive with respect to O. Diode D1
conducts but diode D2 is reverse-biased. The current passes through D1,
C, R and back to O
 In the negative half-cycle, point B is positive with respect to O. Diode D2
conducts but diode D1 is reverse- biased. The current passes through D2,
C, R and back to O

Alternatively (other way of expressing this)

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Mechanism
 During the first half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased while D2 is
reverse biased. Hence current flows through AD1BCA
 During the second half cycle, diode D2 will now be forward biased
while D1 reversed biased .Thus current flows through DD2BCD.

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N.B
 In both half cycles, the direction of flow of current through the
resistor is the same. The resultant output will therefore take the
form shown below

(b) Using four diodes (bridge rectifier)

 A bridge rectifier uses four diodes such that in each half cycle two
diodes are forward biased and the remaining two are reversed
biased (see the fig. below)

Mechanism
 During the first half cycle, the diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased while
D2 and D4 are reversed biased. Current thus flows through diode D1 and
D3 via the resistor R.
 During the second half cycle, diodes D1 and D3 are now reversed biased
while D2 and D4 are forward biased. Current thus flows through D2 and
D4 via the resistor R
N.B
 In both half cycles current flows through the resistor R in one
direction only.ie from end A to B. This kind of rectifier can be used
with very high voltage
 If a smooth rectified wave is needed, then a capacitor is connected across the
resistor

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Advantages of the bridge rectification
 A smaller transformer can be used, because there is no need for centre –
tapping
 It is suitable for high voltage regulation
Disadvantage of the bridge rectifiers
 High cost of making. Since it uses four diodes
 The value of the diodes used should be precise, else there will be an
error in rectification
N.B
 In general, the full wave rectifier gives a stronger and smoothened
output than the half – wave rectifier. If a capacitor is connected
across the resistor, the rectified output is smoothened. The capacitor
is therefore used in this case to smoothen the output of the transformer

Advantages of center tapped full wave rectifier

 Output and efficiency are high because an AC supply delivers power
during the both half cycles
Disadvantages of center tapped full wave rectifier
 It is difficult to locate the center on the secondary winding for the
tapping
 The diode used must be capable of bearing high peak inverse voltage (PIV).
This is because PIV coming across each diode is twice the maximum
voltage across the half of the secondary winding

Transistors
Transistor Is a semiconductor device for amplifying, controlling, and
generating electrical signals.
OR
Is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power

Terminals of Transistor
 There are three terminals namely emitter (E), collector (C) and base (B)
Emitter (E)
 Is a terminal used to supplies (remove /push) charge carriers to
Collector
 It is the negative lead (region)
Collector (C)
 Is a terminal used to receive charge carriers repelled from emitter
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 terminal
 It is the positive lead (region)
 The maximum possible current obtained at the output (collector)
is called Saturation current

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Base (B)
 Base is a terminal between emitter terminal and collector terminal
 It is used to control the flow of charge carriers from E to C or C to E
N B:
 Some transistors are packaged individually but most are found in
integrated circuits, IC (more than one transistor)
 Base terminal is thin and lightly doped

Types of Transistors
 Field-effect transistors (FETs)
 Bipolar transistors (BJT)

Field-Effect Transistor (Unipolar transistor)

 It is a type of transistor which uses an electric field to control the flow of
current
 It requires only one charge carrier to operate (eg N–channel FET or P–
channel FET are used for conduction)
 The three terminals of FET are source, gate and drain
 Examples of FET’s are MOSFET, JFET etc
 Are used in low noise amplifier, buffer amplifier and analog switch
N.B: In this section (according to our level) we will only consider bipolar transistors
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
 Is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and holes as charge
carriers
 It is a three-terminal device that acts as electrically controlled
switch or as amplifier controls.
 It consists of a pair of p -n junction diodes that are joined back-to-
back (sandwich form). The leads (regions) are labeled as base (B),
collector (C) and emitter (E) (Fig below)

Types of Bipolar Transistors

 n-p-n transistor
 p-n-p transistor

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 NPN Transistor
 Is a type of transistor in which one p–type material is doped with two n–type
materials
 The diagram and symbol of npn transistor is shown in the figure below

NB:

from the collector through the base to the emitter ( NPN → Never
 The outward arrow shows that the direction of current in npn transistor is

Points iN)

Construction of NPN Transistor

 The construction of NPN transistor is shown in the figure below. The emitter–
base
junction is connected in forward biased while the collector–base junction in reverse
biased

Operation of NPN Transistor

 The forward biased is applied across the emitter –base junction
while the reverse biased is applied across the collector–base
junction.(See the fig below)
 The emitter is heavily doped. When the forward bias is applied across
the emitter, the majority charge carriers (electrons) move towards
the base. This causes the emitter current IE .The electrons enter into
the P–type material and combine with the holes
 Since the base is thin and lightly doped. Thus only a few electrons are
combined with holes and the remaining (most of electrons) are moved
towards the collector to constitute the base current IB. This base
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 current enters into the collector region
 The reversed bias potential of the collector region applies the high
attractive force on the electrons reaching the collector junction. Thus
attract or collect the electrons at the collector

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  The whole of the emitter current is entered into the base. Thus, we can
say that the emitter current is the sum of the collector or the base
current (IE = IC + IB)
N.B
 The collector current in any transistor is less than the emitter current
because of the recombination of holes and electrons occurring in the base
area
 In order for a transistor to work, the emitter should always be
connected in forward biased while Collector is always
connected in reverse biased
 The main difference between PNP and NPN transistor is that, the current
conduction in NPN carried by electrons while the charge carriers in PNP
are carried by holes

PNP Transistor
 Is a type of transistor in which one n–type material is doped with two p–type
materials
 The diagram and symbol of pnp transistor is shown in the figure below

→ Points iN Permanently)
 The inward arrow shows that the direction of current in pnp transistor is
from the emitter to collector (PNP

Construction of PNP Transistor

 The construction of PNP transistor is shown in the figure below. The emitter–base
junction
is connected in forward biased while the collector–base junction in reverse
biased

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 The emitter in forward biased attracts the electrons towards the battery
and hence constitutes the current to flow from emitter to collector

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  The base of the transistor is always kept positive with respect to
the collector so that the hole from the collector junction cannot
enter into the base
 And the base–emitter is kept in forward due to which the holes
from the emitter region enter into the base and then into the
collector region by crossing the depletion layer

Working of PNP Transistor

 The emitter base junction is connected in forward biased due to which the
emitter
pushes the holes in the base region. These holes constitute the emitter
current
 When these holes move into the base, they combine with electrons.
 Since the base of the transistor is thin and very lightly doped .Hence
only a few holes combine with the electrons and the most (remaining) are
moved towards the collector space charge layer. Hence develops the base
current (See the fig below)

 The collector base region is connected in reverse biased. The holes which
collect around the depletion region when coming under the impact of
negative polarity attracted by the collector. This develops the collector
current. The complete emitter current flows through the collector
current IC
 Thus, we can say that the emitter current is the sum of the collector or
the base current (IE = IC + IB)
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 Difference between PNP and NPN transistors
PNP Transistor NPN Transistor
It consists of an N–type It consists of an P–type
sandwiched by two P–type sandwiched by two N–type
semiconductor semiconductor
It has holes as majority charge It has electrons as majority charge
carriers carriers
It is slower than NPN because holes It is faster than PNP because
are slower than electrons electrons are faster than holes
Less preferred than NPN Most preferred than PNP (most
used)
Both collector and base are The collector is positive with
negative respect to
with respect to emitter both emitter and base

Why always NPN most used rather than PNP?

 This is because the mobility of electrons in N type material is more
than the mobility of holes in P type material
 Addition reason: Silicon is used to make N type semiconductors.
Since it is found abundantly in nature
Uses of Transistors
 They are used in virtually all electronic devices such as
calculators, televisions, radios, computers, etc.

Application of Transistor
 As an amplifier (electronic amplifier)
 As a switch (electronic switch)

Transistor as Regulator/Amplifier/Active Mode

Electronic amplifier is the circuit that increases the amplitude (intensity) of a

given input
OR is the magnification of input signal

Types of electronic Amplifiers

 Single-stage amplifier
 Multi-stage amplifier
NB:
o Relationship between the input and output of an amplifier is called the transfer
function
o The magnitude of the transfer function is referred to as the gain
o Amplifiers commonly used in radio and television transmitters and
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 receivers, stereo equipment, microcomputers and digital musical
instruments
o Transistors are commonly used as amplifying elements
o In this section we will consider Single-Stage Amplifiers Only

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Single-Stage Amplifier
 Is the type of amplifier which consists of only one amplifying device.
 It consists of transistor (amplification stage) which is connected to a
load resistor through which a load current flows
Types of Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Common-collector (CC) amplifiers
 Common-base (CB) amplifiers
 Common- emitter (CE) amplifiers
Common-Collector Amplifier
 The base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the emitter
the output, while the collector is common to both. The emitter-base
junction is forward-biased by the power supply VEE while the collector-
base junction is reverse-biased by VCC

Mechanism
 The input signal is fed to the base-collector circuit while the output
signal is tapped from the emitter terminal with respect to the
ground
 C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide direct current isolation at
the input and output of the amplifier
Common-Base Amplifier
 The emitter terminal serves as the input, the collector as the
output, and the base is common to both. The emitter-base
junction is forward-biased by the power supply VEE while the
collector base junction is reverse-biased by VCC

Mechanism
o The input signal is fed to the emitter-base circuit while the output signal
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 is tapped from the collector-base circuit
o C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide direct current isolation at
the input and output of the amplifier

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Common-Emitter Amplifier
 The base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the
collector as the output, and the emitter is common to both. The
emitter-base junction is forward-biased by power supply VBB
while the collector-base junction is reverse-biased by power
supply VCC

Mechanism
 The input signal is fed to the base-emitter circuit and the amplified
signal is tapped from the collector terminal with respect to the
ground emitter circuit
 C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide direct current isolation at
the input and output of the amplifier

Light Dependant Resistor (LDR)

 Is a semiconductor device whose resistance depends on the light falling
on it
 Is used to switch on or switch off automatically street lamp
Thermistor
 Is a semiconductor device whose resistance depends on thermal energy
 It is used to control maximum temperature of hot liquid

Example Form IV NECTA 2002 QN: 10 SECT. C

(a) Explain how an extrinsic semiconductor is constructed
(b) Describe the model of action and application of PN junction diode
(c) The diagram below shows a circuit in which important components A and
B are removed

Answer the following questions

(a) What does A and B represents?
(b) Describe briefly the purpose of component A and B
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 (c) Draw a well labeled circuit diagram for the circuit above

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Integrated Circuit (IC)
 Is a combination of several resistors, capacitors or transistors which
are built out of the same crystal
OR
 Is an electronic device made of semiconductor material containing up
to billions of electronic circuits and components such as transistors in
a small space (chip)
 Two or more transistors can be joined together to increase the
amplification
 An integrated circuit is sometimes known as a chip or microchip

Information Signals
 Are current or voltage variations (waveforms) through which
information is relayed in electronic circuits

Types of Information Signals

 Analogue signals
 Digital signals
Analogue Signals
 Are electrical signals that convey or store information by means of
variation in a continuous wave form

 Electrical signals may represent information by changing factors such

as their voltage, current, frequency or total charge. The information
is converted from some physical form (such as sound, light,
temperature, pressure) to an electrical signal by a device known
as a transducer
Transducer: Is a device that converts an input signal of one form into
an output signal of another form
OR Is a device which converts a physical variation such as temperature,
pressure or sound to an electrical signal
OR Is a device which converts energy from one form to
another
Digital Signals
 Are electrical signals that convey or store information by means of
variation in a non-continuous wave form

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  Digital signals have only two amplitude levels, usually called
nodes. This means the values can only be given in one of two
ways. The values may be specified, for Example, as 1 or 0, TRUE
or FALSE, and HIGH or LOW
 Digital signals are often derived from analogue signals
 The main advantage of digital signals over analogue signals is that
the signal level or value need not be precise
 It can be approximated within a fixed number of digits or bits
 The process of approximating the precise value within a fixed number
of digits is called quantization

 Signal can be distorted during transmission can still read correctly

Class Activity – 5
1. Explain why an ordinary junction transistor is called bipolar?
ANS: Because, the transistor operation is carried out by two types of charges
carriers (majority and minority carriers)
2. Why transistor is called current controlled device?
ANS: Because, the output voltage, current or power is controlled by
the input current in a transistor
3. What is the significance of the arrow –head in the transistor symbol?
ANS: Is to show the conventional direction of current flow.(From
emitter – to – base in case of p-n-p transistor and from base – to –
emitter in case of n – p –n transistor) N.B: Arrow head is always marked
on the emitter and not for collector, since collector always reverses its
leakage current opposite to the direction of emitter current
4. Discuss the need for biasing the transistor.
ANS: For normal operation, base–emitter junction should be forward
biased and the collector base Junction reverse biased
5. What are the differences between a semiconductor and an insulator in
terms of their conductivity
6. In case the transistor is not biased properly, what would happen?
ANS: It would
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  Work inefficiently
 Produce distortion in the output signal

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  With the change in transistor parameters or temperature rise, the
operating point may shift and the amplifier output will be
unstable
7. Which of the transistor currents is always the largest? Which is
always the smallest? Which two currents are relatively
close?
ANS: The emitter current IE is always the largest one. The base current
IB is always the smallest one .The collector current IC and emitter
current IE are relatively close in magnitude
8. Why collector is made larger than emitter and base?
ANS: Collector is made physically larger than emitter and base
because collector is to dissipate much power
9. Why silicon type transistors are more often used than germanium type?
ANS: This is because:
(i) At room temperature, Silicon crystal has fewer free
electrons than Germanium crystal. This implies that Silicon
will have much smaller collector cut off current than
Germanium
(ii)The variation of collector cut off current with temperature
is less in Silicon compared to Germanium
(iii) The structure of Germanium crystals will be destroyed at
higher
temperature while Silicon crystal are not easily damaged by excess
heat
10. Why the width of the base region of a transistor is kept very small
compared to other region? (ANS: In order to pass most of the injected charge
carriers to the collector)
11. Why emitter is always forward biased?
ANS: Emitter is always forward biased with respect to base so as to supply
the majority charge carriers to the base.
12. Why collector is always reverse biased w.r.t base?
ANS: In order to remove the charge carriers from the base–collector
junction
13. A diode has a certain characteristic when operating. Explain
this characteristic. ANS: The main operating characteristic of a
diode is that it allows current in one direction and blocks current in
the opposite direction.
14. Distinguish between semiconductors and conductors and give one
example for each
15. What must the conditions be for a LED to emit light?
ANS: A LED emits light when the diode is forward biased allowing current
to flow.

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 16. Transistors have two main functions, what are they?
ANS: Amplification and switching.
17. Define doping. (ANS: The process of adding impurities to the intrinsic or pure
semiconductor )
18. What are the differences between a conductor, semiconductor
and insulator in terms of their energy levels?
19. Your provided with a diode, a resistor R an a.c source of
low voltage and connecting wires , Sketch the circuit diagram for
a half – wave rectifier and indicate the terminals where the
output voltage vo may be connected
ANS:

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 20. What is meant by Donor impurity in semiconductors?
(ANS: Is an atom introduced into the semiconductor (doping) to provide an extra
electron for conduction)
21. Explain how intrinsic semiconductor can be changed into a transistor
22. Mention two types of : (a) Semiconductors (b)
Diode
23. What is the difference between analogue and digital signals?
24. (a) What is the difference between PNP and NPN transistors?
(b) Draw their circuit symbols, label them and describe each connection
25. The semiconductor diode can be used as a rectifier as used in the circuit
below

(a)What does the term rectification means?

(b)The rectification described by the circuit above is half wave
rectification. Sketch its waveform which would be seen on a suitably
adjusted CRO and explain why the output voltage is so rectified
26. The output power of a signal is 50 W and the input power is 0.1 W .Calculate
the power gain
27. What is an IC?
28. State the majority carriers for a p – type semi conductors
29. Explain how doping produces an n – type semiconductor
30. Study the circuit diagrams in the figure below carefully. Which of
the two circuits will light a bulb?

31. Name two semiconductors which are widely used in electronics

32. Explain why semiconductor solid state diodes are fast replacing the
vacuum type diodes in many applications
33.(a) Give an illustration of a p – n junction diode and its symbol
(b) How does a junction diode work?
34. How is an intrinsic semiconductor different from an extrinsic
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 semiconductor?
.Explain how an extrinsic semiconductor is constructed?
35. Define the following terms (a)
Transistor (b) Doping (c) Rectification
36. Draw the circuit diagram of the (a) half wave rectification (b) Full wave
rectifier(use 2 diodes)

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Topic – 6: Elementary Astronomy
 The word astronomy is derived from two Greek words: astron for “star”
and
Nomo’s for “law”.
 Astronomy is the study of the universe and celestial bodies.
OR
 Astronomy is the branch of science that deals with the study of the
origin, evolution, composition, distance and the motion of all
bodies and scattered matters in the universe.
 People who are involved in astronomy are known as astronomers.
 Universe is all of the space and everything in it
OR
 Universe is the totality of space and time together with matter and
energy.

Importance of Astronomy
 Measurement of time
Duration of the day, month and year were determined by using
position and phases of the sun, moon and stars
 Development of calendars.
Were used to predict seasons for agriculture by studying position of stars in
space
 Navigation on land and sea uses the knowledge of astronomy
 To study the origin of the earth and life
 Used in space exploration
Geocentric Theory (Earth centered)
 Is the theory which considers that the earth is at the centre of the
universe and other heavenly bodies such as the Sun and other
planets to be orbiting around it
 It was based on religious beliefs, observations and common-sense.

Heliocentric Theory (Sun centered)

 Is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve
around the Sun at the center of the solar system
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  It was put forward by Nicolaus Corpenicus to replace the Geocentric
Theory

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The Solar System
 The solar system is the collection of heavenly bodies that revolve around
the sun.
 The Solar System composed of dwarf planets, eight planets and their
moons, as well as asteroids, comets and meteors.

Stars
 A star is a large celestial body made up of hot gases known as plasma.
 Plasma refers to an ionized gas in which a certain proportion of
electrons are free rather than bound to an atom or molecules.
 Stars radiate energy derived from the thermonuclear reactions in the interior
region.
 The sun is the largest star.
 The sun is the closest star to the earth at a mean distance of 149.60 million
kilometers
 This distance is known as Astronomical Unit (AU) and is used to
measure distances across the solar system
 1AU = 1.4960×1011m
 Light year Is the distance that light travels in one year, or about 6
trillion miles [Light Moves about a distance of 186,000 miles per
second (3 x 108 m/s)]
 Variable star Is a star whose brightness changes over the course of
days, weeks, months or year
 Super Nova is the end of life of a star in a huge explosion
 Double Star (Binary Star) Are two stars that lie very close to, and are
often orbiting each other
Galaxy
 A Galaxy is a giant collection of stars, gas and dust.
 Most of stars in the universe are in the galaxies.
Milky Way
 Is the galaxy that contains our Solar System.
 Nearly all of the stars visible in the night sky are within our galaxy, the Milky
Way.

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Planets
 A planet is a major (large) object which is in its orbit around a star
(sun).
 The planets revolve around the sun. They are held in orbit by the gravitational
pull
of the sun.
 Planets do not give their own light, but rather reflect the sun’s light.

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  These planets are
(i) Mercury
 It is the closest planet to the sun
 It gets more direct heat, but even it isn’t the hottest planet
(4270 C)
 It is the smallest planet in the solar system
 It has no moons, no rings and an atmosphere
(ii) Venus
 Is the second planet from the sun and has no moon
 It is also known as morning star or evening star
 It is the hottest planet in the solar system (4820 C)
 It has very thick atmosphere 90 times that of the
earth Question, Mercury is the closest planet to the sun but not hotter
than Venus, Why? ANS:
 This is because any heat that mercury receives from the sun is
quickly lost back into space because it does not have any atmosphere to
trap and hold heat
 Similarly Venus is the hottest due to presence of very thick
atmosphere of carbon dioxide. This atmosphere makes the surface
of Venus hotter because heat does not escape back into space
(Greenhouse effect)

(iii) Earth
 Is the third planet from the sun and largest terrestrial
planet
 Is the only planet to host living beings and the only one
known to have liquid water on its surface
 It has atmosphere which supports life
 It is the only known planet to have current geological
activity
 It has a radius of 6371 km and its distance is 1.0 AU from
the sun
 It has one large moon

(iv) Mars
 Is the fourth planet from the sun
 It is reddish planet. The red color comes from iron oxide or rust in
the soil
 It experiences frequent planet – wide wind storms
 It’s colder than earth. The surface temperature ranges from -1130 C
to 00 C

(v) Jupiter
 Is the fifth planet from the sun
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  Is the largest planet in the solar system
 It has 63 moons and a faint ring system

(vi) Saturn
 Is the sixth planet from the Sun. It is also a gas giant
planet
 It has the rings that orbit the planets in a thin band about a
mile thick
 Its radius is about 9.5 times that of the Earth.

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 (vii) Uranus.
 It is the seventh planet from the Sun
 It has a diameter of about 50,723 km
 It is made of a large atmosphere of methane with a dense
core of frozen methane.
 It has a faint ring system and 27 moons in its orbit
 It has a radius four times that of the earth

(viii) Neptune
 Is the eighth planets from the sun
 It has a radius four times that of the earth as Uranus
 It has the atmosphere made of methane
 Its surface temperature is about -2140C
 It has 13 moons and a faint ring system orbit the planet
NB:
 All of these planets excepts the Earth, have names from Greek or Roman
mythology
(a)Mercury means god of commerce because it moves so quickly across the sky
(b)Venus means goddess of love and beauty due to beautiful sight in the
sky
(c) Mars means god of war due to its red color
(d)Jupiter means King of the Gods due to its biggest size in the solar
system
(e) Saturn means god of agriculture,
(f) Uranus (the ancient Greek deity of the heavens ) means the
earliest supreme god
(g) Neptune means god of the sea due to its beautiful blue color
(h) Pluto means god underworld because it’s so far away from the
Sun

Types of planets
 The planets in the solar system are divided into two types namely:-
(i) Terrestrial planets (innermost planets)
(ii) Jovian planets (Outer planets / Gas giants)
The difference between the two types of planets
Terrestrial planets Jovian planets
Are the planets which are made Are the planets which are made
of of
solid surfaces gaseous surfaces
Examples are Mercury, Venus, Examples are Jupiter, Saturn,
Earth and Mars Uranus, Neptune
They are small in size They are large in size
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 They are closer to the sun They are far away from the sun
They have few number of They have many number of
moons moons
Their core are more denser Their core are less denser

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Characteristics of Planets
(i) It is a celestial body that orbits a star.
(ii) It is massive enough so that its own gravity causes it to assume a
spherical shape.
(iii) It has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit.
Dwarf Planet
 Is a celestial body orbiting the Sun that is massive enough to be
rounded by its own gravity but has not cleared its neighboring
region and hasn’t satellite.
 Pluto is an example of dwarf planet

Difference between Stars and Planets

Stars Planets
Emit their own light Do not emit their own light
Twinkle at night. Do not twinkle at night.
Planets move around the sun from west
Appear to be moving from east to
to east.
west.
Their temperatures depend on their
Their temperatures are usually very
distances from the sun.
high.
Countless in number. There are eight in the solar system.
Very big in size but they appear
Very small in size as compared to
small because they are very far
stars.
away.
Are in gaseous form Are in solid form
Question: Why stars twinkle at night?
ANS: Stars are so distant such that they appear as pinpoints of light in the
night sky, even when viewed through a telescope.
Because all the light is coming from a single point, its path is highly
susceptible to atmospheric interference

Satellite
 Satellite is the celestial body that revolves around the planets.
Types of Satellite
1. Natural Satellite
 Natural satellite is the natural celestial in which revolves around the
planet.
Example, moon
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2. Artificial Satellite
 Artificial satellite is the man made satellite and spacecraft that orbit the
planet.
Uses of the earth Satellites
 The moon leads to ocean tides

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  Man – made satellite used to reflect radio waves for communication
Asteroids (minor planets)
 Asteroid is a large rocky body in space that revolve around the sun
OR
 Asteroid is an astronomical body smaller than planets that orbit the sun
NB:
 Asteroids are of different sizes and shapes
 Asteroids are mostly small Solar system bodies composed mainly of
rocky and metallic non-volatile minerals
 They lie between mars and Jupiter

Meteors
 Are asteroids which enter the earth’s atmosphere and burn
completely before reaching the earth’s surface
 Are also called shooting stars
Meteorites
 Are meteors that survive the passage through the earth’s and reach the
ground
OR A meteorite is a piece of rock or metal that has fallen to the
earth’s surface from outer space as a meteor
 In Tanzania a 16 ton piece of meteorite found at Mbozi Mbeya called Mbozi
meteorite

Comets
 Comet: Is a small icy celestial body that when passing close to
the sun heat up and emit gas displaying a visible
atmosphere and a tail
OR
 Is a small icy celestial body that revolves around the sun
 They can often be seen by naked eyes. They stop glowing once the
gaseous materials are all burnt off or when they are once again far
away from the sun
Meteoroid
 Is a smaller body than asteroid that moves in the solar system
that would become a meteor if it entered the earth’s
atmosphere

Gravitational Force
 Gravitational force is the attractive force existing between any two
objects that have masses
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
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The law States that
“Any two bodies in the universe attract each other with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them”
Consider the fig. below

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 𝑮(𝒎𝟏𝒎𝟐)
 The gravitational force is given by F=
𝒓𝟐
 Whereby: G is the universal gravitation constant , m1 is the mass of the first
body,m2 is the mass of the second body and r is the distance between
the two bodies
Gravity
 Is the gravitational force that attracts a body towards the centre of the
Earth
 This is the force that holds us on the ground and causes objects to fall
back to the ground after being thrown up in the air
 The further you move away from the center of the earth, the weaker the force
becomes
 The measure of the force of gravity on an object on the earth’s surface is called
the weight
 As we go above the surface of the earth, acceleration due to gravity
goes on decreasing,
 That is why, the astronaut in space can float without falling because the
gravitational force is almost zero in the outer space
NB:
 If the astronaut goes in the outer space he needs a spacesuit. This special suit
is important because it is used to:-
(i) Protect his body from low pressure
(ii) Supply astronaut with oxygen to breath
(iii) Supply water to drink during spacewalks
(iv) Protect his body from being injured from impacts of small bits of
space dust
(v) Protect the astronaut from cold and dangerous radiation
 What could happen if an astronaut would not put on a spacesuit?
(i) Boiling blood. The lower the pressure, the lower the boiling point, in
space there no air pressure. So boiling point could easily drop
to his body temperature .That means his blood would start to
boil
(ii) Cell mutation. He also be bombarded with dangerous radiation
from the sun and other stars .This radiation could warp his cells
and cause poisoning or cancer and eventually cause death
(iii) Loss of bowel control. He could lose control due to severe lack of
oxygen
(iv) Bloating. If the liquid in his blood stream started boiling, it would
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 turn into gas that would make his skin swell
 The astronaut use small jets of gas in his movements (maneuvers)
instead of swimming like fish because there is no matter (no
atmosphere) to cause resistance of his movements to move forward
(due to Newton’s third law of motion)
 Gravitation Is the force of attraction which acts between two bodies in the
universe
 The Sun’s gravity keeps the planets in their orbits

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Constellations
 A Constellation: Is a group of stars that form a definite shape or
pattern when viewed from the earth
OR
 Constellations: Are small groups of bright stars that form patterns in
the sky which resemble familiar with animals and
objects on the earth.

 Some of known constellations are: LEO, IRON, SCORPIO, URSA

MAJOR, CORPUS, CANIS MAJOR, PISCES, GEMIN and the SOUTHER
CROSS
 There are about 88 known constellations.

Types of Constellations
 Circumpolar constellations
 Seasonal constellations
 Zodiac constellations

Circumpolar Constellations
 Are seen all of the year round in the night sky for observers in high
northern or high southern latitudes because of the rotation of the
Earth

Seasonal Constellations
 Seasonal constellations are the constellations that appear at some
time of the year and are not seen at other times of the year.
 In Tanzania and in central Africa are close to the equator so we do not
see any circumpolar stars or circumpolar constellations. Hence In
Tanzania night sky we see only seasonal constellations

Zodiac
 Is a set of constellations situated along the ecliptic in the sky,
through which the sun, moon and planets move
Zodiac Light
 Is very faint cone of light in the sky, visible in the east just before
sunrise and in the west just after sunset
 It is probably caused by the reflection of sunlight from cosmic dust in
the plane of the ecliptic
Asterism:
 Is any prominent star pattern that is not a whole constellation
Black Hole
 Is a concentration of mass so dense that nothing – not even light –
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 can escape its gravitational pull once swallowed up
Celestial Coordinate: Is a grid system for locating things in the sky

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Significance (importance) of Constellations
The study of the constellation is important since they are used by the
man from ancient times up to the present.
 Religion
Early religions believed that constellations were God’s way of
communicating to people on the earth
 Agriculture:
Early farmers used constellations to determine the different
seasons for growing crops
 Navigation:
Can help travelers to determine the direction of their destinations by
locating neighboring constellations
Earth’s Moon
 Moon is a natural satellite that moves in a circular orbit around the
earth, held on orbit by gravitational force.
Properties of Earth’s Moon
o The moon’s gravitation field is one sixth of the earth’s field (gmoon = 1.6N/Kg)
o It takes 27.3 days to revolve around the earth. This period called sidereal
month
o It has a diameter of 3476 km
o It has a mass of 7.35 x 1022kg
o Moon Surface temperature are on the average of 1070 C during the day and -1530 C
during night
o It has non molten iron core so its haven’t magnetism
o Iron core is surrounded by a rocky mantle and crust
o It revolves in an anticlockwise direction around the earth
o Moon has no atmosphere
N.B
 Perigee: Is the moon’s position when it is nearest the earth. Perigee is 356,000
km
 Apogee: Is the moon’s position when it is furthest from the earth Apogee is 406,000
km
 Proxigee (Closest Perigee): Is the moon’s position when it is usually close to the
earth
Surface features of the moon
There are two primary types of terrain on the moon, these include the
following
 Lunar highlands
 Maria
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Lunar Highlands
 Are bright zones on the surface of the moon
 A lunar highland is the bright area viewed with unaided eye. It consists
of;
(a) Craters caused by impact of meteorites. The young craters are
often surrounded by lines of splash material

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(b) Mountains rise up to 5km high

Maria
 Maria is an Italian word Means Sea
 Maria is the dark region on the surface of the moon
 It is caused by hug impact craters that were later flooded with molten
lava.
 Most of Maria is covered with regolith, a mixture of fine dust and
rocky debris produced by meteor impact
Ocean tides
 Are periodic rises and falls of large bodies of water
 Tides energy: Is the rising and falling of the ocean level
Causes of Ocean tides
 Are caused by the gravitational pull (force) between the earth and the
moon
How Ocean tides Occurs
 Due to different in gravitational force the earth pulls the moon to keep
it in orbit also the moon pulls the earth and the sun pulls the earth to
keep it in orbit also the earth pull the sun. This gravitational
interaction tends to pull earth’s fluid (gas and liquid especially in
ocean) results in rising and falling of the ocean level. As the earth
rotates on its axis two tides occur each day

Types of Ocean Tides

 Spring tides
 Neap tides
Spring Ocean Tides
 Spring tides occur when the sun, moon and earth line up in a straight
line
 They typically occur around a full or new moon and they are strong
tides

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  The Spring tides are called Proxigean spring ocean tides
 Are rare and unusually high spring tides which occur when the
moon is both unusually close to the earth and the new moon
phase

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Neap Ocean Tides

 Neap tides occur when the gravitational forces of the moon and the
sun are perpendicular to one another (with respect to the earth)
 Neap tides occur during quarter moons. At this time, the sun and the
moon are pulling at right angles to each other causing their
gravitational forces to cancel each other. They are weaker tides

Advantage of tides
 During high tides the water level in the harbor rises, This enable bigger
ships to move into harbor and unloaded
 The high tides clear the sea shore from garbage, etc
 High tides are used for generating electricity

Class Activity–6
1. What is solar system?
2. How many known planets are there in our solar system? Name them.
3. Briefly explain how astronomy gave rise to the 12 months of the year
4. Why is Pluto not a planet as it used to be?
5. (a) Which one is the largest planet in our solar system? (ANS: Jupiter)
(b)Which planets in the solar system have satellites?
6. What is a milk way
7. What are the real names of objects in the sky which are commonly
known by the following names?
(i) An evening star (ii) A morning star (iii) A shooting star
8. Can humans breathe normally in space as they can on Earth? (Give
reason)
9. Why Venus is hotter than Mercury, although Mercury is very closer to
the Sun than Venus?
10. State reasons why an astronaut in space
(a) Needs a special space suit to prevent blood from boiling
(b) Can float without falling
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 (c) Uses small jets of gas in his maneuvers(movements) instead
of swimming like fish in water
11. What planet is famous for its big red spot on it
12. What planet is famous for the beautiful rings that surround it?
13. Differentiate between spring and neap tides
14. The distance of Jupiter from the sun is 7.80 x 108 km and one year
of Jupiter is equivalent to 12 earth years. Calculate the
(i) The distance of its path in one year (ANS: d = 4.903 x 109 km)
(ii) Speed of the planet in km per hour (ANS: v = 46.6 x 103 km/hr)
15. (a) How a star differs from a planet
(e) Name two objects in space which are the earth’s nearest
neighbors
(f)What planet is known as the red planet?
(g) What is the hottest planet in our solar system?
(h) What is the name of the force holding us to the earth?
16. What is the name of Saturn’s largest moon? (ANS: Titan)
17. How do the planets stay in orbit around the sun?
18. Who was the first person to walk on the moon? (ANS: Neil Armstrong -
1969)
19. Olympus Mons is large volcanic mountain on which planet? (ANS: Mars)
20. The earth appears to be stationary, but it is always in motion.
Calculate the unnoticed speed of a man along the equator in
km/h due to:
(a) Rotational motion of the earth about its axis
(b) Revolution of the earth around the sun (Take 1 year = 365 days)
21. Define star and give the name of the one closest to the earth
22. Mercury planet is 58 x 106 km from the sun and it takes 88 days
to complete one orbit around the sun .Calculate the speed of the
planet in km/hr to 3 significant figures. (ANS: 1.73 x 105 km/hr)
23.(a) Name two largest planets in the solar system
(b) Name two brightest planets in the solar system
24. State the following terms (a)
Heliocentric theory (b) Geocentric theory
25. A communication satellite appears to be stationary over one
point on the earth’s surface when it is moving in a circular orbit of
radius 42,000 km. Find its speed in km/hr given that it must complete
one orbit in 24 hours (v = 11 x 103 m/s)
26. x

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 Topic – 7: Geophysics
Geophysics: Is a branch of science which deals with the composition, properties
and behaviors of the earth

Interior Structure of the Earth

The Interior earth structure is divided into three zones namely
 Earth's Core
 Earth's Mantle
 Earth's Crust

Earth's Crust
 The crust is the outer solid layer of the earth.
 The earth’s crust ranges from 5 km – 70 km
 It is divided into two layers namely continental crust and oceanic crust

Continental Crust (under the land)

 Continental crust is thick (25 km – 70 km) and light because it is made of
rocks with a low density (about 2 – 2.8 tones per cubic meter).
 It is composed mainly by granites and sedimentary rocks.
 Land mass and mountains are located at continental crust.

Oceanic Crust (under the sea)

 Oceanic crust is basaltic with high density (about 3 – 3.1 tonnes per cubic
metre).
 It is thin ( 6 – 11km) and heavy because it is made of rocks
(volcanic rocks) that have a high density
 It covers two third (2/3) of the earth’s surface
NB:
 The low density of the thick continental crust allows it to "float" in
high relief on the much higher density mantle below
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  Mohorovicic discontinuity(Moho) is the boundary that separates the crust and
mantle

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Earth's Mantle
 Earth's Mantle is starting from Moho and extends to a depth of
2900km below the earth surface up to its boundary with the
earth’s core.
 Gutenberg Discontinuity is the boundary between the mantle and the

core
N B:
 Mantle contains about 70% of the earth’s mass
 It is made by plastic rocks (both in solid and molten state)
 Upper part of mantle has a temperature of about 8700C
 Lower part of mantle has a temperature of about 22000C
 The lower limit of brittle behavior is the boundary between the upper and lower
mantle
 This steady increase of temperature with depth is known as the geothermal
gradient
 The heat energy is the source of force that causes continental
movement like volcanism and earthquakes

Earth's Core
 Earth's Core is the innermost part of the earth.
 It extends from Gutenberg discontinuity to earth’s geometric center.
 It consists of two distinct regions which are the outer core and the inner

core
Outer Core
 The outer core is the second largest layer and composed of liquid
of molten nickel and iron known as magma. It is about 2200 km
thick
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  The magma surrounds the inner core and creates the earth’s magnetic
field

The inner Core

 The inner core is the hottest part of the earth. Its surface temperature is
estimated to be approximately 5700 K(54300 C) which is as hot as the
surface of the sun
 It is made of solid iron and nickel that are under so much pressure they
cannot melt

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  It is 1200 km thick (radius) and heavy radioactive elements within the core
generate the intense heat as they decay
 Inner core is a solid even though its temperature is higher than the
outer core. This is because it is composed of very dense materials – like iron
and nickel alloys. The materials are solid due to the high pressure at the depth
of more than 5000 km below the earth’s surface.

Tectonic Plates
 Tectonic plates are the huge pieces of cracked earth’s crust and
mantle parts which float over semi-molten rock.
 Also is called lithospheric plate. Tectonic plates are in slow
motion.This movement means continents are moving apart and
toward each other. This process in which continents move is
called continental drift.

Boundary
 Boundary is the line where two tectonic plates meet

Types of Boundary
 Destructive/ converging boundary
 Constructive/diverging boundary
 Conservative boundary

Destructive (Convergent) Boundary

 Is the kind of boundary in which edges of two plates are moving toward
each other

Constructive (Divergent) Boundary

 Is the kind of boundary in which edges of two plates moving away each
other

Conservative Boundary
 Is the kind of boundary in which two plates slide moving each other in
opposite or the same direction

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Written by Geoffrey M Idebe (0688 082 089) Page 246
Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are places where molten rock called magma leaks out
through a hole or a crack in the earth’s crust
Causes of Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are caused by movement of molten rock and heat energy
inside the earth. These movements are called subterranean
movements
 Most volcanoes form along constructive and destructive boundaries
and few form far from plate boundaries
 Magma that reached the earth’s surface is called lava

Volcanoes at destructive boundaries

 When ocean plate plunges under another plate, the ocean plate rubs
against the plate above it and gets hot. Rock melts resulting magma
under the upper plate. Magma forces away through weak points
in the crust
Volcanoes at Constructive boundaries
 At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one
another. For example, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of
volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart
Volcanoes at far from Plate Boundaries
 This eruption occurs when mantle is hotter than normal. The magma
formed is forced toward earth’s surface. For Example, Nyamalagira
volcano located at Congo. This kind of volcanoes are called Hot-
sport volcanoes
Types of Volcanoes
 Fissure volcanoes
 Central volcanoes
Fissure Volcanoes
 Fissure volcanoes are kinds of volcanoes which occur along cracks
in and between tectonic plates.

Central Volcanoes
 Central volcanoes are a single vertical main vent through which
magma reaches the earth’s surface.
 It is a cone shaped, builds up from successive layers of lava and ash
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  The process by which magma is forced from interior of the earth
through a vent in the earth crust is called Vulcanicity

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Classification of Volcanoes
Active Volcanoes
 Active volcanoes are those that erupt regularly in recent times.
 Example, Mt. Nyiragongo–Congo, Santa Maria–Guatemala and Ol Doinyo Lengai–
Tz

Dormant Volcanoes
 Are those that have erupted in historical times but are now quiet but can
erupt again
 Example, Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and Mt. Fuji in Japan
Extinct Volcanoes
 Are those which have not erupted in human history, probably never
erupt again
 Example Mt. Thielsen in Oregon in the US

Effects of Volcanoes
Negative effects of volcanoes
 Destruction property and loss of human life : Eruptions occurring close
to human settlements may spill and destroy lives and property
 Environmental Pollution : Ash discharged very high into the
stratosphere can have negative consequences on the ozone layer
 Lahars: Ash and mud can mix with rain and melting snow, forming
lahars.
Lahars are mudflows flowing at very fast pace
 Acidic rain: Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acidic
rain
 Accident: Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to
aircraft, especially jet aircraft where the particles can be melted by
the high operating temperature.
Positive effects of volcanoes
o Landscape formation: Volcanoes lead to formation of
mountains ,islands , plateaus and valley
o Tourism: Provide extraordinary scenery, so beautiful and natural that
they attract tourists to the area, bringing in some economic value.
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o Geothermal energy: Places close to volcanic activities tend to have
higher potential for geothermal energy, which can be an advantage to
the towns and cities
o Soil: Ash and lava breakdown become soil that are rich in nutrients, and
become good areas for crop planting activities
o Mineral: it brings valuable mineral to the earth’s surface

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Earthquakes
 Earthquakes are the rumblings, shaking or rolling of the earth's surface.
 The study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through
and around the earth is known as “Seismology”
 Scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves is called
seismologist

Causes of Earthquakes
 Movements of tectonic plates
 Volcanic eruptions
How earthquake occur?
 Earthquakes are usually caused when rock underground suddenly
breaks along a fault. This sudden release of energy causes the
seismic waves that make the ground shake.
 When two blocks of rock (plates) are rubbing against each other,
they stick a little , after a while the rocks break ,and the
earthquake occurs
NB:
Hypocenter(Focus) is the point within the earth where an earthquake
originates Wave energy released by earthquakes is called seismic
waves
Epicenter Is the point on the earth’s surface directly above where an
earthquake occurs and spread

Seismic Waves
 Are mechanical waves through which earthquake energy is transmitted and
released
OR
 Is the energy released by earthquakes from hypocenter

Types of Seismic Waves

There are two main types of seismic waves namely:-
 Body waves: Are the waves which can travel through the earth’s inner
layers
 Surface waves: Are the waves which can only move along the
surface of the planet like ripples on water
Types of body waves
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  Primary waves or P waves
 Secondary waves or S waves

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Primary Waves (P waves)
 Are the first earthquake waves released from the hypocenter
 Its motion is the same as that of a sound wave in that, as it
spreads out, it alternately pushes (compresses) and pulls (dilates)
the rock. These P waves are felt as a sudden jolt
 It travels through the Earth's core and through both solid rock, such as
Granite Mountains, and liquid material, such as volcanic magma and the water
of the oceans.

Secondary waves (S waves)

 Are seismic waves produced after primary waves and which are felt as
a series of side to side tremors
 When S wave propagates, it shears the rock sideways at right
angles to the direction of travel. If a liquid is sheared sideways or
twisted, it will not spring back; hence S waves cannot propagate in
the liquid parts of the earth, such as oceans and lakes.

Surface Waves
 Are seismic waves which originate from and travel radically from the
epicenter
OR
 Surface wave is the seismic waves which propagate in earth’s surface.

Types of Surface Waves

 Love waves
 Rayleigh waves

Love Waves
 Are the waves that travel by a transverse motion of particles that is
parallel to the ground surface
 They make the ground shifting from one side to another
 The surface waves do damage to surface structure such as
buildings and hydroelectric power plants
 Love waves generally travel faster than Rayleigh waves
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Rayleigh
 Rayleigh are seismic surface waves which create a rolling
movement and makes the ground to move up and down

NB:
 P waves is faster than S wave to be detected at seismic station
 Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves (P and S)
 Love waves (do not propagate through water) can effect surface water only
insofar as the
sides of lakes and ocean bays pushing water sideways like the sides of a
vibrating tank
 Rayleigh waves propagates through water due to vertical components of their
motion

Earthquake Scales
 The nature of an earthquakes described in terms of their magnitude and
intensity

Earthquakes Magnitude
 The magnitude of an earthquake Is a measure of the energy it releases.
 It is usually measured on the Richter scale.
 The Richter scale is based on the amplitude of the largest
seismic wave recorded for an earthquake, no matter what type of
wave was the strongest
 The Richter scale magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale (base
10)
 The scale has no upper limit
 The small magnitude expressed in negative numbers while large
magnitude expressed in positive numbers

Earthquakes Intensity
 The intensity of an earthquake Is a measure of its strength based on
the changes it causes to the landscape.
 The intensity of an earthquake is usually measured on the Modified
Mercalli scale. The scale is calibrated from 1 to 12. On this scale,
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 level 1 is a minor tremor that CAUSES NO DAMAGE whereas level 12
causes TOTAL DEVASTATION.
 Earthquake can only have one magnitude but, its intensity
reduces as the seismic waves spread out from the Hypocenter
Seismograph
 Is an instrument used to record ground movements caused by
earthquakes.
 The seismograph records both the magnitude and the intensity of the
earthquake.

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Types of Seismograph
o Simple pendulum Seismograph
o Inverted pendulum: Seismograph
Recording the Pendulum Motion
 The recording of the motion of the pendulum can be done
through Optical mechanical or electronic methods
Effect (Hazards) of Earthquakes
 Landslides: Earthquakes can cause unstable hillsides, mountain
slopes and cliffs to move downwards, creating landslides
 Snow slopes: Earthquakes can also trigger avalanches on snow slopes
which can collide with people, house etc
 Tsunamis: Tsunamis are the hug water waves cause water to rise or fall.
When a
tsunami reaches shallow water, it slows down, its wavelength reduces and its
height grows.
 Collapsing of buildings: A strong earthquake can flatten a whole
city. An example, is the Japanese city of Kobe which was
completely flattened by an earthquake measuring 7.2 on the
Richter scale
 Fire outbreak: Breaking of gas or oil pipes and collapsing of
electricity lines activate a fire outbreak
 Loss of Life: People in areas where an earthquake has stricken may get
buried under buildings and soil or get hurt or even get killed when items fall
on them
 Destruction of property: When earthquakes occur in places with buildings
can lead to collapse of buildings and structures
 Floods: Tsunamis lead to coastal floods since ocean water
suddenly rises above its normal
 Backward rivers: Tilting ground can also make rivers change their
course. This can result in the creation of earthquake lakes that
cover huge tracts of previously settled land

Earthquake Warning Signs

 Thermal indicator:
Few months before the earthquake, the average temperature of
particular area increasing. On the day of the earthquake, the
temperature of a place is about 5 to 9 degrees Celsius above the
average normal temperature for that day.
 Water indicator: About one or three days before an earthquake, there is
1. Sudden rise or fall in water levels in wells. The rise can be as high
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 as one meter. The well water may turn muddy
2. At times a fountain appears inside the well. Sometimes a
fountain may appear in the ground. This normally happens a few
hours before the quake
3. There is also a sudden and rapid increase or decrease of water
flow in the rivers. This happens about one to two days before
the quake

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 Seismo electromagnetic indicator:
When temperature raises results geomagnetic field to reduce which
affects the propagation of electromagnetic waves (radio, television and
telephone). This is a very reliable indicator. It is usually recorded about 10 to
20 hours before the quake.
 Animal indicator: Between 10 and 20 hours before the occurrence
of an earthquake, the entire animal kingdom becomes highly
disturbed and restless.
 Human indicator:
Sensitive patients in hospitals become highly disturbed before an
earthquake. They exhibit a sudden rise in blood pressure, heart
trouble, headache, migraine and respiratory disorders. Indeed, the
number of outpatients in hospitals increases by five to seven times,
some 10 to 20 hours before the quake

Precaution taken during an earthquake

 If you are indoors during an earthquake, drop, cover and hold on. Get
under a desk, table or bench. Hold on to one of the legs and cover your
eyes. If there is no table or desk nearby, sit down against an interior
wall.
 Pick a safe place where things will not fall on you
 Wait in your safe place until the shaking stops, then check to see if you are
hurt
 Move carefully and watch out for things that have fallen or broken,
creating hazards. Be ready for additional earthquakes called
aftershocks
 Be on the lookout for fires. Fire is the most common earthquake-
related hazard due to damaged gas and electrical lines.
 If you must leave a building after the shaking stops, use the stairs and not the
elevator.

Similarities between earthquakes and volcanoes

 They are both caused by movement of molten rock and heat deep inside the
earth
 They mostly occur near tectonic boundaries

Structure and composition of the atmosphere

Atmospheric Structure
 The atmosphere is a layer of gas and dust that surrounds the earth
Layers (Regions) of Atmosphere
 Atmosphere is divided into five regions based on its thermal
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 characteristics
(temperature changes), chemical composition, movement and density
Therefore there are five regions includes
 Troposphere region
 Stratosphere region
 Mesosphere region
 Thermosphere region
 Exosphere region

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Troposphere Region
 Troposphere region is the region nearest to the earth.
 It extends to an altitude of up to 10 km above the poles and 20 km above
the equator.
NB:
 This region is the densest part of the atmosphere. It contains 80% by
mass of the atmosphere. It contains most of the atmosphere’s water
vapor
 The temperature in this region decreases with altitude at an average rate of
6°C/km
 Air molecules can travel to the top of the troposphere and back down
again in just a few days. This mixing encourages changing weather
 Most weather phenomena occur in the troposphere. Clouds and rain are
formed within this region.
 Boundary separates the troposphere and the stratosphere is called the
tropopause
 Temperatures stop decreasing with height and become constant

Stratosphere Region
 Stratosphere Is a region that starts from the tropopause and extends
to about 50 km high.
 This layer is more stable, drier and less dense compared to the
troposphere.
 The temperature in the stratosphere slowly increases with altitude
 Temperature increase due to the presence of the ozone layer which
absorbs ultraviolet rays from the sun. The ozone layer lies in the
middle of the stratosphere between 20 and 30 km. Ozone(O3) is a
triatomic form of oxygen
 This layer plays the important role of absorbing ultraviolet
radiations which would otherwise reach the earth’s surface .This
radiation is harmful to both animal and plant life on earth
 The stable air of the stratosphere also prevents large storms from
extending much beyond the tropopause
 Planes also fly in the stratosphere. This is because it has
strong steady horizontal winds which are above the stormy
weather of the troposphere
 Troposphere and stratosphere are collectively known as the lower atmosphere
 Boundary separates the stratosphere and the other layer is called
stratopause

Mesosphere Region

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  Mesosphere is region that starts just above the stratosphere and
extends to 85 km high
 Temperature at this layer decreases with altitude. The lowest
temperature of the atmosphere (-90°C) occurs within this region
 Mesosphere is the layer in which most meteors burn while entering
the earth’s atmosphere
 Boundary separates the mesosphere and the thermosphere is called
mesopause

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Thermosphere Region
 Thermosphere Is region that starts just above the mesosphere and
extends up to 690 km high
 Temperature increases with increase in altitude due to the sun’s heat
 The temperature in this region can go as high as 1, 727°C
 Chemical reactions occur much faster here than on the surface of the
earth.
 This layer is also known as the upper atmosphere
 The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 km above
the earth’s surface, called ionosphere
 This region containing a high concentration of charged particles called
ions
and free electrons
 The large number of free electrons in the ionosphere allow the
propagation of electromagnetic waves
 Ionosphere also absorbs dangerous radiation. The radiation absorbed in
the
ionosphere includes hard and soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation.
Importance of Ionosphere
 The ionosphere plays an important role in communications. Radio waves
can be reflected off the ionosphere allowing radio communications over
long distances
Exosphere Region
 Exosphere region is the outermost region of the atmosphere
 Atmospheric gas pressure is very low. Light atoms such as
hydrogen and helium may acquire sufficient energy to escape the
earth’s gravitational pull
 The upper part of the exosphere is called magnetosphere. The motion
of ions in this region is strongly constrained by the presence of the
earth’s magnetic field
 Is the region where satellites orbit the earth
Importance of the Atmosphere
 The troposphere controls the climate and ultimately determines the
quality of life on the earth
 The troposphere is important for life on the earth. The layer contains gases which
include
o Oxygen which is used for respiration by animals
o Carbon dioxide which is used by plants in photosynthesis
o Nitrogen found in this layer also provides an inactive environment
for many chemical processes to take place

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 o Gases also support many important chemical processes such as
combustion, weathering and oxidation
 The stratosphere prevents harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching the
earth
 The mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere also prevent harmful
radiation such as cosmic rays from reaching the earth’s surface
 Communication is also made possible by some layers of the
atmosphere, specifically the ionosphere

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Greenhouse Effect
 Is the process in which the emission of radiation by the atmosphere
warms the earth’s surface
OR
 Is the trapping back of Sun’s energy by a planet from atmospheres
OR
 Is the process that occurs when gases in Earth’s atmosphere trap the sun’s
heat

How Greenhouse effect occurs

 When a planet’s surface is heated by sunlight it emits radiation which is
absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The
atmosphere reflects back thermal radiation in all directions to the
earth’s surface. Over time, this increases the planet’s temperature due
to presence of greenhouse gases

Sources of Greenhouse Effect

 Water vapor
 Ozone layer
 Carbon dioxide
 Methane
 Chlorofluorocarbons
 Nitrous Oxide (Dinitrogen Oxide)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

 Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas. The gas contributes over
50% of the greenhouse effect.
The following are some of the sources of carbon dioxide
o Clearing and burning of vegetation (deforestation)
o Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas)

Methane (CH4)
 Is one of the trace gases in the atmosphere that is considered to play a
major role in the greenhouse effect
 The main source of methane is;
(i) Agricultural activities. It is released from wetlands, such as rice
fields and from animals, particularly cud-chewing animals like
cows.
(ii) Mining of coal and oil (Fossil methane emission during the exploration
and transport of fossil fuels)
(iii) Biomass burning (Forest fires, charcoal combustion and firewood burning)
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 (iv) Anaerobic decomposition of organic waste in landfills
 Note: Methane molecules have a lifetime of 10 years in the atmosphere

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Nitrous Oxide (Dinitrogen Oxide – N2O)
 Is the third most important GHG for the enhanced greenhouse effect after CO2
and CH4
 Nitrous oxide is produced from both natural and human-made processes.

Human activities includes

 Combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and power stations
 Use of nitrogenous fertilizers
 Burning of vegetation
 Animal waste.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 Chlorofluorocarbons are organic compounds made up of chlorine, fluorine and
carbon.
 The sources of CFCs in the atmosphere include fridges, air
conditioners, sprays and aerosols
 CFCs are extremely effective greenhouse gases. A CFC molecule is 10
000 times more effective in trapping heat than a carbon dioxide
molecule

Global Warming
 Global warming is the increase of the average temperatures near or on the
earth’s surface caused by greenhouse gases
OR
 Global warming is the increase in temperature near or on the surface of the
earth resulting into greenhouse effect

Causes of global warming

 Global warming is mainly caused by greenhouse gases

How Global warming occurs?

 A Global warming occurs when green house gases collect in the
atmosphere and absorb sunlight and solar radiation that have bounced
off the earth’s surface
 Normally this radiation would escape into space – but these
pollutants in the atmosphere , trap the heat and cause the planet to
get hotter (Greenhouse effect)

Effects of Global Warming

 Increase in the temperature of the oceans
 Rise in sea levels due to melting of land ice. This will lead to coastal
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 flooding of the coastal land.
 Acidification of the oceans CO2 dissolves in water and forms a weak
carbonic acid and hence concept of PH of ocean
 Extreme weather events which include floods, drought, heat waves,
hurricanes and tornadoes

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 Destroying of agriculture and fisheries. This is due to forests, farms and cities
will face troublesome new pests, heat waves, heavy downpours and increased
flooding.
 Melting glaciers, snowmelt and severe droughts will cause more
dramatic water shortages and increase the risk of wildfires
 Extinction (Death) of some animal and plant species. Disruption of habitats such
as coral reefs and Alpine meadows could drive many plant and animal species
to extinction
 Diseases outbreaks. Asthma, allergies and other infectious diseases will
become more common due to increased growth of pollen – producing
ragweed, higher levels of air pollution and the spread of conditions favorable
to pathogens and mosquitoes
 Change in world’s climate patterns

Solutions to minimize Global warming

 Reduce the use of fossil fuels by using public transport which will
minimize the number of vehicles in the roads
 Use of fuel-efficient cars
 Use of renewable sources of energy such as solar and wind.
 Afforestation. Replant trees that would absorb carbon dioxide
 Countries to make a policy of minimizing the emission of
greenhouse gases. Example, Kyoto protocol

Class Activity – 7:1

1. (a) Define the term earthquake
(b) Briefly explain the meaning of the following terms as used on
earthquake
(i) Hypocenter (ii) Epicenter
(c) (i)What is global warming?
(ii)Name four gases that contribute to global warming and give one source
of each
(d) (i) Mention two merits and two demerits of volcanoes
(ii) Briefly explain two hazards associated with earth quakes
2. What is meant by the following terms as used in geophysics
(i) Magma (ii)Tsunami
ANS: (i) Magma: Are molten rocks inside the earth’s mantle which are
ejected during a volcanic eruption
(ii) Tsunami is a sea wave which is caused by disturbance of the
ocean floor either by an earthquake or a volcanic activity

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REFERENCES

 Ordinary Level Physics:(A.F Abbott)

 PHYSICS FORM 4 STUDENTS’ BOOK (TANZANIA INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION)
 PRINCIPLES OF PHYSICS
 PHYSICS FOR ZANZIBAR SEC SCHOOLS BOOK 4 (OXFORD,UNIVERSITY PRESS)
 NECTA REVIEW
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
 WIKIPEDIA
 https.//starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov
 WWW.BBC.COM

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