Week Eight

TOPIC: WAVES
CONTENT
Definition
A wave is a disturbance which travels through a material medium, transferring energy from one point in
the medium to another without causing any permanent displacement of particles of the medium.
Wave Motion
A wave motion is the process of transferring disturbance through a medium without causing any
permanent displacement of particles of the medium.
The particles of the medium only vibrate about their mean position while transferring energy from one
point to another.
Characteristics of wave Motion
i. The disturbance is periodic in nature resulting in a periodic wave
ii. Particles of the medium vibrate about their mean position
iii. Energy is transferred from one point to another without the transfer of the particles the medium
iv. The transfer of energy in a medium occurs with a constant speed.
Classes of Waves
There are two classes of waves. They are:

 Mechanical waves
 Electromagnetic wave
Mechanical waves: These are waves that require material medium for their propagation. Examples
include water wave, sound waves, waves on a rope or string.
Electromagnetic waves: These are waves that do not require material medium for their propagation.
Examples include light waves, radio waves, x-ray, visible light, etc.
Differences between mechanical and electromagnetic waves
Mechanical wave Electromagnetic wave
i. It requires material medium for its travel It can travel through a medium or vacuum
ii. Examples include water waves, seismic Examples include light waves, radio waves, micro
waves, sound waves, etc. waves, X-rays, etc.
iii. It can be longitudinal or transverse It is always transverse
iv. The speed depends on the medium Travels at the speed of light
v. Transfers mechanical energy through the Transfers electromagnetic energy without needing
medium particles

Types of waves
The direction of vibration of the particles relative to the direction of travel of the wave determines the
type of wave. They are:
 a. Transverse waves and
b. Longitudinal waves
Transverse waves: These are waves whose direction of travel is perpendicular to the direction of vibration
of particles of the medium. Examples include water waves, waves on ropes, electromagnetic waves (light,
radio, X-ray, gamma ray, micro wave), etc.

Transvers waves are characterised by crests and troughs

 Crest: this is a region of maximum upward displacement.

 Trough: This is a region of maximum downward displacement.
Longitudinal waves: These are waves whose direction of travel is parallel to the direction of vibration of
particles of the medium. Examples include sound wave, wave on sleeky spring, seismic primary wave,
compression waves, etc.
Longitudinal waves are characterised by regions of compressions and rarefaction.

 Compression: These are regions where the air density (pressure) is above normal
 Rarefaction: These are regions where the air pressure is below normal.
Compressions and rarefaction of longitudinal waves corresponds to crest and troughs of transverse waves
respectively.
Differences between Transverse and Longitudinal waves
Transverse Waves Longitudinal Wave
i. The particles of the medium vibrate at The particles of the medium vibrate in the same
right angle to the direction of travel of the direction with the wave
wave
ii. It is characterised by crests and troughs It is characterised by compressions and
rarefaction
iii. They can be plane polarised They cannot be plane polarised
iv. Transverse waves do not causes a change Longitudinal waves causes a change in pressure in
in pressure in a medium a medium

Pulse
A pulse is a single vibratory disturbance that moves from point to point.
Differences between a pulse and a wave.
Pulse wave
i. It is a short duration disturbance It is a continuous disturbance
ii. It does not repeat It repeats periodically
iii. The disturbance is momentary The disturbance exists for a longer period

Terms Used in Waves

 Wave Fronts: this is a line or surface in the direction of an advancing wave in which all particles are
vibrating in step or phase.
Types of wave front.
There are types of wave fronts. They are:
i. Spherical or circular wave front
ii. Plane wave front

A wave front shows how energy travels from one point in a medium to another.

 Amplitude (A): this is the maximum displacement of the particle from its mean position. It is
measured in metre (m).
 Period (T): This is the time required for a particle to complete one oscillation. It is also the time
required by a wave to travel one wavelength. It is measured in second (s)
 Frequency (f): This is the number of oscillations a wave makes in one second. It is measured in
Hertz (Hz) or per second.
 Wavelength (λ): This is the distance between two successive crests or troughs. It is the distance
covered by the wave in one complete oscillation. It is measured in metre (m)
 Wave speed (v): This is the rate at which a wave travel through a medium. It is measured in metre
per second (𝑚𝑠 −1)
Relationship between period, frequency, wave speed and wavelength
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑛)
From the definition, 𝑓 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 (𝑡)

For one complete oscillation, 𝑛 = 1 and 𝑡 = 𝑇 and 𝑥 = λ

1
Therefore, 𝑓 = 𝑇

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑥) λ
Wave speed, 𝑣 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
= 𝑇
 λ
Hence 𝑣 = 𝑇 or 𝑣 = 𝑓λ

EXAMPLES
i. A wave travels a distance of 20 𝑚 in 2 seconds. If the distance between two successive crests in the
wave is 25 𝑐𝑚, calculate the frequency of the wave.
Solution
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑥) 20
wave speed, 𝑣 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
= 2
𝑣 = 10 𝑚/𝑠
But 𝑣 = 𝑓λ , λ = 0.25 𝑚
10 = 𝑓 × 0.25
10
𝑓= ⟹ 𝑓 = 40 𝐻𝑧
0,25

LEAVE ONE PAGE FOR FURTHER EXAMPLES

EQUATION OF PLANE PROGRESSIVE WAVE

A progressive (travelling) wave is a wave which travels continuously in a medium, in the same direction,
transferring energy from one point to another without transferring the particles of the medium.

The displacement of the particle p at a distance x from O at a given instant is given by

𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜙)
2𝜋𝑥
Where 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 and 𝜙 =
𝜆

2𝜋𝑥
Hence 𝑦 = 𝐴 sin (2𝜋𝑓𝑡 ± 𝜆
)

Characteristics of progressive waves

i. Each particle of the medium vibrate about its mean position
ii. The particles of the medium vibrate with the same amplitude
iii. The phase angle changes from 0 to 2𝜋
iv. No particle remains permanently at rest
v. There is transfer of energy across the medium in the direction of the wave
 LEAVE TWO PAGES FOR EXAMPLES
Stationary Waves
A stationary (standing) wave is a wave obtained when two progressive waves of equal amplitude and
frequency travelling in opposite directions combine together.

General representation of stationary wave

Stationary waves are characterised by nodes and antinodes.

Node (N): This is a point in a stationary wave where there is no movement of the particles of the medium,
i.e. the particles of the medium are permanently at rest.
Antinode (A): This is point in a stationary wave where there is maximum movement of particles of the
medium. At these points, the particles vibrate with maximum amplitude.
𝜆 𝜆
The distance between two successive nodes is 2. The distance between a node and an antinode is 4.

Most stationary waves are obtained as a result of reflection of the incident waves. Examples of stationary
waves are waves in open and closed pipes, waves obtained by plucking the strings of a guitar.

THE RIPPLE TANK AND WATER WAVES.

Water waves can be studied using a ripple tank – A shallow glass container filled with water with a
transparent bottom.
Features of the ripple tank
i. Dipper: a strip of metal or sphere used to generate continuous pulses or waves in the water.
ii. Stroboscope: A circular disc with evenly spaced slits. It is used to make the wave appear
stationary or steady.
iii. Screen: This is a white surface on which the image of the wave pattern is projected
Note: when in use, the tank is placed between a light source and the screen.
 Week Nine
TOPIC: Properties of Waves
PROPERTIES OF WAVES
Waves exhibit the following properties.
a. Reflection
b. Refraction
c. Diffraction
d. Interference and
e. Polarization
Reflection of water waves
Reflection of wave is the bouncing back of a wave upon striking a plane surface.
Water wave undergo reflection upon striking a plane surface. The travelling wave is the incident wave
while the wave that bounces back is the reflected wave.
Angle of incidence: This is the angle between the incident wave and the normal.
Angle of reflection: This is the angle between the reflected wave and the normal.
Laws of reflection
i. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal, at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
ii. The angle of incident is equal to the angle of reflection
Reflection of water waves is studied using a ripple tank.

Refraction of water waves

Refraction is the bending of the incident wave front as it passes the boundary between two media of
different densities.
Refraction is due to the change in speed and wavelength of the wave as it moves from one medium to
another of different density.
NOTE: The frequency of the wave remains constant during refraction.
Refraction of water wave is studied using a ripple tank.
Angle of refraction: This is the angle between the refracted wave front and the normal.
Laws of refraction
i. The incident wave, the refracted wave and the normal, at the point of incidence, all lie in the same
plane.
ii. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant for a given
pair of media.
sin 𝑖
= 1𝑛2 .
sin 𝑟

This law is known as Snell’s law.

Refractive index
Refractive index is the ratio of speed of the wave in the medium of incidence (medium 1) to the speed in
the medium of refraction (medium 2).
Refractive index is also defined as the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of
refraction.
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐴 𝑓𝜆1
The refractive index 𝐴 𝑛𝐵 =
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝐵
=
𝑓𝜆2

𝜆1 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 1
= 𝜆2
= 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 2

sin 𝑖
1𝑛 2 = sin 𝑟

Diffraction of Water Wave

Diffraction is the spreading out of waves as they pass through a narrow opening. It is the bending of
waves around corners of obstacle in their path
Diffraction occurs when the wavelength of the wave is longer than the width of the opening. The smaller
the opening, the more is the diffraction of water waves.
Interference of water Waves
Interference is the effect produced when two waves of the same frequency amplitude and wavelength
travelling in the same direction are superimposed as they simultaneously pass through a given point in a
medium.
Types of interference
There are two types of interference. They are:
i. Constructive (Additive) Interference
ii. Destructive Interference
Constructive Interference: This occurs when two waves arrive at a point in step or phase, i.e. the two
waves have travelled the same distance or one wave has travelled a whole number of a wavelength more
than the other. The path difference (Δ𝑠), thus, is a whole number of a wavelength.
In constructive interference, the crest of one wave combine with the crest of the other wave. The resulting
wave has twice the amplitude of the combining waves, leading to increased disturbance.

Destructive interference: This occurs when two waves arrive at a point out of step (phase), i.e. one wave
has travelled a fraction of a wavelength further than the other. The path difference, thus, is a fraction of a
wavelength.
The crest of one wave falls on the trough of the other wave and the waves cancel out each other giving
rise to minimum or zero disturbance.
Path difference, Δ𝑠
The path difference determines whether the waves arrive at a point in phase or out of phase.
In constructive interference, the path difference is a whole number of a wavelength. Δ𝑠 = 𝑛𝜆,
where 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … … … ..
1
In destructive interference, the path difference is a fraction of a wavelength. Δ𝑠 = 𝑛𝜆 + 2
𝑛,
where 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, … … … ..
Differences between constructive and destructive Interference
Constructive interference Destructive Interference
i. Both waves arrive in step Both waves arrive out of step
ii. Leads to maximum disturbance Leads to zero disturbance
iii. The path difference is a whole number of The path difference is a fraction of a wavelength
a wavelength
iv. The crest of one wave combines with the The crest of one wave falls on the trough of the
crest of the other wave. other wave.

POLARISATION
This is the production of transverse waves whose vibrations are only in one plane. A transverse wave
whose vibration is only in one plane is said to be plane polarised.
Transverse waves undergo polarisation. This is a unique property of transverse waves which distinguishes
them from longitudinal waves. Only transverse waves can be plane polarised. Example light waves, radio
waves, etc. Sound waves cannot be plane polarised because they are longitudinal wave.

Polarisation of Mechanical waves

LEAVE 5 LINES FOR DIAGRAM
Along OP, the waves vibrate in all directions. As the wave pass through the slits (p and Q), only waves
whose vibrations are parallel to the axis of the slit will emerge at R. however, if Q is placed such that its
axis is perpendicular to that of P, no wave will emerge at R.
Polarisation of Light waves
Lights can be polarised by passing it through a polaroid. A polaroid is a crystal (e.g. calcite, quartz,
tourmaline) whose internal structure only allows light whose vibrations are only in one plane to emerge
and absorb light due to other vibrations.
Demonstration of Polarisation of Light.
LEAVE 10 LINES FOR DIAGRAMS.
From fig(a) the light emerging through R is plane polarised. The light is as bright as that passing through
O. When R is rotated about its axis, the light emerging through it appears darker and is completely
extinguished when the axis is perpendicular to the axis of Q.