Chapter 2: Acids, Bases, and Salts

2.1 Introduction to Acids and Bases

1.​ Acids are substances that taste sour and turn blue litmus paper red, while bases are bitter in taste and turn red
litmus paper blue.
2.​ Litmus is a natural indicator extracted from lichens, while other indicators like phenolphthalein, methyl orange,
and turmeric are used to identify acidic or basic substances.
3.​ Some substances, known as olfactory indicators (onion, vanilla, and clove), change their smell in the presence
of acids or bases.
4.​ Substances like lemon juice, vinegar, and baking soda solution are used to neutralize excess acid, which
demonstrates the neutralization reaction between acids and bases.

Activity 2.1 - Indicator Test with Solutions

●​ Explanation: Different solutions like HCl, H₂SO₄, NaOH, etc., are tested using indicators like red/blue litmus,
phenolphthalein, and methyl orange.
●​ Observation: Acids turn blue litmus red, bases turn red litmus blue, phenolphthalein is colorless in acid but pink
in base, and methyl orange turns red in acid and yellow in base.

Activity 2.2 - Olfactory Indicators Test

●​ Explanation: Onion-soaked cloth strips are used to test smell changes with acid (HCl) and base (NaOH). Vanilla
and clove oils are also tested.
●​ Observation: In acidic or basic media, the smell changes or disappears, proving that some substances act as
olfactory indicators.

2.1.1. Reaction of Acids and Bases with Metals

-​ Acids react with reactive metals such as zinc to form salt and hydrogen gas, which is observed as bubbles or
fizzing during the reaction.
-​ The presence of hydrogen gas is confirmed when it burns with a pop sound.
-​ The general reaction is: Acid + Metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas

Activity 2.3 - Reaction of Metal with Acid

●​ Explanation: Zinc granules react with dilute sulphuric

acid, producing hydrogen gas, which is tested by passing it
through soap solution to form bubbles.
●​ Observation: Bubbles form due to hydrogen gas.
Bringing a burning candle near the bubbles creates a ‘pop’
sound, confirming the presence of hydrogen gas.

2.1.2. Reaction of Metal Carbonates and Bicarbonates with Acids

-​ Acids react with metal carbonates or bicarbonates to produce salt, carbon dioxide gas, and water.
-​ Carbon dioxide gas produced turns lime water milky, confirming the reaction.
-​ The general reaction is: Metal carbonate/bicarbonate + Acid → Salt + CO₂ + Water
 Activity 2.4 & 2.5 - Acid Reaction with Sodium Carbonate and
Bicarbonate

●​ Explanation: Sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate react

with dilute HCl, producing carbon dioxide gas, which is then passed
through lime water.
●​ Observation: Lime water turns milky, confirming CO₂
production. This shows that acids react with carbonates and
bicarbonates to form salt, CO₂, and water.

2.1.3. Neutralization Reaction of Acids and Bases

-​ When an acid reacts with a base, it results in the formation of salt and water, which is known as a neutralization
reaction.
-​ For example, sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form sodium chloride and water.
-​ The general reaction is: Base + Acid → Salt + Water

Activity 2.6 - Phenolphthalein Color Change

●​ Explanation: NaOH solution with phenolphthalein turns pink. On adding HCl drop by drop, the pink color
disappears due to neutralization.
●​ Observation: The color change proves that an acid neutralizes a base, forming salt and water.

2.1.4. Reaction of Metallic Oxides with Acids

-​ Metal oxides, being basic in nature, react with acids to form salt and water, similar to bases.
-​ For instance, copper oxide reacts with hydrochloric acid to form copper chloride and water.
-​ The general reaction is: Metal Oxide + Acid → Salt + Water

Activity 2.7 - Copper Oxide Reaction

●​ Explanation: Copper oxide (a black solid) is added to dilute HCl. It dissolves, forming a blue-green solution of
copper(II) chloride.
●​ Observation: This shows metallic oxides are basic and react with acids to form salt and water.

2.1.5. Reaction of Non-metallic Oxides with Bases

-​ Non-metallic oxides like carbon dioxide are acidic in nature and react with bases to produce salt and water,
confirming their acidic nature.
-​ Carbon dioxide gas reacts with calcium hydroxide (lime water) to form calcium carbonate and water, proving
non-metallic oxides are acidic.

2.2. What is Common in All Acids and Bases?

-​ All acids generate hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water, which is responsible for their acidic properties.
-​ All bases produce hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in water, giving them their basic nature.
 -​ Only in aqueous solutions do acids and bases exhibit their
characteristic behavior because the presence of water allows the
formation of ions.

Activity 2.8 - Electric Current Flow Test

●​ Explanation: Dilute HCl and H₂SO₄ allow electric current to

pass through, lighting the bulb. Glucose and alcohol solutions do
not.
●​ Observation: Only acids in water produce ions (H⁺) that
conduct electricity. Glucose and alcohol contain hydrogen but do not
release ions.

2.2.1. Acid and Base in Water Solution

-​ Diluting an acid or base involves adding water, which
reduces the concentration of H⁺ or OH⁻ ions and decreases the
solution’s strength.
-​ The dilution process is highly exothermic, so acid
should always be added to water slowly and not the other
way around to avoid splashing and burns.

Activity 2.9 - Dry and Wet HCl Gas Test

●​ Explanation: Dry HCl gas does not change litmus

color, but when dissolved in water, it turns blue litmus red.
●​ Observation: Acids show their acidic properties
only in aqueous solutions because they produce H⁺ ions
in water.

Activity 2.10 - Exothermic Nature of Dilution

●​ Explanation: Adding concentrated H₂SO₄ or

NaOH to water increases the beaker's temperature.
●​ Observation: The process is highly exothermic;
hence, acids are always added to water slowly to prevent
accidents.

2.3. Strength of Acids and Bases (pH Scale)

-​ The strength of an acid or base is measured using the pH scale, which ranges from 0 to 14.
-​ A pH of 7 indicates a neutral solution, values less than 7 represent acidic solutions, and values greater than 7
represent basic or alkaline solutions.
-​ The pH of a solution can be tested using universal indicator paper, which shows different colors for different pH
values.

Activity 2.11 - pH Testing of Common Substances

●​ Explanation: Different solutions like lemon juice, saliva, tap water, etc., are tested using pH paper to find their
pH values.
●​ Observation: Substances with pH less than 7 are acidic, pH 7 is neutral, and pH greater than 7 is basic.
2.3.1. Importance of pH in Daily Life
-​ Human body functions within a narrow pH range of 7.0 to 7.8; any deviation can affect health.
-​ Acid rain, with a pH below 5.6, harms aquatic life and plants by decreasing the pH of water bodies and soil.
-​ The pH level in the mouth below 5.5 leads to tooth decay as acids produced by bacteria damage the tooth
enamel.
-​ During indigestion, excess hydrochloric acid is produced in the stomach, causing discomfort, which is relieved
by antacids like magnesium hydroxide that neutralize the acid.
-​ Substances like baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) are used to neutralize excess acids in cases like bee stings
or stomach acidity.
-​ Tooth decay happens if mouth pH drops below 5.5 due to bacterial acid production.
-​ Antacids like magnesium hydroxide neutralize excess stomach acid.
-​ Bee stings inject methanoic acid, relieved by applying a mild base like baking soda.

2.4. More About Salts

-​ Salts are formed by the neutralization reaction between an acid and a base and can be neutral, acidic, or basic
based on their parent acid and base.
-​ Salts like sodium chloride (common salt) are neutral, while salts from strong acids and weak bases are acidic,
and salts from weak acids and strong bases are basic.

2.4.1. Families of Salts

Activity 2.13

●​ Explanation: By writing the formula of salts like sodium chloride, copper sulfate, etc., we classify them into
families based on common ions.
●​ Observation: Salts with the same positive or negative radicals belong to the same family.
2.4.2. pH of Salts

Activity 2.14

●​ Explanation: Different salts are tested for pH to determine whether they are neutral, acidic, or basic.
●​ Observation: Salts from strong acids and strong bases are neutral, while those from strong acid + weak base
are acidic, and strong base + weak acid are basic.

2.4.3. Chemicals from Common Salt

1.​ Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) is obtained by electrolysis of brine in the chlor-alkali process.

2.​ Bleaching Powder (CaOCl₂) is made by reacting chlorine with dry slaked lime and is used for water purification
and bleaching.
3.​ Baking Soda (NaHCO₃) is used in baking, fire extinguishers, and as an antacid. On heating, it releases CO₂,
making dough rise.
4.​ Washing Soda (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O) is used in cleaning, softening water, and in industries like glass and soap
manufacturing.

2.5 Water of Crystallization

-​ Some salts contain a fixed number of water molecules, called water of crystallization, which gives them their
crystalline shape and color.
-​ For example, blue copper sulphate (CuSO₄·5H₂O) loses water and turns white when heated but regains color
when water is added again.
-​ Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) on heating loses water and forms Plaster of Paris (CaSO₄·½H₂O), which is used in
making casts, toys, and decorative items.
 Activity 2.15

●​ Explanation: Heating blue copper sulfate crystals turns them

white as water of crystallization is lost. Adding water restores the blue
color.
●​ Observation: Water of crystallization gives color and
crystalline structure to certain salts.

Summary
●​ Acids and bases have distinct properties and indicators help in detecting them.
●​ Chemical reactions of acids and bases involve gas evolution, formation of salt, water, and changes in color or
temperature.
●​ pH value helps in determining the strength of acids and bases and is crucial in biological and environmental
contexts.
●​ Common salts and their derivatives are essential for daily use and industrial purposes.
●​ Some salts contain water of crystallization, giving them unique properties like color and structure.