SESSION 2022-23

CLASS X
SCIENCE SIMPLE NOTES

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

1) Chemical Reactions:

a) The chemical reactions are the processes in which new substances with new properties are formed.
b) The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called Reactants.
c) The substances which are produced as a result of chemical reaction are called Products.

2) Characteristics of Chemical Reactions:

a) Evolution of Gas: Some chemical reactions are characterized by the evolution of a gas.
E.g 2Zn + 2HCl —--> 2ZnCl2 + H2
b) Formation of Precipitate: Insoluble substance formed after a chemical reaction in colloidal state.

Pb(NO3) + 2KI—>2KNO3 + PbI2

Yellow PPt

c) Change in Colour: Decomposition of Lead nitrate gives a yellow colour compound of Lead oxide
and brown fumes of Nitrogen gas along with Oxygen gas.

d) Change in Temperature:
(i) Endothermic (Absorption of heat)
(ii) Exothermic (Evolution of heat)

e) Change in state: Solid magnesium ribbon burns to change into ashes of magnesium oxide.

3) Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction: The rate of a chemical reaction depends on the following
factors:

a) Concentration of reactants
b) Temperature
c) Catalyst
d) Physical nature of reactants
e) Chemical nature of reactants

4) Chemical Equation: “It is the method of representing a chemical reaction with the help of symbols
and formulae of the substances involved in it.”

Zn + H2SO4---->ZnSO4 + H2

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It is an easy method to represent chemical reactions.
a) Types:
(i) Balanced: Equal no. Of atoms of elements in reactant and product.
(ii) Unbalanced: Unequal no. Of atoms of different elements in reactant and product.

5) Types of Chemical Reactions:

a) EXOTHERMIC: The reaction in which heat energy is released.

2NO (g)

b) ENDOTHERMIC: The reaction in which energy is absorbed

c) PHOTOCHEMICAL: Those chemical reactions, which take place in the presence of light, are called
photochemical reactions. For example, Methane and chlorine react in the presence of sunlight to
form chloromethane and hydrogen chloride. So, the reaction of methane with chlorine is a
photochemical reactions.

d) COMBINATION REACTIONS OR SYNTHESIS REACTIONS: In which two or more substances

combine to form a single substance.

e) DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS: In which a compound splits up into two or more simpler

substances. It is the opposite of a combination reaction.
(i) Thermal Decomposition: When decomposition is carried out by heating.
Eg: Heating of Ferrous sulphate to form iron oxide with sulphur di oxide and sulphur
trioxide.
Heating of Lead nitrate forms lead oxide with brown ffumed nitrogen gas and oxygen gas

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 (ii) Decomposition by Electricity: Electrolysis of Water: Fix glass bottle in the inverted position
on the stand. A rubber cork having holes is fitted in the neck of the bottle. Two carbon
electrodes fixed in these two holes fill 2/3rd of the bottle with H2O & few drops of H2SO4 in
water. Two test tubes filled with water are carefully inverted over the two carbon electrodes;
connect outer ends of carbon rods to the two terminals of 6 volt. Right side carbon electrode
connected to positive terminal & left side to negative terminal. Pass the electric current. You
will see bubbles of gas after some time. These gas bubbles are formed due to decomposition
of H2O.
(iii) Photolytic Decomposition: When decomposition of a compound takes place in presence of
light.
Eg: Decomposition of Silver chloride and Silver bromide in presence of sunlight to form
silver and chlorine or silver and bromine.
(iv) The digestion of food in the human body is an example of decomposition reaction.

f) DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS: Those reactions in which one element takes place of another
element in a compound. More reactive will displace less reactive. E.g.,

g) DOUBLE-DISPLACEMENT REACTION: Those reactions in which two compounds react by an

exchange of ions to form two new compounds.

h) OXIDATION & REDUCTION REACTIONS:

(i) Oxidation: Addition of Oxygen to a substance OR removal of Hydrogen from a substance.
(ii) Reduction: Removal of Oxygen from a substance OR addition of Hydrogen to a substance.
(iii) Oxidising Agent: The substance, which gives oxygen for oxidation OR the substance, which
removes hydrogen.
(iv) Reducing Agent: The substance, which gives hydrogen for reduction OR the substance,
which removes oxygen.

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

1) INDICATORS:
a) Natural indicators are turmeric, red cabbage leaves, coloured petals of some flowers like Hydrangea,
petunia and Geranium and litmus dye.
b) Synthetic indicators are methyl orange, phenolphthalein and bromothymol blue.

NOTE: Some indicators change the odour of the substances to show if it is an acid or a base, such
substances are called OLFACTORY INDICATORS. Eg. Onion and Vanilla extract. Onion smell
vanishes when comes in contact with acids and similarly vanilla essence fragrance vanishes when
comes in contact with acids.

2) What is an ACID?
a) An acid has a pH less than 7. If an acid has pH 2 and another has pH 6, than first acid is a strong acid
and later one is a weaker acid.
b) They neutralize bases and form salts and water.

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 c) Acids always release H+ ions in a solution. Thus they are able to show their acidic property only
when they are in liquid or solution state and not in dry state.
d) Acids are corrosive in nature and react with most metals to form hydrogen gas. The presence of
hydrogen gas can be verified by the pop up sound when burning match stick is brought near it.
e) Acids are good conductors of electricity as they are able to release ions in solution state and thus
with movement of ions flow of electrons becomes easy and thus electricity can flow easily through
acids.
f) Acids turn blue litmus red.
g) Weak Acids do not ionize completely: Acetic, Boric, Nitrous, Phosphoric, Sulphurous
h) Strong Acids ionize completely: Hydrochloric, Nitric; Sulphuric acid

Uses of acids: -
HCl in stomach, H2SO4 in car batteries, as drying agent, HNO3 in manufacturing of fertilizers, Ethanoic acid
in food industry, Fatty acids in soap making, Ascorbic acid in medicine

3) Reaction of Acids
a) With metals: Metals above copper in the reactivity series will react with acids, giving off hydrogen
gas, forming a salt.
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

b) With bases (metal oxides and hydroxides): The base dissolves in the acid and neutralises it. A salt is
formed.

H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) → CuSO4 + H2O

c) With metal carbonates: With metal carbonates, effervescence occurs, salt, water and carbon dioxide
gas is produced.

2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s) → CaCl2(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

d) With metal Hydrogen Carbonates:

Na₂CO₃ + 2 HCl → 2 NaCl + H₂O + CO₂

NaHCO₃ + HCl → NaCl + H₂O + CO2

e) With Metallic Oxides: Metal oxide + acid → salt + water

Na2O + HCl → NaCl + H2O

4) What is a base?
a) Bases react with fats to form soap and glycerol. This process is called saponification.
b) Bases have a pH of more than 7. If a base has pH 8 and another base has pH 14 than a base having
pH 14 is a stronger base and the base with pH 8 is a weaker base.
c) Bases turn phenolphthalein PINK, litmus BLUE and bromthymol blue BLUE and red litmus blue.
d) Bases neutralize acids and form water ad salt. This reaction is also called as neutralization reaction.
e) Bases are formed when alkali metals or alkaline earth metals react with water. The words “alkali”
and “alkaline” mean “basic”, as opposed to “acidic”.

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 f) Alkali's are used to produce the insoluble hydroxide precipitates of many metal ions from their
soluble salt solutions.
2NaOH(aq) + CuSO4(aq) ==> Na2SO4(aq) + Cu(OH)2(s)
g) This reaction can be used as a simple test to help identify certain metal ions.

5) Neutralization reaction:

a) This reaction is highly exothermic.

b) The acid must be added to water very slowly with continuous stirring because if we do so then heat
generated may lead to splashing out of mixture and cause burning or breaking of apparatus.

6) What is a salt: -
a) A salt is a neutral substance produced from the reaction of an acid and a base.
b) Composed of the negative ion of an acid and the positive ion of a base.
c) One of the products of a Neutralization Reaction. Examples: KCl, MgSO4, Na3PO4

Uses of neautralization reaction

Insect Stings: Bee stings are acidic and can be neutralised with baking soda (bicarbonate of soda). Wasp
stings are alkaline and can be neutralised with vinegar.

Indigestion: Our stomach carries hydrochloric acid. Too much of this leads to indigestion. To cure
indigestion, we can neutralise the excess acid with baking soda or specialised indigestion tablets like Digene
and Eno.

Soil Treatment: When soils are too acidic (often as a result of acid rain) they can be treated with slaked lime,
chalk or quicklime, all alkalis. Plants and crops grow best in neutral soils.

7) What is pH?
a) Universal indicator shows different colour for different concentration of hydrogen ion in a solution.
An acid gives pink colour whereas a base gives blue colour with pH paper.
b) A scale used for measuring H ⁺ concentration in a solution is called pH Scale.
c) In this scale “p” stands for potenz meaning power and “H” stands for H ⁺ concentration.
d) It ranges from 0-14. 0-7 very acidic, 7-14 very alkaline.
e) The salt with impurities is brown in colour and is called Rock Salt.

8) Some common salts:

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Common Chemic Formula Use Preparation Properties
name al name

Caustic Sodium NaOH Soaps and 2NaCl + 2H₂O Transparent salt

soda hydroxide Detergents →2NaOH + Cl₂ + H₂ Basic reactant for
Rayon many compound
preparation formation
Manufacture of
paper
Purifying bauxite
ore
Degreasing metal,
dyes
Baking Sodium NaHCO₃ Antacid NaCl + NH₃ + H₂O + White crystals
soda bicarbonate Making of baking CO₂ → NaHCO₃ + Insoluble in water
powder HCl Mild, non
Fire extinguishers corrosive base
Gives CO₂ when
heated

Washing Sodium Na₂CO₃.xH₂O Cleansing agent NaHCO₃ → Na₂CO₃ Transparent

soda carbonate Removing + CO₂ + H₂O crystalline solid
hardness of water. Na₂CO₃ + 10H₂O → Soluble in water
Manufacture of Washing soda It also has
glass, soap and Na₂CO₃ is called detergent
paper soda ash. properties.
Borax formation When heated it
gets dehydrated to
form soda ash
Bleaching Calcium CaOCl₂ Bleaching cotton Ca (OH)₂ + Cl₂ → White powder
powder oxychloride and linen CaOCl₂ + H₂O Soluble in cold
Disinfecting water.
water Reacts with dil
Manufacture of acids to give Cl.
CHCl₃ Strong smell of
Wool chlorine
unshrinkable

Plaster of Calcium CaSO₄.½H₂O Setting fractured CaSO₄. ½H₂O +1 White powder

paris sulphate bones ½H₂O Set into a hard
hemihydrate Toys, decoratives →CaSO₄.2H2O mass on wetting
Fire proofing with water.
material
Walls and ceilings

9) Water of crystallisation: is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula unit of salt in
crystalline form.

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 METALS AND NON METALS
1) Metals are electropositive elements. They are present on left hand side of periodic table. They tend to
give electrons ad become positively charged.
2) Non- metals are electronegative elements. They are placed on right hand side of the periodic table. They
have love for electrons and are negatively charged.

METALS NON-METALS

Are generally solid, EXCEPT mercury Generally solid, liquid and gas.
High melting and boiling point, EXCEPT Low melting and boiling point.
Gallium and Caesium.
Good conductor of heat and electricity. Bad conductor of heat and electricity. EXCEPT
EXCEPT Lead and Mercury GRAPHITE.
Electropositive, give electrons Electronegative, take electrons
Are malleable, ductile and sonorous Are not malleable, non-ductile and non-
sonorous
Have shiny surface. i.e metallic luster Do not shine. EXCEPT Iodine
Metals are hard. Are soft EXCEPT DIAMOND
3) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS:
a) Metals react with oxygen to form their oxides. For eg. Cu + O₂ → CuO, Copper reacts with oxygen
to form copper oxide and Na + O₂ →2Na₂ O. sodium reacts with oxygen to form sodium oxide.
b) Basic oxides are the metal oxides which react with water to form bases.

Amphoteric oxides are the metal oxides which show both acidic and basic properties. These oxides
react with acid to form water and react with base also to form water and salt. Examples of
amphoteric oxide are Zinc oxide and Aluminium oxide.

c) Metals like potassium [K] and sodium [Na] react with oxygen very fast and with a lot of heat
released.
d) Metals like iron[Fe], copper[Cu] react with oxygen to form oxides of iron and copper respectively.
e) Silver [Ag] and gold[Au] do not react with oxygen.

Self protecting metals are the metals which react with oxygen and form a protective layer of oxygen
around them and stop further reaction. Eg. Mg [magnesium], Al[aluminium], Zn[zinc].

f) Sodium[Na] and potassium[K] react very fast with water with lot of heat liberated.
g) Magnesium [Mg] reacts with hot water to form hydroxide and hydrogen.
h) Al, Fe and Zn react with hot steam to form oxide and hydrogen.
i) Metals like lead[Pb], copper[Cu], gold[Au] and silver[Ag] do not react with water.

Aqua Regia is a freshly prepared mixture of concentrated HCl and HNO₃ in the raio 3:1. It can also
dissolve gold and platinum even though neither of these acids can do that alone. Aqua regia is highly
corrosive and fumic liquid. Thieves and jewelers with wrong intentions use aqua regia to dissolve gold
from gold jewellery.

j) Metals react with dil. HCl [Hydrochloric acid] to give chloride salt of metal and hydrogen.

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 k) Metals react with HNO₃ [nitric acid] to give water and nitrous salt of metal as nitric acid is a strong
oxidizing agent.
l) Metals react with meal salt solution following the reactivity series. It also follows the rules of Single
displacement reaction. A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal but a less reactive
metal cannot displace a more reactive metal.

4) The reactive series is as follows:

5) Electron Dot Structure of NaCl:

Sodium has 1 electron in its outermost shell and chlorine has 7electrons in its outermost shell. Therefore,
chlorine need 1 electron to complete its valence shell and sodium has 1 electron extra. So sodium gives its 1
electron and becomes electropositive and chlorine by taking 1 electron becomes electronegative. This giving
and taking of electrons for bond formation is called ionic bond and compound thus formed are called as
Ionic Compounds.

6) Ionic Compounds And Their Properties:

a) Ionic compounds have very strong bonds and so have high melting and boiling points.
b) Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity in solution as they have charge ions. Charged
ions are necessary for the flow of electrons and thus the flow of electricity.
c) Ionic compounds are normally crystalline and are soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol and
kerosene.
7) Occurrence Of Metals:
a) Branch of science that deals with extraction of metals from their ores is called METALLURGY.
b) Ores are the minerals from which a metal can be extracted profitably.
c) All ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
d) Example of ores:
i) Bauxite is an ore of aluminium.
ii) Haematite is an iron ore.
iii) Cinnabar is ore of mercury
iv) Copper pyrite is an ore of copper.

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8) Extraction Of Metals:
a) Metals are extracted in 3 processes
i) Concentration of ore
ii) Reduction of ore
iii) Refining of ore

Concentration of ore means removal of impurities [gangue] from ore. This is done by two processes: -

CALCINATION ROASTING
Is heating of ores in absence of oxygen Is heating of ore in presence of oxygen.
This is done for carbonate ores. This is done for sulphide ores.
Example: CaCO₃ Example: CuFeS₂

b) Metal with medium reactivity undergo these processes for concentration of ore. Through this oxide
of metal ore is obtained.
c) After this process, the ore undergoes reduction. In the reduction process, ore is reduced in a blast
furnace or distillation process and is extracted in molten form with the liberation of waste gases in
the form of carbon di oxide and sulphur di oxide.
d) Metals with high and least reactivity are extracted by means of electrolysis. Example sodium and
mercury.
e) In electrolysis, a thin rod of pure metal is connected to negative terminal of a battery and the metal
solution [from which metal is to be extracted] is used as an electrolyte. When current passes through
this set up, then the pure metal gets deposited on the negative rod and that can be removed later and
used.

When metals are reacted with molten aluminium to obtain molten metal in pure form, then this
reaction is highly exothermic and is called as Thermit reactions. These reactions are of great
commercial importance as they are used in welding of railway tracks and iron rods in real life
conditions.

f) Refining of metal is done by electrolytic refining as discussed above for high reactive metals.

9) Corrosion: is the damage caused to metals when they come in contact of their surrounding environment
and form oxides and sulphides.

Corrosion can be avoided by:

a) Galvanisation: coating of molten Zn[ zinc] on the metal which avoid it contact with the surroundings.
b) Tinning: coating of tin on metals which does the same task.
c) Electroplating: coating of less reactive metal like chromium on metal rods so as to avoid the contact
of air and moisture.
d) Alloying: making alloys also enhances the efficiency of the metal working.

10) Alloys are the homogenous mixtures of metals and non metals in a fixed ratio so as to improve their
efficiency, durability and avoiding corrosion for a longer period of time.

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 CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
1) Versatile nature of carbon:
a) Size of carbon
b) Catenation: formation of bond between carbon itself.
c) Valency: Outermost orbit of carbon has 4 electrons. Thus it cannot undergo giving or taking of
electrons. It shares electrons.
2) Covalent bonding: sharing of electrons. Carbon undergoes sharing because it has 4 electrons in outer
most orbit.
a) Single bond: sharing of one pair of electrons. Eg- H2, CH4, C2H6
b) Double bond: sharing of two pair of electrons. Eg- CO2, O2, C2H4
c) Triple bond: sharing of three pair of electrons. Eg- N2, C2H2
3) Allotropes: Property of carbon to exist in nature in different physical states. Eg Diamond, Graphite and
Buckminster Fullerenes.
4) Hydrocarbons: Compounds of hydrogen and carbon

5) IUPAC Nomenclature:

No. Of Alkanes Cnh2n+2 Alkenes Cnh2n Alkynes Cnh2n-2

Carbon
Atoms
Molecular IUPAC Molecular IUPAC Molecular IUPAC
Formula Name Formula Name Formula Name
1 CH4 Methan
e
2 C2H6 Ethane C2H4 Ethene C2H2 Ethyne

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 3 C3H8 Propane C3H6 Propene C3H4 Propyne
4 C4H10 Butane C4H8 Butene C4H6 Butyne
5 C5H12 Pentane C5H10 Pentene C5H8 Pentyne
6 C6H14 Hexane C6H12 Hexene C6H10 Hexyne
7 C7H16 Heptane C7H14 Heptene C7H12 Heptyne
8 C8H18 Octane C8H16 Octene C8H14 Octyne
9 C9H20 Nonane C9H18 Nonene C9H16 Nonyne
10 C10H22 Decane C10H20 Decene C10H18 Decyne

6) Functional group:

Name Alcohol Aldehyd Ketone Carboxyl Halogen group

e ic acid

Extension -OH -CHO -C=O -C=O -F/Cl/Br/I

I
OH

Prefix/suff -ol -al -one -oic acid Fluro/Chloro/bromo/io

ix do

Example Methano Methanal Propanon Methanoi chloromethane

l e c acid

Formula CH3OH HCHO CH3COC HCOOH CH3F

of example H3

7) Homologous series: Series of hydrocarbons which are represented by a general formula having the same
chemical properties and different physical properties.
a) Differ by –CH2 unit
b) Molecular mass 14u is differing at every level
8) Isomerism: Similar in molecular formula but different in structural formula or arrangements having
different chemical and physical properties.
a) Butane:
(i) N- butane
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
(ii) Iso-butane
CH3-CH-CH3
I
CH3

b) Pentane:
(i) N-pentane

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 (ii) Iso-pentane

(iii) Neo-pentane

9) Chemical Reactions:

Name Of Reaction Use Conversion Catalyst/Oxidising

Reaction Agent/ Dehydrating
Agent
Combustion CH4 + O2 -----> CO2+H2O+ Fuel
Heat + Energy
Oxidation C2H5OH ------------> CH3COOH Formation of Alcohol to Alkaline KMnO4/
KMnO4+ heat ethanoic acid carboxylic acidified K2Cr2O7 acts
acid as oxidising agent
Addition CH2=CH2 ------> CH3-CH3 + H2 Formation of Conversion Nickel/ palladium
Reaction ghee from oil of vegetable acts as a catalyst
oil to ghee/
alkenes to
alkanes/
alkynes to
alkenes
Substitution CH4 +Cl2-------> CH3Cl + HCl Formation of
Reaction Sunlight chloroform,
carbon tetra
chloride

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NOTE:

● Animal fat is harmful for health as it generally contains saturated fatty acids. Oil containing
unsaturated fatty acids should be chosen for cooking.
● Difference between complete and incomplete combustion

Complete combustion Incomplete combustion

No residue Residue is left
Blue flame Yellow flame
Non-sooty flame Sooty flame
Occurs in saturated Occurs in unsaturated
hydrocarbons hydrocarbons
Utensils turn black from bottom occasionally due to incomplete combustion, when the gas burners get
blocked and oxygen supply is affected.

10)Ethanol:

Formula C2H5OH

Physical Soluble in water

property MP= 156K
BP=351K
Pungent in smell
Liquid at room
temperature

Chemical Reaction with sodium: C2H5OH + Na—> CH3CH2ONa + H2

property

Dehydration reaction C2H5OH-------------------CH2=CH2 Sulphuric

+H2O acid is the
ΔConc. H2SO4 dehydrating
[443K] agent which
removes
Use: Commercial preparation of water from
alkene from alcohol alcohol

Use: Making alcoholic beverages, Cough syrups, as fuel component

Note: Its used in making fuel from sugarcane by fermentation

11) Ethanoic Acid:

Formula CH3COOH

Physical Property Soluble in water in all

proportions

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 MP=290 K
BP=391 K
Pungent in smell
Liquid at room
temperature
Sour in taste

Chemical Property Esterification: Dil. H2SO4 Formation

C2H5OH + CH3COOH -------------> of
CH3CH2COOCH3 + H2O esters[swee
t smelling
substances]

Saponification: NaOH/HCl Formation

making of soaps CH3CH2COOCH3 ------------------> of soap
CH3COONa + C2H5OH

Note: esterification is opposite of

saponification

Reaction with Sodium CH3CH2COOH +NaOH -----------> Formation

hydroxide CH3COONa + H2O of Sodium
acetate

Reaction with Sodium 2CH3COOH +Na2CO3 ------------>

Carbonate and Bi 2CH3COONa + H2O +CO2
Carbonate
CH3COOH +NaHCO3 -------------->
CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

Use: Making Vinegar, Acts As A Preservative

Note: Other Name Is Acetic Acid. In Freezed State It Is Called As Glacial Acetic Acid. Often
Freezes At a Temperature Of 290K Or 17⁰C.

12)Micelle formation: CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAP- Soap molecule forms a structure called micelle
containing ionic end of sodium salt and non-polar end of fatty acid or long chain of carboxylic acid. Ionic
end is polar end[water loving] and tail end is non polar [water repelling]in nature. In the centre, tail end
sticks to the mud or grease particle and polar end or head dissolves in water to form lather. This structure
is called micelle. A colloid is formed, thus cleansing the cloth.

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 Dip Cloth in water

13) Soaps and detergents

Soap Detergents

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Sodium and potassium salts of long chain of carboxylic acids Sulphonate or ammonium salts of long
chain of carboxylic acids.

Natural cleansing agents Artificial cleansing agents

Dissolve in soft water only to form lather Dissolves in soft as well as hard water to
give lather

Forms scum [precipitated layer/ insoluble salt of calcium or No scum formation

magnesium ions ] in hard water

14) Soft and hard water:

Soft water Hard water

Forms lather with soap Do not form lather with soap

Excellent cleansing Low cleansing action

action

No scum formation Scum formation

No hardness Hardness is due to magnesium and/or calcium

salts

Distilled water Ocean water

LIFE PROCESSES
1) Life Processes: - Processes involved for maintaining a healthy life.
2) NUTRITION:
AUTOTROPHIC HETEROTROPHIC

Synthesis of food by sunlight, water, carbon di Depends on autotrophs and heterotrophs for their
oxide food requirement.
Organic food is formed, digestion doesn’t take Complex to simpler form, digestion takes place
place
Chlorophyll is necessary Not necessary
No further division Divided into:
Saprophytic: depends on dead and decaying
matter- moulds, mushrooms
Symbiotic: Lives in association/ mutual
benefit-algae and fungi

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 Parasitic: Derive nutrition form the body of
host- tapeworm
Insectivorous: - Venus flytrap
Holozoic: whole food is taken and digested step
by step- human beings

Plants, bacteria, algae Human beings, animals

3) Nutrition In plants:
a) Photosynthesis:
(i) Site: grana of chloroplast
(ii) Equation: 12H2O + 6CO2 ----------------------------> C6H12O6 + O2 + H2O + Energy
(iii) Mechanism:
1. Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
2. Conversion of photonic energy into chemical energy.
3. Photolysis of water: break down of water into H+ and O- ions.
4. Oxygen released during photosynthesis is derived from water and not carbon di oxide.
5. Reduction of carbon di oxide to carbohydrates.
6. The compound formed is starch.
7. Essential requirements for photosynthesis are carbon di oxide, water, sunlight and chlorophyll.
(iv)Factors on which rate of photosynthesis depends: Intensity of light, carbon di oxide, water.
b) Mechanism of opening and closing of stomata:
(i) Root hairs undergo endosmosis which creates a transpiration pull too conduct water and
minerals.
(ii) A pressure is created by intake of potassium ions by guard cells and the cells become turgid and
vice versa.
4) Human Digestive System

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Page 18
NOTE: Dental Caries causes softening of enamel and dentine and deposition of plaque. Masses of
bacterial cells together with food particles stick to the teeth to form dental plaque.

5) Respiration:
a) During respiration, the digested food materials are broken down to release energy in the form of ATP.
b) Depending on the requirement of oxygen, respiration may be
(i) Aerobic - occurring in presence of oxygen. More amount of ATP`s are formed.
(ii) Anaerobic – occurring in absence of oxygen. Less amount of ATP`s are formed.
c) The end-products are lactic acid or ethanol + CO2, in anaerobic respiration or CO2 and water in
aerobic respiration. Large amount of energy is released in aerobic respiration as compared to
anaerobic respiration.
d) Plants release CO2 at night and oxygen during the day.
e) Terrestrial organisms use atmospheric oxygen for respiration whereas aquatic organisms use the
dissolved oxygen in water.
f) In humans, air takes the following path on entering the nostrils.
Nostrils  Nasal passage  Pharynx  Larynx  Trachea  Bronchus  Bronchiole  Alveolus.
g) The alveoli of lungs are richly supplied with blood and are the sites where exchange of gases (O2 and
CO2) occurs between blood and atmosphere.
h) In humans, the respiratory pigment haemoglobin, carry oxygen from lungs to different tissues of the
body.

6) Circulation/ Transportation:
a) In humans, the circulatory system transports various materials throughout the body and is composed
of the heart, blood and blood vessels.
b) Human heart has 4 chambers – 2 atria (right and left) and 2 ventricles (right and left). Right half of
the heart receives deoxygenated blood whereas the left half receives oxygenated blood.
c) Ventricular walls are much thicker than atrial walls.
d) Arteries carry blood from heart to different parts of the body whereas veins deliver the blood back to
the heart. Arteries are connected to veins by thin capillaries, wherein materials are exchanged
between blood and cells.
e) Humans show double circulation and complete separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
f) Blood platelets are essential for clotting of blood at the place of injury and thus preventing blood
loss.
g) Lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph nodes, lymphatic capillaries and lymph vessels which
drain into larger veins. Lymph is also important in the process of transportation.
h) In plants, water is transported through the xylem tissue, from roots to the aerial parts of the plant.
Root pressure and transpiration pull are the major forces involved in pulling water up the xylem.
i) Translocation of food is carried out through phloem tissue from leaves and storage organs to other
parts of the plant. This process requires energy from ATP.
7) Excretion:
a) During excretion, the harmful metabolic nitrogenous wastes generated are removed from the body.
b) In humans, a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary bladder and urethra constitutes the excretory
system.
c) Nephrons are the basic filtration units of kidneys. They carry out filtration, selective reabsorption and
tubular secretion to form urine in kidney, which is then passed out through the urethra, via the ureters
and urinary bladder.
d) Plants do not have an excretory system and carries out excretion in various ways like transpiration,
releasing wastes into surrounding soil, losing the leaves and storing in cell vacuoles and in old
xylem.

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Compare the functioning of alveoli in the lungs and nephrons in the kidneys with respect to their
structure and functioning.
Answer:

CONTROL AND COORDINATION

1) The change in the environment to which the organism responds is called the STIMULI.
2) The response to the stimulus is usually in the form of some movement of their body part. For eg,
Folding of leaves of Mimosa Plant, sunflower always turns towards sunlight.
3) In animals, such actions are controlled by nervous and muscular tissues. A system made up of nerve
cells is called NERVOUS SYSTEM.
4) A RECEPTOR is a cell or tissue in a sense organ which is sensitive to a particular type of stimulus
such a light, sound, smell, taste, heat, pressure, etc.
5) An EFFECTOR is a muscle or a gland which can respond according to the instructions sent form the
nervous system [spinal cord and brain].
6) All sensory organs like eyes [photoreceptor], ears [phono receptor], nose [olfactory receptor], skin
[thermo receptors] and tongue [gustatory receptors] are receptors. Whereas all muscles and glands
which respond to stimulus provided at these ends act as effectors. For eg, If eyes receive bright light
then eyes retina acts as a receptor and eyes pupil will tend to squeeze then pupil acts as an effector.
7) Reflex actions are the actions that we do without thinking to protect ourselves.
8) The pathway or route taken by nerve impulses in reflex action is known as REFLEX ARC.
9) Pathway of reflex arc: -
a) Heat is sensed by the heat receptor in our hand.
b) The receptor triggers an impulse in a Sensory Neuron.
c) Sensory neuron transmits the message to the spinal cord.
d) Now the impulse is passed on to the Relay Neuron.
e) Relay neuron passes the message to Motor Neuron.
f) The Motor Neuron passes the impulse to a muscle in our arm.
g) The muscle than contracts and pulls our hand away from the hot iron plate.
h) The muscle of arm is an Effector because it responds to the stimulus.
i) The reflexes of this type which involves only the spinal cord are called spinal reflexes.
Working of effectors: -
1) Muscles are made up of muscle cells.
2) Muscle cells have special proteins which can change their arrangement when stimulated by an
electrical impulses, causing the muscle cells to change shape and contract.
3) When cells contract, muscles also contract and become shorter.
4) When muscles contract, they pull on the bones of the body part and make it move.

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 5) For eg, when electrical impulse sent by the spinal cord [brain] stimulates the bicep muscle of the
upper arm, the make biceps muscle o contract resulting in pulling on a bone of the lower arm and
make it move.
6) This is a reversible reaction.
7) Autonomic Nervous system [ANS] is the system which works on its own and we have no control
over these actions of our body. This is also called as Involuntary Nervous System. Like breathing,
heartbeat, sweating, digestion, etc. It is also called as the Self Governing Nervous System.
8) The Voluntary Nervous System [VNS] helps us take voluntary actions which are under the conscious
control of brain.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM [CNS]
BRAIN: It is located inside skull. It is protected by a bony box in the skull called the CRANIUM. Brain is
surrounded by three membranes called MENINGES. The space between meninges is filled with a cerebro
spinal fluid which protects brain from mechanical shocks. Pairs of cranial nerves arise from the brain.
FOREBRAIN:
CEREBRUM: Voluntary actions, experiences are stored here. Has 6 lobes namely:
1) Frontal lobe: problem solving
2) Motor Cortex: movement
3) Sensory cortex: sensations
4) Parietal Lobe: calculations and spelling
5) Occipital Lobe: vision
6) Temporal Lobe: memory and understanding
MID BRAIN: Auditory and visual stimuli are responded here. Also controls eye muscles , change in size of
pupil and shape of eye lens.
HINDBRAIN:
1) CEREBELLUM: body posture and body movement.
2) PONS: helps in regulating respiratory system
3) MEDULLA OBLONGATA: involuntary actions like breathing, swallowing, vomiting, sneezing,
coughing, salivation, etc.
SPINAL CHORD: It is a cylindrical structure. Begins with medulla and extends downwards. It is enclosed
in bony cage called Vertebral Column. 31 pair of nerves arise from it. They are responsible for spinal reflex
action and conduction of nerve impulse from and to brain. Spinal cord is also surrounded by meninges.
PLANT MOVEMENTS:
TROPIC: Directional response to stimulus,which is growth dependent.
1) Phototropism: Leaves of plant always grow towards light showing positive phototropism but roots
always grow away from light showing negative phototropism.
2) Hydrotropism: movement of plant towards water [positive hydrotropism] and away from water
[negative hydrotropism]
3) Chemotropism: movement of plant towards specific chemical [positive chemotropism] and away
from specific chemical [negative chemotropism]
4) Geotropism: movement of plant towards gravity [positive geotropism] and away from gravity
[negative geotropism]
5) Thigmotropism: movement of plant towards any physical stimulus [positive thigmotropism] and
away from any physical stimulus [negative thigmotropism]

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NASTIC: Non- Directional response to stimulus:Example-
Thigmonastic Movement:Touch-me not(Mimosa Pudica)
PLANT HORMONES:

Human Hormones:
Characteristics of hormones: -
1) They are secreted by endocrine glands in small amounts.
2) They are poured directly in blood and are carried throughout by circulatory system.
3) They effect regions away from where they are produced and thus are also said as Messengers.
4) Hormones act on target organs only.
5) They help in coordination and growth.
Pituitary gland:
1) Growth hormone: This hormone promotes growth in childhood. For adults, it helps to maintain
healthy muscle and bone mass.
2) Prolactin: In women, it stimulates milk production. In males, low levels are linked to sexual
problems; however, most males make no use of the hormone.
3) Adrenocorticotropic: This hormone promotes the production of cortisol, which helps to reduce stress,
maintain healthy blood pressure and more.
4) Thyroid-stimulating hormone: Just as the name implies, this hormone helps to regulate the body's
thyroid, which is crucial in maintaining a healthy metabolism.
5) Luteinizing hormone: In women, this hormone regulates estrogen. In men, it regulates testosterone.
6) Follicle-stimulating hormone: Found in both men and women. It stimulates the releasing of eggs in
women and helps ensure the normal function of sperm production in men.
7) The back part of the pituitary gland is called the posterior pituitary. It produces the following two
hormones:
8) Oxytocin: This hormone causes pregnant women to start having contractions at the appropriate time
and also promotes milk flow in nursing mothers.
9) Antidiuretic hormone: Commonly referred to as vasopressin, this hormone helps to regulate water
balance in the body.
10) When the pituitary gland doesn't operate in a healthy manner, this can lead to pituitary disorders.
11) Hypothalamus: Thyrotrophic-releasing hormone, Growth hormone-releasing hormone,
Corticotrophin-releasing hormone, Gonadotropin-releasing hormone.
Thymus: This gland secretes hormones that are commonly referred to as humoral factors and are important
during puberty. The role of these hormones is to make sure a person develops a healthy immune system.

Page 22
Pineal: The pineal gland releases melatonin, which helps the body recognize when it is time to go to sleep.
Researchers continue to learn more about this gland.
Testes: Found in men, this gland produces testosterone, which promotes the growth of the penis as a male
gets older as well as facial and body hair. It also deepens the voice of a male at a certain age. Other functions
of testosterone include:
1. Maintaining sex drive
2. Promoting production of sperm
3. Maintaining healthy levels of muscle and bone mass.
Ovary: Found in women, this gland produces both estrogen and progesterone, which promote the
development of breasts. They also help a woman maintain healthy menstrual periods.
Thyroid: Found in both women and men, the thyroid controls a person's metabolism. It is located in the
front of the neck.
Adrenal Gland:
1. Promoting proper cardiovascular function
2. Properly utilizing carbohydrates and fats
3. Helps distribute stored fat
4. Promotes healthy gastrointestinal functions
Parathyroid Gland: This gland is vital to proper bone development because it helps control both calcium
and phosphorous levels in the body. The parathyroid gland is actually a group of four small glands located
behind the thyroid gland.
Pancreas: The main function of the pancreas is to maintain healthy blood sugar levels. It is a large gland
located behind the stomach.
HOW DO ORGANISMS REPRODUCE?
1) DNA copying mechanism- It involves continuation of characters from the parents to daughter cells
by Copying of DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules present in the chromosomes of the cell.
Copying of DNAs is also not a fool proof exercise even minute changes bring about Variation in the
blue print of the offspring’s. It serves as the genetic material for all living organisms. DNA provides
instructions for building and maintaining your unique body and can be passed on if you have
children. Asexual reproduction involves a single parent and is hence not ideal for facilitating
variations. Some minor variations do occur due to inaccuracies in DNA copying also called mutation.
But the quantum of variations would be too little and would take too many years to show effect.
Sexual reproduction, on the other hand, is ideal for facilitating variations because two parents are
involved in it. The offspring’s genotype is contributed by both parents and hence chances of
variations are very high.
2) Asexual modes of reproduction in organisms

Mode of Explanation Example Diagram

reproduction

Binary fission Splitting into two daughter Amoeba, Yes

nuclei paramecium

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 Multiple Splitting into many daughter Plasmodium- causes Yes
fission nuclei malaria

Lateral binary Splitting into two daughter Leishmania- causes

fission nuclei by dividing laterally kala azar or black
fever

Fragmentation Dividing by making Spirogyra,

fragments oscillatoria

Budding By forming small outgrowth Hydra, yeast Yes

called bud [multiple buds]

Regeneration Growing of full organisms Star fish, planaria Yes

from a part of a body. Due to
the presence of specialised
cells called regenerative cells

Spore Formation of spores for Fungus, rhizopus, Yes

formation resisting unfavourable bread mould,
conditions in protective coat mushrooms, ferns
called spores

3) Vegetative Propagation: Development of new individual plant from any vegetative part like root,
shoot, leaf, buds, bulbs, etc through layering [jasmine], cutting [rose and sugarcane], grafting[mango,
rose], leaf [bryophyllum], roots [potato], tuber [rhizome of ginger and garlic].

Benefits of vegetative propagation over asexual reproduction

a) Plants can bear flowers, fruits earlier than those produced from seeds.
b) Growing Banana, orange, rose, jasmine that have lost the capacity to produce seeds.
c) Genetical similarity is maintained in the plants. eg. Sugarcane, rose, grapes by layering or grafting.

4) Sexual reproduction: Mode of reproduction which involves two parents. Variation and Evolution are
two advantages of this mode of reproduction over asexual mode.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants:

5) Pollination: Transfer of pollens from anther to stigma. If on same flower- self-pollination and if on
different flowers – cross pollination
6) Unisexual and bisexual flowers-

Unisexual Flowers Bisexual Flowers

Single parent Both parents on same flower
Undergoes only cross pollination Can undergo self as well as cross pollination
Papaya, banana Rose, petunia, china rose

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 7) Fertilisation: Fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote.
8) Fertilization in Flower: After pollination, pollen tube is formed which allows smooth passage of male
gamete to the mouth of the ovary where the female germ cells fuse with the male nuclei to form a
zygote. This zygote after fertilization forms seed. This seed after germination develops into new plant.
Fertilised ovary develops into fruit.
9) Germination: Development of new plant from seed in favourable conditions in presence of water and
oxygen.
10) Flower parts and functions

Part of Function
flower

Sepal Holds petals whorl

Petal Attracts insects for

pollination

Anther Pollens are produced

Filament Helps in providing

nutrition to pollens in
anther

Style Passage for pollen tube to

be developed

Stigma Sticky surface on which

pollens come and attach.

Ovary Ovules are present here.

Site of fertilisation

Types of Fertilisation:

11) Internal fertilisation: When fusion takes place inside the organism`s body. Eg- Human Beings.
12) External Fertilisation: When fusion takes place outside the organisms body. Eg. Frog

Sexual reproduction in human beings:

13) MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

a) Testes: organ where sperms are produced. Temperature in scrotum is 2-3⁰C less than the normal
body temperature due to its location [outside abdominal cavity] which is essential for sperm
production. Testosterone regulates production of sperms in males.
b) Vas Deferens: tube which connects testes with urinary bladder. Gives passage for movement of
sperms.
c) Prostate gland and seminal vesicles: Both glands provide nutrition and liquidity to sperm for
movement.

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 d) Sperm: its body is divided into three parts
(i) Head: contains genetic material
(ii) Mid piece: possesses mitochondria, which is energy house of sperm.
(iii) Tail: it gives direction to sperm for its movement.

NOTE: Scrotum is located outside the abdominal cavity as temperatures there are 2 degrees less than
normal body temperature which is essential for production of sperms.

14) FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

a) Ovary: eggs are produced here. Progesterone hormone regulates egg production.
b) Oviduct/ fallopian tube: passage for egg to reach uterus
c) Uterus: site of fertilisation. Gametes [sperm and egg] are fused to form zygote
d) Cervix: vagina is connected to uterus through cervix.
e) Vagina: entrance passage for sperm in female body.
15) Menstruation: monthly cycle in females to release unfertilised egg along with the uterus lining.
16) The embryo gets nutrition from the mother's blood with the help of a special disc shaped tissue called
PLACENTA. It provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen to pass from the mother to the
embryo. Similarly the wastes from developing embryo are removed to mother's blood through placenta.
17) The child is born as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus. After nine months
(36 weeks) of development inside mother's womb. It is also called Gestation Period.
18) Contraception: It is the avoidance of pregnancy. It can be achieved by various Methods of
contraception
METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION

19) STD: Sexually Transmitted Diseases, diseases that are transferred from infected person to a healthy
person due to exchange of body fluids. STD`s are of two types: Viral and Bacterial.
Viral Diseases are AIDS [Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome] caused by HIV, warts and herpes
Bacterial Diseases are Gonorrhea,Chlamydia and Syphilis.

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 HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION
1) Inheritance: Passing of characters from parents to offspring.
2) Genetics: Branch of science which deals with study of genes.
3) Why pea plant [Pisum sativum]?
a. Annual plant
b. Self pollination
c. Visible Contrasting traits
i. Tall and dwarf plant
ii. Green and yellow pod colour
iii. Round and constricted seed shape
iv. Axial and terminal position of flower
v. Purple and white colour of flower
4) Laws of genetics: given by Gregor Johann Mendel
a. Law of dominance: recessive alleles will always be masked by dominant alleles. Therefore,
a cross between a homozygous dominant and a homozygous recessive will always express
the dominant phenotype.
b. Law of Segregation: During the production of gametes the two copies of each hereditary
factor separate so that offspring acquire one factor from each parent. Applies only to
monohybrid cross.
c. Law of Independent assortment: When two or more characteristics are inherited, individual
hereditary factors assort independently during gamete production, giving different traits an
equal opportunity of occurring together. Applies to dihybrid cross.
5) Genotypic Ratio: Ratio of genes in F2 generation.
6) Phenotypic Ratio: Ratio of physical contrasting features in F2 generation.
7) Alleles: Pair of contrasting traits in a zygote.
8) Homozygous: Same alleles.
9) Heterozygous: Different alleles.
10) Dominant: Characters expressed in first generation.
11) Recessive: Characters expressed in F2 generation which remain dormant in F1 generation.
12) Sex Determination: Males have XY chromosome which determines sex of the child. XX
chromosome is present in females.

Acquired Trait Inherited Trait

Traits adapted which cannot pass to next Traits which can pass through generations.
generation
Eg.- Tail of rat if cut doesn’t mean the child eg.- eye colour.
rat will be without tail.
Changes that do not occur in genes Changes that occur in genes

Example of Monohybrid Cross:

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Example of Dihybrid Cross:

LIGHT-REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

1) Light: Dual Nature. Speed of light in vacuum- 3 x 108 m/sec.
2) Laws of reflection:
a) The angle of incidence is always equal to angle of reflection. Li= Lr
b) The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence lie
in the same plane.
3) Image formed by a plane mirror: is erect, virtual, laterally inverted and of same size as that of object.

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 Plane Mirrors Spherical Mirrors

Have no curved surfaces Have curved surfaces.

Image formed is always virtual, erect , Image formed can be real as well as virtual. Size of
laterally inverted and of same size as that of the image varies with distance from mirror.
object.

No types Can be divided into concave [converging] and

convex[diverging] mirrors.

4) Principal axis: Line joining the pole and centre of curvature of the spherical mirror.
5) Pole: The geometrical central point of the reflecting spherical surface. (aperture), denoted by ( P ).
6) Aperture: The width of reflecting spherical surface.
7) Centre of curvature: The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror form a part of sphere. It has a centre,
which is known as centre of curvature, denoted by ( C )
8) Radius of curvature: The separation between the pole and the centre of curvature. ie. PC = R
9) Focus point: The point on the principal axis, where all parallel rays meet after reflection, denoted by (F)
10) Focal length: The length between the pole and focus point i.e. PF = f
11) Relationship between focal length and Radius of curvature. F= R/2
12) Rules Of Ray Diagrams:
a) A ray of light which is parallel to principle axis always pass through focus (meet at focus) or
vice-versa
b) A ray of light which passes through centre of curvature (it is also known as normal at the point of
incidence on spherical mirror) will retrace their path.
c) A ray of light falling on pole get reflected at the same angle on the other side of principal axis.

13) Convex and concave mirror:

Convex Concave Mirror

Mirror

Diverging Converging mirror

mirror

Virtual images Real images [except when object is placed very close to
mirror]

Rear view Torches, search lights, dentists

mirror

Page 29
14) Uses of Concave Mirror
a) Used in torches, search light and headlight of vehicle.
b) Used to see large image of face as shaving mirror
c) Used by dentist to see large images of the teeth
d) Large concave mirror used to focus sunlight (heat) in solar furnaces.

15) Uses of Convex Mirror- Used as rear-view mirror in vehicles because it gives erect image. It also helps
the driver to view large area.
16) Sign Convention for Reflection by Spherical Mirror-
a) The object is always placed to the left side of mirror.
b) All distance should be measured from pole (P); parallel to principal axis.
Concave Mirror Convex Mirror
F [Focal Length] -ve +ve
U [Distance Between Object And Mirror] -ve -ve
V[Distance Between Image And Mirror] -ve +ve

17) Mirror Formula

18) Magnification: It is expressed as the ratio of the height of the image to height of the
object.
m= height of image / height of object

m= h`/h

–v
m= u
It is also related to 'u' and 'v'

If magnitude m > 1, then Image is magnified,

m = 1, then Image is of same size,
m < 1, then Image is diminished

19) Refraction: Happens in Transparent medium when a light travels from one medium to another,
refraction takes place. A ray of light bends as it moves from one medium to another. Refraction is due to
change in the speed of light as it enters from one transparent medium to another. Speed of light
decreases as the beam of light travel from rarer medium to the denser medium.

Page 30
20) Laws of refraction:
a) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at the
point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
b) The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant ie.

Sin i constant
Sin r = (r)

for a given colour and pair of media, this law is also known as Snell`s Law.

21) Mirror and lens:

Spherical Mirrors Spherical Lenses

One side is polished and one side is Both sides are refracting
reflecting

Follows laws of reflection Follows laws of

refraction

22) Convex and concave lenses:

Convex Lens Concave Lens

Converging lens Diverging lens

Forms real image Forms virtual

image

Used in hypermetropic Used in myopic

eye eye

23) Sign conventions

Concave Lens Convex Lens

F [Focal Length] -ve +ve
U [Distance Between Object And Mirror] -ve -ve
V[Distance Between Image And Mirror] -ve +ve

HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD

1) PARTS OF HUMAN EYE:
a) Iris: Dark black muscular diaphragm like structure. Controls amount of light entering the eye by
adjusting size of pupil.

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 b) Pupil: Pupil is the round black spot in front of eye. Black coloured structure at the centre of the eye.
Controls amount of light entering the eye by dilating or contracting pupil.
c) Lens: Proteinacious convex lens behind pupil. Adjusts focal length for making images of far and near
by objects on retina.
d) Retina: Membranous structure on which image is formed.
e) Rods and cones: The cells in retina, which are light sensitive. Rods respond to the intensity of light.
Cones respond to the illumination. There are around 125 million cell-rods and cones. The cells
generate signals, which are transmitted to the brain through optical nerves.
f) Cornea -The transparent membrane covering the front of the eye. Aqueous humour provides
lubrication.
g) Ciliary muscles -These muscles hold the lens in position.
h) Blind spot -The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye.

2) Power of accommodation: Adjustment of focal length by increasing and decreasing curvature of lens is
called power of accommodation. Near point= 25cm and Far point = infinity
3) Defects of human eye:

Disease Hypermetropia Myopia Presbyopia Cataract

Other Far sightedness Near sightedness
Name
Difficulty Near by objects are Far off objects are not Near by and far off objects Vision is
In Vision not clearly visible clearly visible both are not clearly visible disrupted
Corrective Convex lens Concave lens Bifocal lens Surgery
Measure
Reasons Focal length of the Excessive curvature Weakening of ciliary Lens becomes
eye lens increases. of the lens leading to muscles and diminishing cloudy and
The eye ball decreasing focal flexibility of eye lens due attains opaque
becomes too short length. to lack of proteins. nature.
The eye ball becomes
elongated
Occurrence Occurs in aged Occurs in young Occurs in aged people Occurs in aged
people people people

4) Atmospheric refraction: Bending of light due to the different refractive indexes of different layers of
atmosphere. Eg- Twinkling of stars and appearing of sun 2min earlier then sunrise and 2 min later post
sunset.
5) Dispersion: Spreading of light into its constituent colours. Eg- Rainbow formation. Prism spectrum
formation.
NOTE: Rainbow formation takes place due to total internal reflection after atmospheric refraction
and dispersion.
6) Scattering: Scattering of light in accordance with its wavelength. Blue scatters most and red scatters
least. Eg- Sky appears blue; danger signals are red in colour. During sunrise and sunset reddish colour of
sky is also due to the scattering of light along with atmospheric refraction.
7) Tyndall effect: Process of scattering of light from a colloidal solution.

Page 32
 ELECTRICITY
1) Electricity is a form of energy that makes electric appliances work. It can be easily changed to other
forms.
2) The flow of electricity is called an electric current.
3) The path along which the electric current moves is called the electric circuit.
4) An electric current is the rate of flow of electric charges in a circuit.
5) An ammeter is an instrument used for measuring electric current. It is always connected in series.
6) An electric cell gives energy to the electrons and pushes them round a circuit. Voltage is a measure of
how much energy the electrons receive.
7) Different voltages are supplied by different cells and batteries.
8) Electromotive force is the same as voltage.
9) E.m.f refers to the amount of energy supplied by the electric source (eg. battery) to each unit of electric
charge.
10) E.m.f is also measured by a voltmeter
11) The difference in electric potential between 2 points in a circuit is known as the potential difference. It is
the same as VOLTAGE also.
12) Ohm`s law states that the potential difference [V] across th ends of a given metallic wire in an electric
circuit is directly proportional to the current flowing through it, provided its temperature remains same.
13) Mathematically:
(1) V α I
14) V= IR , Where R is the constant of proportionality at a given temperature.
15) PROPERTY OF THE CONDUCTOR TO RESIST THE FLOW OF CHARGES THORUGH IT.
16) R = V/I = VOLT/ AMPERE = OHMS [Ω]
17) OHMS is if the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is 1V and the current flowing
through it is 1A, then the resistance R of the conductor is 1 Ω.
18) Good conductors of electricity have LOW RESISTANCE. (Eg. Metal objects)
19) Electricity is able to flow through them very easily
20) Poor conductors of electricity have HIGH RESISTANCE. (Eg. Wood, cloth)
21) Electricity is not able to flow through them easily
22) There are 2 ways in which an electric circuit can be arranged:
23) Series
a) A series circuit connects the components one after the other
b) A single loop is formed
c) A break in any part of a series circuit stops the flow of current in the whole circuit.
d) When resistors are connected in series, the resistance will add up and increase.
e) R = R1 + R2 + R3…

24) Parallel
a) A parallel circuit divides into two or more branches.
b) The current divides and flows through each parallel branch.
c) If a component breaks or is removed, the other components remain on.
d) When resistors are connected in parallel, the resistance will decrease
e) This is because they will provide alternate routes for the current to flow.
25) Heating effect of electric current
a) When an electric current flows through a wire, the wire heats up. Electrical energy has been
converted into heat energy.
b) The greater the resistance of the wire, the greater the amount of heat produced. This heating effect is
used in common electrical appliances.
c) A kettle uses both copper and nichrome wires.

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 d) Copper has low resistance while nichrome has high resistance.
e) In a light bulb, the heated filament which is also a resistance wire, becomes so hot that light is also
emitted.
26) Electrolysis is the chemical change that occurs when an electric current passes through solutions or
molten compounds.
27) There are 2 uses of electrolysis:
a) Electroplating-In electroplating, a key is covered with a thin layer of copper when electricity is
passed through the solution.
b) Extraction of metals-Some metals (eg. sodium, aluminium) are obtained by electrolysis.
c) To extract the metal
d) Heat the solid compound of the metal until it meltspass an electric current through the molten
compound
JOULE`S LAW:
The amount of heat produced in current conducting wire, is proportional to the square of the amount of
current that is flowing through the circuit, when the electrical resistance of the wire and the time of current
flow is constant.

The amount of heat produced is proportional to the electrical resistance of the wire when the current in the
circuit and the time of current flow is constant.

Heat generated due to the flow of current is proportional to the time of current flow, when the resistance and
amount of current flow is constant.

When these three conditions are merged, the resulting formula is like this -
i.e. H= I2RT
Here, ‘H’ is the heat generated in Joules, ‘i’ is the current flowing through the circuit in ampere and ‘t’ is in
seconds. When any three of these are known the other one can be equated out.
It has been found that
J = 4.2 joules/Cal
POWER:
The rate of work or th rate of dissipation of energy is called POWER. It is denoted by P and its S.I. Unit is
Watt.
P= W/t= VIt/t= VI= I 2Rt/t= I2R
1Watt = 1 ampere X 1 Volt, 1 Kilowatt= 1000 Watt, Horsepower= 746 Watt

MAGNETIC EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

1) A compass needle shows deflection whenever

a) It is kept near a current carrying conductor
b) It is brought near a magnet
c) It is brought near a current carrying conductor is kept in a magnetic field
d) It is brought near a conductor placed in changing magnetic field.
2) Magnetic field: A region around a magnet or a current carrying conductor in which the magnetic force
of attraction or repulsion due to it can be detected.

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3) Magnetic field lines: these lines depict the strength, direction and magnitude of the magnetic field
around a magnet or around a current carrying conductor.
4) Properties of magnetic field lines:
a) Closed curves
b) Emerge from north pole and merge at south poles
c) Never intersect
d) Degree of Closeness depicts strength of magnetic field of that magnet.
5) Magnetic field due to current carrying straight conductor:
a) RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE: If current carrying straight conductor is hold in right hand such
that the thumb gives the direction of current, then the direction in which the fingers wrap around the
conductor depicts the direction of the magnetic field around that conductor.
b) Magnetic field α 1/ distance from conductor
c) Magnetic field α current
6) Magnetic Field due to current carrying circular loop:
a) Follows Right Had Thumb Rule or Maxwell`s Cork screw rule.
b) It has two directions of magnetic field lines as the current is flowing in two directions in a circular
loop.
c) When the current is flowing in upward direction then the magnetic field is anticlockwise and when
the current is flowing downwards, then the magnetic field lines in clockwise.
7) Magnetic Field due to a solenoid
a) Solenoid is coiled structure over an insulated core.
b) It acts like an electromagnet till the time current is flowing through it.
c) The poles are determined in a solenoid by the direction of flow of current
d) Magnetic field α number of turns in a coil
e) Magnetic field α strength of a magnet
f) Magnetic field lines inside a solenoid are uniform and parallel.
g) Direction of current depicts the direction of magnetic field lines.
h) SNOW rule depicts the direction of magnetic field lines in a solenoid.
8) Electromagnet
a) A wire coiled over a conductor acts as an electromagnet during current flowing through it.
b) If the current is flowing through this arrangement for a longer span of time, then an electromagnet
can be converted into a permanent magnet.
c) Difference between electromagnet and solenoid
i) Electromagnet is coiled wire over conductor whereas solenoid has insulated core
d) Difference between solenoid and bar magnet
i) Bar magnet poles are known whereas in solenoid poles are determined by direction of current.
ii) Bar magnet has fixed strength whereas solenoid can have varied strength
9) Force on a Current Carrying Conductor
a) When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, then the conductor experiences a
force which tends to move conductor in a particular direction.
b) The direction of the force experienced by a current carrying conductor in a magnetic field is
determined by FLEMING`S LEFT HAND RULE.

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 c) Fleming`s Left Hand Rule: If we stretch the thumb, middle finger and pointing finger of left hand in
such a way that the direction of current is given by middle finger, direction of magnetic field is given
by pointing finger then the thumb will give the direction of force in which the conductor will move.

Domestic Circuit
d) The different appliances are connected in parallel so that every appliance gets equal voltage and even
if one is switched off the others are not affected
e) Wires are arranged in parallel combination to avoid fusing of all appliances in case of any damage
caused to any one appliance.
f) Green colour insulation is used for earthing.
g) Blue or black colour insulation is used for negative wire
h) Red colour insulation is used for live wire.
i) Fuse: Electric fuse is a safety device used in electric circuits to protect the circuit and appliances
from damage due to overloading and short circuit. It is a wire having high resistance and low melting
point. If excess current flows through the circuit, the fuse wire melts and breaks the circuit. Fuse wire
is made of a metal or an alloy of metals like lead, tin, aluminium and copper. Fuse wire is connected
in series with the live wire.
j) Overloading :-Overloading is caused due to increase in voltage, or if the live wire and neutral wire
comes in contact or if too many appliances are connected to a single socket. It results in overheating
of the wires and can cause damage to the circuit and appliances.
k) Short circuit: Short circuit is caused when the live wire and neutral wire comes in contact and the
current suddenly increases in the circuit. It causes spark, fire and damage to the circuit and
appliances.

OUR ENVIRONMENT

1) Ecology – The study of the interaction of living organisms with each other and their surrounding is
called ecology.
2) Environment –Everything that surrounds organisms and influences its life.
a) Biotic components of environment – The living organisms e.g. Plants and animals.
b) Abiotic components of environment –the nonliving components like air, light, etc.
3) Ecosystem – All interacting organism in area =together with the nonliving constituents of
environment. ( Functional unit of an environment)
4) Producers – They make the energy from sunlight available to the rest of the ecosystem.
5) Consumers – Animals cannot manufacture their own food. They are called consumers.
6) Biodegradable – Substances that are broken down by the action of bacteria or saprophytes. E. G.
Paper.
7) Non-biodegradable- Substances that are not broken down by the action of bacteria or saprophytes.
E.g. Plastic.
8) Food Chain – The process of one organism eating the other.

GRASS 🡪 GRASSHOPPER 🡪 FROG 🡪 SNAKE

9) Foodweb --- It is a network of food links between populations in a community.

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 10) 10% Law Of Energy Flow – The energy available at any trophic level in a food chain is 10% of the
previous one.
11) Biological Magnification – Progressive accumulation of non-biodegradable waste at various trophic
levels of the food chain.
IMPORTANT CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS AND THEIR FORMULA

S.NO CHEMICAL CHEMICAL COMPOUND NAME

. FORMULA
1. NaOH Sodium Hydroxide
2. Na2O Sodium Oxide
3. NaCl Sodium Chloride [Common Salt]
4. NaHCO3 Sodium Hydrocarbonate Or Sodium Bi Carbonate
5. Na2CO3 Sodium Carbonate
6. Na2ZnO2 Sodium Zincate
7. NaAlO2 Sodium Aluminate
8. Na2SO4 Sodium Sulphate
9. KOH Potassium Hydroxide
10. KCl Potassium Chloride
11. KBr Potassium Bromide
12. K2SO4 Potassium Sulphate
13. K2CO3 Potassium Carbonate
14. KI Potassium Iodide
15. K2O Potassium Oxide
16. H2SO4 Sulphuric Acid
17. HNO3 Nitric Acid
18. HCl Hydrochloric Acid
19. CH3COOH Acetic Acid
20. H2CO3 Carbonic Acid Or Hydrogen Carbonate
21. AlCl3 Aluminium Chloride
22. Al2O3 Aluminium Oxide
23. Al2(SO4)3 Aluminium Sulphate
24. AlN Aluminium Nitrite
25. ZnSO4 Zinc Sulphate
26. ZnCO3 Zinc Carbonate
27. ZnO Zinc Oxide
28. ZnCl2 Zinc Chloride
29. ZnS Zinc Suphide Or Galena
30. CO2 Carbon Di Oixde
31. CO Carbon Mono Oxide
32. C6H12O6 Glucose
33. C12H22O11 Sugar
34. CH4 Methane
35. CH3OH Methanol Or Methyl Alcohol
36. Cu2S Copper Sulphide
37. Cu2O Cupric Oxide
38. CuO Cuprous Oxide
39. CuSO4 Copper Sulphate

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40. CuCl2 Copper Chloride
41. Fe2O3 Iron Oxide Or Ferric Oxide
42. Fe3O4 Iron Oxide Or Ferrous Oxide
43. FeSO4 Iron Sulphate
44. FeCl3 Iron Chloride
45. MnO2 Manganese Oxide
46. MnCl2 Manganese Chloride
47. Ca(OH)2 Calcium Hydroxide Or Slaked Lime
48. CaO Calcium Oxide Or Quick Lime
49. CaCO3 Calcium Carbonate Or Limestone
50. Ca(NO3)2 Calcium Nitrate
51. Ca(HCO3)2 Calcium Hydrogen Carbonate
52. CaOCl2 Calcium Oxychloride
53. CaSO4 Calcium Sulphate
54. MgO Magnesium Oxide
55. MgCl2 Magnesium Chloride
56. Mg(OH)2 Magnesium Hydroxide
57. MgCO3 Magnesium Carbonate
58. Mg(HCO3)2 Magnesium Hydrogen Carbonate
59. BaI2 Barium Iodide
60. BaSO4 Barium Sulphate
61. BaCl2 Barium Chloride
62. BaBr2 Barium Bromide
63. AgCl Silver Chloride
64. AgBr Silver Bromide
65. AgI2 Silver Iodide
66. AgNO3 Silver Nitrate
67. Pb(NO3)2 Lead Nitrate
68. PbO Lead Oxide
69. Pb2N3 Lead Nitrite
70. PbI2 Lead Iodide
71. NO2 Nitrogen Oxide
72. NO Nitrous Oxide
73. NH4Cl Ammonium Chloride
74. HgS Mercurous Sulphide Or Cinnebar
75. HgO Mercury Oxide
76. H3O- Hydronium Ion
77. OH- Hydroxide Ion
78. SO4- Sulphate Ion
79. SO3- Sulphite Ion
80. CO3- Carbonate Ion

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