Nuclear Physics Lecture Five

(Interaction of Radiation with Matter)

Different types of radiation interact with matter in widely different

ways. A large, massive, charged alpha particle cannot penetrate a piece of
paper and even has a limited range in dry air. A neutrino, at the other extreme,
has a low probability of interacting with any matter, even if it passed through
the diameter of the earth.
Radiation can be classified into two general groups, charged and
uncharged; therefore, it may be expected that interactions with matter fall into
two general types. Charged particles directly ionize the media through which
they pass, while uncharged particles and photons can cause ionization only
indirectly or by secondary radiation.
A moving charged particle has an electrical field surrounding it, which
interacts with the atomic structure of the medium through which it is passing.
This interaction decelerates the particle and accelerates electrons in the atoms
of the medium. The accelerated electrons may acquire enough energy to
escape from the parent atom, this process is called ionization. Uncharged
moving particles have no electrical field, so they can only lose energy and
cause ionization by such means as collisions or scattering. A photon can lose
energy by the photoelectric effect, Compton Effect, or pair production.
Because ionizing radiation creates ions in pairs, the intensity of ionization or
the specific ionization is defined as the number of ion-pairs

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formed per centimeter of travel in a given material. The amount of ionization

produced by a charged particle per unit path length, which is a measure of its
ionizing power, is roughly proportional to the particle's mass and the square
of its charge as illustrated in the equation below.
mz 2
I 
K.E.
Where: I is the ionizing power, m is the mass of the particle, z is the
number of unit charges it carries and K.E. is its kinetic energy
Since m for an alpha particle is about 7300 times as large as m for a
beta particle, and z is twice as great, an alpha will produce much more
ionization per unit path length than a beta particle of the same energy. This
phenomenon occurs because the larger alpha particle moves slower for a given
energy and thus acts on a given electron for a longer time.

Alpha Radiation:
Alpha radiation is normally produced from the radioactive decay of
heavy nuclides and from certain nuclear reactions. The alpha particle consists
of 2 neutrons and 2 protons, so it is essentially the same as the nucleus of a
helium atom. Because it has no electrons, the alpha particle has a charge of
+2. This positive charge causes the alpha particle to strip electrons from the
orbits of the target atoms. As the alpha particle passes through material, it
removes electrons from the orbits of atoms it passes near. Energy is required
to remove electrons and the energy of the alpha particle is reduced by each
reaction. Eventually the particle will expend its kinetic energy, gain 2
electrons in orbit, and become a helium atom. Because of its strong positive
charge and large mass, the alpha particle deposits a large amount of energy
in a short distance of travel. This rapid,

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large deposition of energy limits the penetration of alpha particles. The most
energetic alpha particles are stopped by a few centimeters of air or a sheet of
paper.

Beta-Minus Radiation:
A beta-minus particle is an electron that has been ejected at a high
velocity from an unstable nucleus. An electron has a small mass and an
electrical charge of -1. Beta particles cause ionization by displacing electrons
from atom orbits. The ionization occurs from collisions with orbiting
electrons. Each collision removes kinetic energy from the beta particle,
causing it to slow down. Eventually the beta particle will be slowed enough
to allow it to be captured as an orbiting electron in an atom. Although more
penetrating than the alpha, the beta is relatively easy to stop and has a low
power of penetration. Even the most energetic beta radiation can be stopped
by a few millimeters of metal.

Positron Radiation:

Positively charged electrons are called positrons. Except for the

positive charge, they are identical to beta-minus particles and interact with
matter in a similar manner. Positrons are very short-lived, however, and
quickly are annihilated by interaction with a negatively charged electron,
producing two gammas with a combined energy (calculated below) equal to
the rest mass of the positive and negative electrons.

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Bremsstrahlung:
Small charged particles such as electrons or positrons may be deflected
by nuclei as they pass through matter, which may be due to the positive charge
of the atomic nuclei. This type of interaction generates x- radiation known as
bremsstrahlung (Fig. below), which in German means “braking radiation.”

Figure (5-1): Bremsstrahlung. Beta particles (β−) and positrons (β+) that

travel near the nucleus will be attracted or repelled by the positive charge of
the nucleus, generating x-rays in the process.

Neutron Radiation:
Neutrons have no electrical charge. They have nearly the same mass as
a proton (a hydrogen atom nucleus). A neutron has hundreds of times more
mass than an electron, but 1/4 the mass of an alpha particle. The source

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of neutrons is primarily nuclear reactions, such as fission, but they may also
be produced from the decay of radioactive nuclides. Because of its lack of
charge, the neutron is difficult to stop and has a high penetrating power.
Neutrons are attenuated (reduced in energy and numbers) by three major
interactions, elastic scatter, inelastic scatter, and absorption. In elastic scatter,
a neutron collides with a nucleus and bounces off. This reaction transmits
some of the kinetic energy of the neutron to the nucleus of the atom, resulting
in the neutron being slowed, and the atom receives some kinetic energy
(motion). As the mass of the nucleus approaches the mass of the neutron, this
reaction becomes more effective in slowing the neutron. Hydrogenous
material attenuates neutrons most effectively. In the inelastic scatter reaction,
the same neutron/nucleus collision occurs as in elastic scatter. However, in
this reaction, the nucleus receives some internal energy as well as kinetic
energy. This slows the neutron, but leaves the nucleus in an excited state.
When the nucleus decays to its original energy level, it normally emits a
gamma ray. In the absorption reaction, the neutron is actually absorbed into
the nucleus of an atom. The neutron is captured, but the atom is left in an
excited state. If the nucleus emits one or more gamma rays to reach a stable
level, the process is called radiative capture. This reaction occurs at most
neutron energy levels, but is more probable at lower energy levels.

Electromagnetic (Gamma) Radiation:

Gamma radiation is electromagnetic radiation. It is commonly referred
to as a gamma ray and is very similar to an x-ray. The difference is that
gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus of an atom, and x-rays are

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produced by orbiting electrons. The x-ray is produced when orbiting electrons

move to a lower energy orbit or when fast-moving electrons approaching an
atom are deflected and decelerated as they react with the atom's electrical field
(called Bremsstrahlung).
The gamma ray is produced by the decay of excited nuclei and by
nuclear reactions. Because the gamma ray has no mass and no charge, it is
difficult to stop and has a very high penetrating power. A small fraction of the
original gamma stream will pass through several feet of concrete or several
meters of water. There are three methods of attenuating gamma rays. The first
method is referred to as the photoelectric effect. When a low energy gamma
strikes an atom, the total energy of the gamma is expended in ejecting an
electron from orbit (generally inner shell). The result is ionization of the atom
and expulsion of a high energy electron. This reaction is most predominant
with low energy gammas interacting in materials with high atomic weight and
rarely occurs with gammas having energy above 1MeV. Any gamma energy
in excess of the binding energy of the electron is carried off by the electron in
the form of kinetic energy.
The second method of attenuation of gammas is called Compton
scattering. The gamma interacts with an orbital (outer shell) or free electron;
however, in this case, the photon loses only a fraction of its energy. The actual
energy loss depending on the scattering angle of the gamma (scattering angle
can range from nearly 0o to 180o). The gamma continues on at lower energy,
and the energy difference is absorbed by the electron. This reaction becomes
important for gamma energies of about 0.1 MeV and higher.
In Compton scattering, a photon scatters from an electron, resulting in
a scattered electron (Compton electron) and a less energetic photon. If we

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regard the stuck electron as free and at rest (good approx.), we can use
relativistic conservation to find a formula for:

At higher energy levels, a third method of attenuation is predominant.

This method is pair-production. When a high energy gamma passes close
enough to a heavy nucleus, the gamma completely disappears, and an electron
and a positron are formed. For this reaction to take place, the original gamma
must have at least 1.02MeV energy. Any energy greater than 1.02 MeV
becomes kinetic energy shared between the electron and positron. The
probability of pair-production increases significantly for higher energy
gammas. The forth method is the Coherent Scattering (unmodified
scattering). The interaction in which radiation undergo a change in direction
without a change in wavelength. There are two types: 1. Thomson Scattering,
a single electron is involved in the interaction. 2. Rayleigh Scattering, results
from a cooperative interaction with all electrons of an atom. While the fifth
on is Photodisintegration. In this method, part of nucleus of an atom is ejected
by a high energy photon. The ejected portion may be neutron, a proton, an
alpha particle, or cluster of particles. The photon energy must be in order of
7-15 MeV.
If we consider a beam of photons on a slab of thickness x, we have μ as
a "total linear attenuation coefficient", where simply μ=τ+σ+κ (for
photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering, and pair production losses,
respectively). The fractional loss in intensity is:
dI/I=-μdx so that I=Ioe-μx

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Figure (5-2): (a) Photoelectric effect, (b) Compton scattering.

Shielding
Alpha particles can be shielded by a piece of paper.
Beta particles can be shielded by a thin sheet of metal.
Gamma rays require thicker metal, often of high Z such as lead.
Neutrons moderated (slowed down) by low Z materials, captured by boron,
cadmium.