The Working Fluid

Thermodynamics (Applied)III
Objective
• To equip students with an understanding of the working fluid’s behaviour at
varying states.

Topics covered:
(a) Characteristics of Fluids
(b) Vapour and Gases
(c) Use of steam tables
(d) Saturated state properties
(e) Properties of wet vapour
(f) Properties of superheated vapour
Learning Outcomes
• After studying this learning unit, You should be able to:

(a) Explain the differences between different types of working fluids.

(b) Extract and analyse the data from steam tables.

(c) Solve typical problems related to working fluids.

The Working Fluid
• The working fluid is substance that moves through a cycle, transferring heat and
converting energy to do useful work.

• The Working fluid can be: – Liquid

- Vapour

- Gas

• All substances can exist in any of these phases but we tend to identify all
substances with the phase in which they are in equilibrium at atmospheric pressure
and Temp.

• When 2 independent Properties of the fluid are known, then the thermodynamic
state of the fluid is defined.
Example of common working fluid
• Water/Steam: Used in power plants (Rankine cycle).
• Air: Used in gas turbines and internal combustion engines.
• Refrigerants (e.g., R-134a, Ammonia): Used in cooling and
refrigeration cycles.
• Hydrocarbons (e.g., Butane, Propane): Used in organic Rankine
cycles for low-temperature heat sources.
a) Characteristics of Fluids
(i) Thermodynamic Properties
- Pressure & Temperature : Determines the state of the fluid and its
ability to perform work in a cycle.
- Specific Volume: Volume per unit mass, important for designing
turbines and compressors.
- Density (𝜌𝜌): Mass per unit volume, influencing fluid flow and
energy transfer.
(ii) heat transfer properties

Specific Heat Capacity (Cp, Cv): Determines the amount of heat the
fluid can store at constant pressure (Cp) or constant volume (Cv).
Thermal Conductivity (k): Higher values improve heat transfer
efficiency in heat exchangers.
Latent Heat: Essential for phase-change fluids (e.g., steam in the
Rankine cycle) as it affects energy absorption and release
(iii) Viscosity (μ)

• Affects fluid flow resistance in pumps, pipes, and heat exchangers.

• Low viscosity is preferred for high-efficiency heat transfer and
fluid movement.
 (b) Liquid, Vapour and Gas
(i) Liquid
• When the liquid is heated at constant pressure, the is a fixed temperature at which the
bubbles of vapour form,
• This fixed temperature is called Boiling point
- The process where bubbles of vapor form in a liquid at a fixed temperature for a given
pressure is called Boiling

Pressure-Temperature Relationship-
- For every pressure there is a corresponding boiling point temperature
- The higher pressure, the higher boiling point temperature.
(ii) Vapour
• When the liquid in a boiling point temperature further heated at
constant Pressure:
• the additional supply of heat changes phase from Liquid to Vapour

• The additional heat supply is called specific enthalpy of vaporization hfg

• During phase change, Temp and pressure remain constant

• The higher the pressure, the smaller the amount of heat required for
phase change
(iii) Gas

• When a gas is cooled at constant pressure, there is a fixed

temperature at which droplets of water form.
• This is called Condensation

• This temperature is called dew point temperature

P-V diagram

Point A: Is a saturated liquid with a temperature T1, pressure P1 and x= 0.

Point B: Is a wet vapour with a temperature T1 and pressure P1. X>0
Point C: Is a saturated vapour or dry saturated vapour with a temperature
T1, pressure P1 and x= 1.
Point D: Is a superheated vapour with a temperature T2 and pressure P3.

T1 is the saturation temperature of P1.

T2 is the saturation temperature of P2.
T3 is the saturation temperature at P3. T2>T3

Isothermal which are lines of constant temperature are

plotted on the p-v diagram, and they are horizontal between
the saturated vapour and liquid lines
 Saturation State

A saturation state is defined as a state at which a phase change may occur without a change of
pressure or temperature

• The boiling point and dew point are saturations states (Point A & C)
• A series of boiling points joined up is called the saturated liquid line, shown in green in the
figure above.

• The point at which the liquid is changed completely to vapour is called the saturated vapour
line/ dry saturated vapour line, shown as red
Wet Region

• The working fluid existing at a state point inside the saturated liquid and
vapour line consists of a mixture of liquid and dry vapour and is known as a
wet vapour
• In the wet region, the temperature and pressure are constant.
• The temperature is the saturation temperature at that specific pressure.

• The quality of a wet vapour is defined by its dryness fraction.

• Dryness Fraction, x = mass of dry vapour in 1 kg of the mixture.
• For a dry saturated vapour x = 1 and for a saturated liquid x = 0.
(c) Use of steam Tables

Fifth edition
 • Suffix
• f - saturated Liquid
(d) Saturated state • g – Dry saturated stage
properties • hfg – Change in enthalpy from hf to hfg
Saturation state of Properties
• Specific Internal Energy
• Specific Enthalpy Of saturated liquid (Water ready to
• Specific Entropy boil) have suffix f
• Specific Volume

fg – denotes a complete change of phase at constant pressure

• Specific Internal Energy

Of dry saturated steam
• Specific Enthalpy
have suffix g
• Specific Entropy
• Specific Volume
(e) Properties of wet vapour
 (i) Specific Volume

For a wet vapour, the total volume of the mixture is given by the volume of the liquid present
+ volume of the dry vapour present.

volume of the liquid + volume of the dry vapour

𝒗𝒗 =
total mass of wet vapour
• For 1 kg of wet vapour, there are x kg of dry vapour (vgx) and (1-x) Kg of liquid, x is the
dryness fraction .
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑣𝑣𝑓𝑓 1 − 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑣𝑣𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 ….
The volume of the liquid is usually negligibly small compared to the volume of the dry
satudared vapour.

𝒗𝒗 = 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒈𝒈 …………………………………………………………………………….. (1)

 (ii) Enthalpy of wet Vapour

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 + 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣

ℎ = 1 − 𝑥𝑥 ℎ𝑓𝑓 + 𝑥𝑥ℎ𝑔𝑔

ℎ = ℎ𝑓𝑓 − 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑓𝑓 + 𝑥𝑥ℎ𝑔𝑔

ℎ = ℎ𝑓𝑓 + 𝑥𝑥 (ℎ𝑔𝑔 − ℎ𝑓𝑓 )

𝒉𝒉 = 𝒉𝒉𝒇𝒇 + 𝒙𝒙𝒉𝒉𝒇𝒇𝒈𝒈 ……………………………………………………………………..(2)

 (iii) Internal Energy

𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘𝒘 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗 = 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 + 𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊 𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗𝒗

u = 1 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢𝑓𝑓 + 𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔

u = 1 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑢𝑢𝑓𝑓 + 𝑥𝑥𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔

𝒖𝒖 = 𝒖𝒖𝒇𝒇 + 𝒙𝒙(𝒖𝒖𝒈𝒈 − 𝒖𝒖𝒇𝒇 ) ………………………………………………………………………………(3)

Example 1

• Calculate the specific Volume, specific enthalpy and

specific Internal energy of wet steam at 18 bar,
dryness fraction 0.9
 Solution
Data @ 18bar
𝒗𝒗 = 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒈𝒈

(iii) Internal Energy

(i) Specific Volume
𝒗𝒗 = 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒈𝒈 𝑢𝑢 = 𝑢𝑢𝑓𝑓 + 𝑥𝑥(𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 − 𝑢𝑢𝑓𝑓 )
𝒗𝒗 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 𝟎𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 /𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 u = (883)+ (0,9) (2598 – 883)

u = 2426,6 kJ/kg
(ii) Specific Enthalpy
𝒉𝒉 = 𝒉𝒉𝒇𝒇 + 𝒙𝒙𝒉𝒉𝒇𝒇𝒈𝒈
h = (885) +(0.9) (1912) = 2605,8 kJ/kg
Example 2

• Calculate the dryness fraction, specific volume,

and specific internal energy of steam at 7 bar
and specific enthalpy 2600kJ/kg
Solution
Given Data
• Enthalpy = 2600 kJ/kg
• Data at 7 bar
 Solution
Given Data
• Enthalpy = 2600 KJ/kg
(b) Specific Volume
(a) Dryness fraction
𝒗𝒗 = 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒈𝒈
𝒉𝒉 = 𝒉𝒉𝒇𝒇 + 𝒙𝒙𝒉𝒉𝒇𝒇𝒈𝒈
2600 = (697) + x (2067) 𝒗𝒗 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝟎𝟎, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒎𝒎𝟑𝟑 /𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
2600 – 697 = x (2067)
1903
= 𝑥𝑥 (c ) Specific Internal Energy
2067
𝒖𝒖 = 𝒖𝒖𝒇𝒇 + 𝒙𝒙(𝒖𝒖𝒈𝒈 − 𝒖𝒖𝒇𝒇 )

∴ 𝒙𝒙 = 𝟎𝟎, 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 𝑢𝑢 = (696) + 0,921 (2573 − 696)

𝒖𝒖 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌/𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
Properties of superheated vapour
Properties of superheated steam
• For steam in the superheat region, temperature and pressure are
independent properties.
• When the Temp & Pressure are given for superheated steam, then
the state is defined and all other properties can be found.

• For example at 2bar (200 kPa) and 200℃

• Tsat = 120,2 ℃
• Degree of Super Heat = 200-120,2 = 79,8 ℃
Identifying the Vapour Type
• A vapour can exist in four states namely:
• Saturated liquid,
• Wet vapour,
• Saturated vapour, and
• Superheated vapour.
• A minimum of two thermodynamics properties are required to identify the type of vapour.
• The following rules are applied in identifying the vapour type. The property column, refers to a
known or given property of the fluid for specific conditions
Table 3.2 details the properties applicable to each specific type of vapour
Example 2,3
• Steam at 110 bar has a specific volume of 0,0196m3/kg.
Calculate the
(a) Temp Tsat =350-318
(b) Specific Enthalpy =2889
(c ) Specific internal energy u = h-pv
Example 2,4

• Steam at 150 bar has specific enthalpy 3309 Kj/kg. Calculate

• Temperature =
• Specific volume
• Specific internal energy
Example
Sketch a p-v diagram for steam and mark on it the following points, clearly
labelling the pressure, specific volume and temperature of each point
(a) P = 20 bar, T = 250℃
(b) T = 212.4 ℃, v = 0.09954 m3/kg
(c) P = 10 bar, h = 2650 kJ/kg
d) P = 6 bar, h = 3166 kJ/kg
Solution
(a) P = 20 bar, T = 250℃ • (b) T = 212.4 ℃, v = 0.09954 m3/kg

• v = vg = 0,09953 m3/kg ; P = 20 bar

• You go to Saturated water & steam
tables ,
• at 20 bar , Ts= 212,4 ℃
• (d) P = 6 bar, h = 3166 kJ/kg
• ∴ 𝑇𝑇 > 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 …Steam is superheated
• At Saturated water & steam tables
• 6 bar – hf = 670
• You go to your superheat steam tables at
250 ℃ , read v • - hg = 2757

• v = 0,1115 m3/kg • ∴ ℎ > ℎ𝑔𝑔 …this steam is superheated

•
• At superheated steam tables, go to 6 bar , read
across for h = 3166 KJ/kg , we find it at 350 ℃ …

• Readding v at 350 = 0,4743m3/kg

•
Solution – (c) P = 10 bar, h = 2650 kJ/kg
• at saturated steam tables hf =
• Final points to plot

cont 763
•
• (y
P V ( x-axis) Ts &Tsup
hg = 2778 axis)
• ∴ ℎ𝑓𝑓 < ℎ < ℎ𝑔𝑔 ….this steam is a) 20 0,1115 Ts = 212,4 ;
wet Tsup = 250
• Use your wet vapour properties to b)20 0,0995 212,4
calculate for v
c) 10 0,182 179,9
d)6 0,4743 Ts = 158,8
• 𝒉𝒉 = 𝒉𝒉𝒇𝒇 + 𝒙𝒙𝒉𝒉𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇 … to find x ;
• X= 0,937 Tsup = 350

• 𝒗𝒗 = 𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒈𝒈 =0,182