Environmental Geology

Environmental Geology

BS 6th semester, Jan, 2024

Instructor: Dr. Rahib Hussain

 SDSC, GC university Lahore
 CEES, University of the Punjab, Lahore

 Jan, 2024
 Rocks
1. Rocks and Minerals
2. Sedimentary rock
3. Igneous rock
4. Metamorphic rock
5. Rock cycle
 Rocks and Minerals
 Rocks A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of mineral or mineraloid (having no
crystal structure) matter.
 Rock is an aggregation of different minerals constituents of the earth crust.

 Mineral or mineral species is a solid chemical compounds with a fairly well-defined chemical
composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure inorganic form.
 The aggregate minerals forming the rock are held together by chemical bonds. Some rocks also contain
mineraloids, which are rigid, mineral-like substances, such as volcanic glass

 Most rocks contain silicate minerals, compounds that include silicon oxide tetrahedra in their crystal lattice
(structure consist of diamond or square).
 The silicate is account for about one-third of all known mineral species and about 95% of the earth's crust.

 The proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their names and properties.
 Rocks and Minerals
Atoms, Elements, Isotopes, Ions, and Compounds

 Atoms: An atom is the smallest particle into which an element can be divided while still retaining the
chemical characteristics of that element
 Elements: an element is a pure substance consisting only of atoms that all have the same numbers of
protons in their nuclei.
 The nucleus , located at the center of the atom, contains one or more particles with a positive electrical
charge ( protons ) and usually some particles of similar mass that have no charge ( neutrons).
 Circling particle around the nucleus that are the negatively charged, electrons
 The characteristic number of protons is the atomic number of the element.
 The sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in a nucleus is the atom’s atomic mass
number .
 Rocks and Minerals
Atoms, Elements, Isotopes, Ions, and Compounds
 Isotopes: atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons—are distinct isotopes
of that element.
 Ions: an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons.
 Radical, also called Free Radical, in chemistry, molecule that contains at least one unpaired electron.
Most molecules contain even numbers of electrons, and the covalent chemical bonds holding the atoms
together within a molecule normally consist of pairs of electrons jointly shared by the atoms linked by the
bond. Although free radicals contain unpaired electrons, they may be electrically neutral. Because of their
odd electrons, free radicals are usually highly reactive.
Positively charged radicals are called basic radicals such as Na+, NH4+ etc.
Negatively charged radicals are called acid radicals such as NO3-, Cl-,
 Rocks and Minerals
Minerals

 Minerals: A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound with a definite
chemical composition and a regular internal crystal structure. Naturally occurring, as distinguished
from synthetic, means that minerals do not include the thousands of chemical substances invented by
humans. Inorganic, in this context, means not produced solely by living organisms or by biological
processes. That minerals must be solid means that the ice of a glacier is a mineral, but liquid water is
not.
 Chemically, minerals may consist either of one element—like diamonds, which are pure carbon—or
they may be compounds of two or more elements.
 Crystalline materials are solids in which the atoms or ions
are arranged in regular, repeating patterns.
 Rocks and Minerals
Minerals

 Crystalline materials are solids in which the atoms or ions are arranged in regular, repeating patterns.

5 characteristics required of all minerals

➢ Be naturally-occurring (man-made substances such as steel

are not minerals)
➢ Be Inorganic (not living, or from plants or animals)
➢ Be solid at room temperature (usually)
➢ Have a typical ordered internal structure (atoms have an
orderly, repeated geometric pattern) which generally forms
crystals
➢ Have a definite chemical composition (may vary within
given limits) that is the same everywhere the mineral occurs
 Rocks and Minerals
Physical Properties Minerals

 Minerals are identified and described according to their physical properties of:

 Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to break (cleave) along weak planes.

 Color: Most minerals have a distinct color while others are variable in color. (Weak property)
 Hardness: A measure of a mineral's resistance to scratching. This is measured by scratching it against
another substance of known hardness on the Mohs Hardness Scale
 Luster: The reflection of light from the surface of a mineral, described by its quality and intensity.
Luster is described as metallic, glassy, dull, earthy, etc.
 Streak: refers to the color of the residue left by scratching a mineral on a tile of unglazed porcelain,
like a piece of chalk. (Weak property)
 Specific gravity: the ratio of the density of a mineral to an equal volume of water
(For example, magnetite has a specific gravity value of 5.2, meaning 1cm3 of magnetite will be 5.2 times
as heavy as 1cm3 of water)
 Rocks and Minerals
Type Minerals

 Silicate mineral all contain silicon plus oxygen as part of their chemical compositions
Examples: quartz, feldspar, mica, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, and a variety of clay minerals

 Nonsilicate minerals: The minerals having no Silicate in their chemical compositions

Examples include gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), sulfur (S), copper (Cu), and iron (Fe). Diamond
and graphite
Carbonate: Calcite CaCO3, dolomite CaMg(CO3)2,
Halide: halite-NaCl, sylvite- KCl
Sulphate: gypsum-CaSo4·2H2O, , epsom salts-MgSO4·7H2O
 Rocks and Minerals
Identifying Characteristics of Minerals
 The two fundamental characteristics of a mineral that together distinguish it from all other minerals are
its chemical composition and its crystal structure.
 For example, diamond and graphite (the “lead” in a lead pencil) are chemically the same—both are
made up of pure carbon. Their physical properties, however, are vastly different because of the
differences in their internal crystalline structures. In a diamond, each carbon atom is firmly bonded to
every adjacent carbon atom in every direction by covalent bonds.
 In graphite, the carbon atoms are bonded strongly in two dimensions into sheets, but the sheets are
only weakly held together in the third dimension. Diamond is clear, colorless, and very hard, and a
jeweler can cut it into beautiful precious gemstones. Graphite is black, opaque, and soft, and its sheets
of carbon atoms tend to slide apart as the weak bonds between them are broken.
 Rocks and Minerals
Common Minerals
 Quartz
 Quartz is one of the most common minerals in the Earth's crust. It is
made of silicon dioxide (SiO2), otherwise known as silica. Varieties of
quartz based on color include: amethyst (purple), smoky quartz (grey),
rose quartz (pink), and citrine (yellow-green). Quartz has a glassy luster
and a hardness of 7.

 Quartz occurs in all three rock types

 Rocks and Minerals
Common Minerals
 Potassium feldspar
 Potassium feldspar (or alkali feldspar or K-spar) is a member of the feldspar mineral family and is a
silicate mineral. It contains a considerable amount of potassium and is typically pink-salmon to
white in color. Potassium feldspar has a hardness of 6. The crystals are stubby prisms and have a
streaky appearance called perthitic texture.
 A significant amount of potassium feldspar is found in the slope sediments and granite
 Formula: KAlSi3O8 (Potassium feldspar)
 Rocks and Minerals
Common Minerals
 Plagioclase feldspar

 Plagioclase is a member of the feldspar mineral family. Plagioclase feldspars are yet another silicate
that contains considerable sodium or calcium. Plagioclase crystals are stubby prisms, generally
white to gray and have a glassy luster.
 Plagioclase feldspar can be found in the igneous and metamorphic rocks
Formula: NaAlSi3O8, CaAl2Si2O8 (Plagioclase feldspar)
 Rocks and Minerals
Common Minerals
 Micas

 Micas are another group of silicate minerals composed of varying amounts of potassium,
magnesium, iron, aluminum, silicon and water. Biotite (pictured to the left) is a black or brown
mica; muscovite is light-colored or clear mica.
 Mica typically occurs in metamorphic and igneous rocks. Biotite and muscovite are two of the
primary minerals in the metamorphic rocks
muscovite
Biotitie
 Rocks and Minerals
Common Minerals
 Olivine

 Olivine [(Fe, Mg)2SiO4] is a silicate mineral containing iron and magnesium. It is a green, glassy
mineral that forms at high temperatures. It is common in basalt and ultramafic rocks. Gem-quality
olivine is called peridote.
 Rocks and Minerals
Common Minerals
 Calcite

 Calcite is made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Generally white to clear, calcite is easily scratched
with a knife. Due to the presence of carbonates (CO3), calcite reacts to most acids (such as
hydrochloric acid, HCl) and effervesces (give off bubble) on contact.
 Hardness- 3
 Specific Gravity- 2.71
 Rocks and Minerals
Common Minerals
 Fluorite
 Fluorite (CaF2) is considered to be one of the most colorful minerals in the world. Common colors
of fluorite include purple, green, yellow, and blue. Fluorite is also visible under ultraviolet light, a
property that gets its name, fluorescence, from the mineral. Fluorite is often mistaken for quartz but
it has a lower hardness of 4.
 Specific Gravity- 3.175 to 3.184
 Rocks and Minerals
Common Minerals
 Talc

 Talc (Mg3Si4O10(OH)2) is the softest known mineral and can be scratched with a fingernail. Upon
contact, talc has a distinctive greasy feel and a waxy/pearly luster. Talc is a foliated mineral and
associated with metamorphic rocks.
 Rocks and Minerals
Hardness Scale of Minerals
 The Mohs Hardness Scale is used to
help identify minerals. A mineral's
hardness is a measure of a mineral's
resistance to scratching. This is
measured by scratching it against
another substance of known hardness
on the Mohs Hardness Scale.
 Rocks and Minerals
Hardness Scale of Minerals
 The Mohs Hardness Scale is used to
help identify minerals. A mineral's
hardness is a measure of a mineral's
resistance to scratching. This is
measured by scratching it against
another substance of known hardness
on the Mohs Hardness Scale.

 You should find a sharp corner of a

mineral and scratch the smooth
surface of the test object (fingernail,
penny, glass plate, knife, steel file,
etc.)
 Types of Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
 Sedimentary rock are formed by the deposition of material/ sediments at the Earth's crust (either oceanic
crust or continental crust).

Sedimentary rocks form by the compaction and cementing together of sediments, broken
pieces of rock-like gravel, sand, silt, or clay. Those sediments can be formed from the
weathering and erosion of preexisting rocks. These sediments are transported by wind,
water etc. Sedimentary rocks also include chemical precipitates, the solid materials left
behind after a liquid evaporates. These sediments; when compressed and hardened; form
sedimentary rock

Sedimentary rocks are important in regard to resources like limestone deposits, coal and
oil.
2. Sedimentary
Rocks
2. Sedimentary
Rocks
Examples
❖ Limestone
❖ Conglomerate
❖ Sandstone
❖ Coal
❖ Shale rock
❖ iron ore,
❖ Chert
❖ flint
❖ Dolomite,
❖ mud stone
❖ Chalk lumps
❖ Gypsum
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
 Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
 Erosion is the geological process in which earthen materials are worn away and transported by
natural forces such as wind or water. There are five type of erosion 1) splash erosion (through
drops), 2) sheet erosion (by runoff), 3) rill erosion, 4) gully erosion, 5) Valley erosion
 Weathering is the breakdown of rocks at the Earth's surface, by the action of rainwater, extremes
of temperature, and biological activity. It does not involve the removal of rock material.

 Deposition is the geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform
or land mass. Previously eroded sediment will be transported by wind, ice, water which loses its
kinetic energy in fluid and thus deposited.

3) Rill erosion 4) gully erosion Deposition

 Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
 compaction is the process by which a sediments progressively loses its porosity due to the effects
of pressure from loading. OR
 Compaction is the process in which sediment is squeezed by the weight and pressure of
overlying layers.

 Cementation Process by which sedimentary rock particles or fragments are cemented together
after deposition

Compaction Cementation
 Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Compaction
Cementation →
 Type of Sedimentary Rocks

 1. Clastic sedimentary rocks are accumulations of clasts i.e., little pieces of the broken rock which have
loaded up and been "lithified" by compaction and cementation. Example-Sandstone

 2. Chemical sedimentary rock: Sedimentary rocks formed by the crystallization of chemical precipitates.
OR The rocks form when standing water evaporates, leaving dissolved minerals behind and have been
lithified by compaction and cementation. Example rock salt

 3. Organic sedimentary rock: Organic sedimentary rocks form from the accumulation and lithification of
organic debris, such as leaves, roots, and other plant or animal material. These bits of calcium can pile up on
the seafloor and accumulate into a thick enough layer to form an "organic" sedimentary rock. Example-coal

Rock salt
 3. Igneous Rocks
 Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification and crystallization of molten rock material.
 Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of molten rock material…(Ignis mean fire)

 Igneous rocks can be easily identified with their texture, density, color, and mineral composition. Its
texture depends on the shape, size, time period to cool down and solidify, and the arrangement of
crystals in the rock.

 The temperature of molten material maybe 600 to 1,300 °C, or 1,100 to 2,400 °F

 All magma develops underground, in the lower crust or upper mantle, because of the intense heat
there.
 3. Igneous Rocks
 Igneous rocks can have many different compositions, depending on the magma they cool from.
They can also look different based on their cooling conditions. For example, two rocks from
identical magma can become either rhyolite or granite, depending on whether they cool quickly or
slowly.

 magma is a molten rock or materials that is stored beneath the earth surface
 Lava is magma (molten martials) that flow out on the earth surface.
 3. Igneous Rocks

 Formation of Igneous rocks: Igneous rocks form when magma (molten rock) cools and
crystallizes, either at volcanoes on the surface of the Earth or while the melted rock is still
inside the crust.
 Type of Igneous Rocks
 Igneous rocks are divided into two groups, intrusive or extrusive, depending upon where the molten
rock solidifies.
 1) Intrusive Igneous Rocks or plutonic rock
 2) Extrusive Igneous Rocks or volcanic rocks

 Intrusive Igneous Rocks:

 Intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rock forms when magma is trapped deep inside the Earth.
Great globs of molten rock rise toward the surface, but most remains trapped below, where it cools very
slowly over many thousands or millions of years until it solidifies. Slow cooling means the individual
mineral grains have a very long time to grow, so they grow to a relatively large size. Intrusive rocks
have a coarse grained texture.
Example of Intrisucvue rocks: diabase, diorite, gabbro, granite, pegmatite, and peridotite.
 Type of Igneous Rocks
 Extrusive Igneous Rocks:
 Extrusive, or volcanic rock, igneous rock is produced when magma exits and cools above (or very
near) the Earth's surface. These are the rocks that form at erupting volcanoes and oozing fissures.
The magma, called lava when molten rock erupts on the surface, cools and solidifies instantly when
it is exposed to cool temperature of the atmosphere. Quick cooling means that mineral crystals don't
have much time to grow, so these rocks have a very fine-grained or even glassy texture.

 Example of Extrusive rocks: andesite, basalt, dacite (Green or Black), obsidian, pumice, rhyolite,
scoria, and tuff.
 Classification of Igneous Rocks

 Igneous rocks are classified into 04 groups

 Felsic: Felsic is a term that refers to silicate minerals, which are enriched in the lighter
elements such as silica, oxygen, aluminum, sodium, and potassium
 Intermediate: Intermediate rocks are roughly even mixtures of felsic minerals (mainly
plagioclase) and mafic minerals (mainly hornblende, pyroxene, and/or biotite)
 Mafic: A mafic mineral or rock is a igneous rock rich in magnesium and iron with less
amount silicate.
 Ultramafic: Ultramafic rocks are igneous that consist predominantly of mafic
(ferromagnesian) and related minerals.
 4. Metamorphic Rocks
 A metamorphic rock is one that has formed from another, preexisting rock
that was subjected to heat and or pressure.

 The temperatures required to form metamorphic rocks are not as high as the
temperatures at which the rocks would melt. Significant changes can occur in
a solid rock at temperatures well below melting. Heat and pressure
commonly cause the minerals in the rock to recrystallize. The original
minerals may form larger crystals that perhaps interlock more tightly than
before.
 Pressure may cause the rock to become deformed—compressed, stretched,
folded, or compacted. All of this occurs while the rock is still solid; it does
not melt during metamorphism.
 4. Metamorphic Rocks

Sources of heat and pressure

The sources of the elevated pressures and temperatures of metamorphism are many.
 The weight of the overlying rock can put great pressure on the rocks below.
 One source of elevated temperatures is the fact that temperatures increase with depth in the earth.
In general, crustal temperatures increase at the rate of about 30 °C per kilometer of depth (close to
60 ° F per mile)—Deep in the crust, rocks are subjected to enough heat and pressure to show the
deformation and recrystallization characteristic of metamorphism.
 The decay of radioactive elements inside the earth
 4. Metamorphic Rocks

Sources of heat and pressure

 Another heat source is a cooling magma. When hot magma formed at depth rises to
shallower levels in the crust, it heats the adjacent, cooler rocks, and they may be
metamorphosed (Metamorphism is a process of mineral assemblage and texture
variation)
 The two main types of metamorphism are both related to heat within Earth:

 Regional metamorphism: Changes in enormous quantities of rock over a wide area

caused by the extreme pressure from overlying rock or from compression caused by
plate tectonic process.
 Contact metamorphism: Changes in a rock that is in contact with magma because of
the magma’s extreme heat
 4. Metamorphic Rocks

Examples

 Gneiss, slate, marble, schist, quartzite, garnet

 phyllite, biotite, marble, amphibolite, talc, epidote,
 4. Metamorphic Rocks

Common metamorphic rocks

 Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Some kinds of metamorphic rocks are strongly banded or foliated. (Foliated means the parallel
arrangement of certain mineral grains that gives the rock a striped appearance). Foliation forms when
pressure squeezes the flat or elongate minerals within a rock so they become aligned. These rocks
develop a platy or sheet-like structure that reflects the direction that pressure was applied.
 4. Metamorphic Rocks

Common metamorphic rocks

 Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Non-foliated metamorphic rocks do not have a platy or sheet-like structure. There are several ways
that non-foliated rocks can be produced. Some rocks, such as marble, quartzite are made of minerals
that are not flat or elongate.
 5. Rock Cycle

 The rock cycle is a basic concept in geology that describes transitions through geologic time
among the three main rock types: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. Each rock type is
altered when it is forced out of its equilibrium conditions.

 Transition to igneous rock

 When pre-exiting rocks are pushed deep under the Earth's surface, they may melt into magma. If
the conditions no longer exist for the magma to stay in its liquid state, it cools and solidifies into
an igneous rock. These rocks are fine-grained and sometimes cool so rapidly that no crystals can
form and result in a natural glass, such as obsidian, however the most common fine-grained rock
would be known as basalt. Any of the three main types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks) can melt into magma and cool into igneous rocks.
5. Rock Cycle
5. Rock Cycle
 5. Rock Cycle

 Transition to metamorphic rock

 A pre-existing rocks exposed to high temperatures and pressures can be changed physically or
chemically to form a different rock, called metamorphic. These rocks commonly exhibit distinct
bands of differing mineralogy and colors, called foliation. Another main type of metamorphism is
caused when a body of rock comes into contact with an igneous intrusion that heats up this
surrounding rock.
 5. Rock Cycle

 Transition to sedimentary rock

 A pre-existing rocks exposed to the atmosphere are variably unstable and subject to the processes
of weathering and erosion. Weathering and erosion break the original rock down into smaller
fragments and carry away dissolved material. This fragmented material accumulates and is buried
by additional material. Sedimentary rocks can be formed from in which sediment is squeezed by
the weight and pressure of overlying layers. Later, sedimentary rock particles or fragments are
cemented together after deposition.
 Questions

 What is Sedimentary rock? How sedimentary rocks formed in nature?

 What is igneous rock? What are the type of igneous rock?
 Write a comprehensive note on Rock cycle?
• Discussion session
• Question and Answer