CIEM 5760 Engineering Geology

and Rock Mechanics

Lecture 2: Minerals and Igneous Rocks

1. Rock-forming minerals
What are minerals?
Geologists define a mineral as a naturally occurring, solid,
crystalline substance, generally inorganic, with a specific
chemical composition.

Naturally occurring = found in nature, without human interference

The diamonds mined in South Africa are minerals. Synthetic diamonds produced in labs are not
minerals, nor are other lab products.

Solid, crystalline substance = atoms are arranged in orderly, repeating, three-

dimensional array. (internal order, homogenous)
Glassy or amorphous (without form) materials have no such orderly arrangement and they are not
minerals.

Generally inorganic = not a product of living tissue

Coal is not considered a mineral. Calcite (contains inorganic carbon) is a mineral.

With a specific chemical composition

What makes each mineral unique is its chemical composition and the arrangement of its atoms in
an internal structure. A mineral’s chemical composition either is fixed or varies within defined limits.
2
Chemical classes of minerals
• Silicates – contain silicate ion SiO44- 䪴懤湅 䩱懤湅

Non-silicate minerals
• Carbonates – contain carbonate ion CO32- 䬛懤湅
Calcite (CaCO3), Aragonite (CaCO3), Dolomite (Ca, Mg)CO3
• Oxides – contain oxygen ion O2- and metallic cations 㾒ԗ࣒
Magnetite (Fe3O4), Hematite (Fe2O3), Corundum (Al2O3)
• Sulfides – contain sulfide ion S2- and metallic cations 䫚ԗ࣒
Pyrite (FeS2), Galena (PbS)
• Sulfates – contain sulfate ion SO42- and metallic cations 䫚懤湅
Gypsum (CaSO4.H20) , Anhydrite (no H20), Barite (BaSO4)
• Halides – contain Cl-, F-, I-, or Br- 渽ԗ࣒
Fluorite (CaF2), Halite (NaCl), Sylvite (KCl)
• Hydroxides – contain hydroxyl ion (OH-) 㾖㾒ԗ࣒
• Native elements – masses of all the same element
metallically bonded eg. copper (Cu) 3

2. Physical properties of minerals

Hardness Cleavage Fracture
Luster Color Streak
Density Crystal habit Solubility

4
 Physical characters
Properties of minerals such as: color, luster, form,
hardness, cleavage, fracture, tenacity, and specific
gravity.
Colour:
- Some minerals have a distinctive color e.g. green color
of chlorite.

Chlorite (Green color) Apatite (green color) K-feldspar (Pink color)

- But most naturally occurring minerals contain

5
traces of substances which modify their color.

For nonmetallic minerals, color is not a truly diagnostic property

Calcite with different colors

blue clear yellow pink

Feldspar with different colors

Labradorite (gray) Amazonite (green) K-feldspar (pink/salmon) Albite (white)

6
Photos © Guillermo Rocha/Brooklyn College
 Some minerals have constant colors. Knowing these specific
colors may be considerable help in identifying them.......

Olivine - always green Pyrite - always gold (fool’s gold)

Garnet - always deep red Magnetite - always black

7
Photos © Guillermo Rocha/Brooklyn College

Streak
The streak of a mineral is the colour of its powder which is produced by
rubbing mineral on a piece of rough unglazed porcelain. It is often quite
different from that of a larger piece of the mineral, and can be a diagnostic
feature used in mineral identification.

Haematite (Fe2O3) red/brown streak

䎔䩥⽖

⻱䩥⽖
Magnetite (Fe2O4) black/gray streak 8
streak of minerals

9
Photos ©Guillermo Rocha/Brooklyn College

୐ًҰ࡫

࣬ࣸҰ࡫
㷇劮Ұ࡫

࡝劮Ұ࡫

࣮࣯Ұ࡫

В僙Ұ࡫

擟ीҰ࡫

Dull No luster

10
Hardness, or resistance to abrasion, is measured relative to a
standard scale of ten minerals, known as Mohs’ Scale of
Hardness, which is a highly diagnostic property in mineral
identification.

࢝ी

ी匰 (2.5)
‫ސ‬આी (3)
㾋ी

䭝ࢱी (5.5?)

࠳斴ी (6)
ीਸ਼ Unglazed porcelain
‫ۺ‬٧ी streak plate (7)
⤔ࣥ

擟ी 11

Hardness
1. Talc 4. Fluorspar 8. Topaz
5. Apatite

2. Gypsum 9. Corundum
6. Orthoclase Feldspar

3. Calcite 7. Quartz 10. Diamond

12
Cleavage :

- Many minerals possess a tendency to split easily

in certain regular directions, and yield smooth
plane surfaces called cleavage planes when it was
broken.

Cleavage
Cleavage plane
Plane

- These directions depend on the arrangement of

the atoms in a mineral and are parallel to definite
crystal faces. 13

Cleavage in one direction. Example: MUSCOVITE

Cleavage in two directions. Example: FELDSPAR, PYROXENES

Cleavage in three directions. Example: HALITE

Example of rhomboidal cleavage in CALCITE 14

Conchoidal fracture 嶔㼢䖙㧊Ռ Splintery fracture ⨇ٚ䖙㧊Ռ

Volcanic Glass – asbestos

Obsidian glass (amorphous)

Hackly fracture 抠滺䉨㕟⎋

copper 15
quartz

Common crystal aggregations and habits

granular, an intergrowth of mineral grains of
approximately the same size; lamellar, flat,
platelike individuals arranged in layers; bladed,
elongated crystals flattened like a knife blade;
fibrous, an aggregate of slender fibres, parallel
or radiating; acicular, slender, needlelike
crystals; radiating, individuals forming starlike
or circular groups; globular, radiating
individuals forming small spherical or
hemispherical groups; dendritic, in slender
divergent branches, somewhat plantlike;
mammillary, large smoothly rounded, masses
resembling mammae, formed by radiating
crystals; botryoidal, globular forms resembling
a bunch of grapes; colloform, spherical forms
composed of radiating individuals without
regard to size (this includes botryoidal, reniform,
and mammillary forms); stalactitic, pendent
cylinders or cones resembling icicles;
concentric, roughly spherical layers arranged
about a common centre, as in agate and in
geodes; geode, a partially filled rock cavity
lined by mineral material (geodes may be
banded as in agate owing to successive
depositions of material, and the inner surface is
often covered with projecting crystals); and
oolitic, an assemblage consisting of small 16
spheres resembling fish roe.
 Basic building block:

Si4+ Silica tetrahedron

SiO42-

Silica Tetrahedron
Single chain Double chain

3D network of
tetrahedrons
Sheet of tetrahedrons 17

Structure of silicate minerals

Cleavage planes
Mineral and number of Silicate
Group Chemical formula structure Specimen
cleavage directions
1 plane Isolated
tetrahedra
㷒㺢ी Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4

2 planes at 90°
Single chains

忡ी Pyroxene (Mg, Fe)SiO3

2 planes at 60°
and 120° Double chains

અ斿ी Amphibole Ca2(Mg, Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2

1 plane Sheets

Muscovite: ग曾࠾
曾࠾ Micas KAl2(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
Biotite: ௲曾࠾
K(Mg, Fe)3AlSi3O10(OH)2
2 planes at 90° Three-dimensional
framework
Orthoclase feldspar: ࠳斴ी
斴ी Feldspars KAlSi3O8
Plagioclase feldspar: ‫ފ‬斴ी 18
(Ca, Na) AlSi3O8
 Augite (pyroxene)
In many ways augite (a member of the
pyroxene family) resembles hornblende
(amphibole) in terms of color and
composition.
Augite is distinguished from hornblende by its shorter,
stubbier crystals and the fact that its two cleavage
planes are close to a right angle.

Hornblende (amphibole)
Identifying Characteristics: elongated
crystals (prism or needle-like), dark
color, cleavage angles

Specimen displays the approximate 120 degrees 19

between hornblende cleavage directions

20
The mica group:
Muscovite: KAl2 (Si3Al) O10 (OH)2 More weathering resistant

Biotite: K(Mg,Fe)3 (Si3Al)O10 (OH)2 Ferromagnesian (easy weathering)

21

The feldspar group: The K-feldspars or alkali felspars:

* Microcline * Sanidine * Orthoclase
The plagioclase feldspars:
Feldspar is the most important group of * Albite * Oligoclase * Andesine
rock-forming minerals that make up to * Labradorite * Bytownite * Anorthite
60% of the Earth's crust. Feldpars are
essential constituents of most igneous
rocks and are therefore used for Orthoclase, Microcline
(KAlSi3O8)
classification of the igneous rocks.
Felspars are composed of a network of SiO4
tetrahedron in which some of the Si4+ are
replaced by Al3+.
The chief members of the feldspar
family can be classified using three
end members:
1) orthoclase KAlSi3O8
2) albite, NaAlSi3O8
3) anorthite CaAl2Si2O8 Albite Plagioclase feldspars Anorthite
(NaAlSi3O8) (CaAlSi3O8)
K-feldspar Plagioclase
striations

Carlsbad twinning

The striation is the most characteristic identifying

feature of plagioclase, and makes its
identification easy when present.

The salmon-pink color is typical

of K-spar

orthoclase
23
Tiger striping

Quartz: crystal structure

In the crystal structure of
quartz, the silica tetrahedra
are arranged in helices along
the c axis. The helices are
right- or left-handed and are
linked so that every
tetrahedron shares all four
(a) Quartz crystal with corners with others.
(b) Spiral structure in
extra (tri-gonal) faces
atomic framework of quartz
Clear Pink
quartz quartz

Smoky
quartz
(c) The section viewed along
Milky the c axis, demonstrating24the
quartz trigonal symmetry
 Simplified Mineral Identification Chart: Common Rock-forming Minerals

EXAMINE MINERAL USING HAND LENS

Can be scratched Can be scratched by a knife Cannot be scratched by

hardness by fingernail but not by a fingernail a knife

One perfect One perfect Three good No Two good Two good
cleavage cleavages
cleavage cleavage cleavages at cleavage cleavages at
75o and 105o at 90o 60o, 120o

color & Glassy Light Dark Glassy or Glassy, White, Dark Dark
Black Green
luster or colored colored white grey, or grey or glassy glassy
sugary white pink or or
pearly pearly
name Gypsum Graphite Chlorite Muscovite Biotite Calcite, Quartz Felspar Pyroxene Amphibole
Dolomite
SiO2
CaSO4·2H2O Carbon CaCO3 : Network
Sheet silicate
Ca, Mg(CO3)2 Chain silicates
silicate
Diff. react with
HCl
Plagioclase Orthoclase
NaAlSi3O8 KAlSi3O8
CaAlSi3O8
25
Network silicate

Convergent Divergent Convergent Intraplate/

plate plate Intraplate plate divergent plate
boundary boundary boundary boundary

‫ל‬暔愄俩‫ڛ‬
ࡢࡎЗ劵 ࡢ㈩ Continental ੆ઈ
㈩‫ڛ‬ Mid-ocean Island margin arc Rift
Island arc ridge

㤣㐛З‫ڵ‬
䒟溟 ғ妧߂⸇
Spreading center
Hotspot Subducting plate

Origin of magma in magmatic geosystems:

• Decompression melting in spreading centers 26
• Fluid-induced melting in subduction zones
Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks form by

crystallization from a
magma. Geologists
distinguish two major
types of igneous rocks
– intrusive and
extrusive – on the basis
of the sizes of their
crystals.

27

Bowen’s reaction series

More
resistant

Less
resistant
Weathering

28
Magmatic Differentiation (Basaltic intrusion at Palisades of New Jersey)
THE PALISADES INTRUSION
Sandstone
Basalt
Mostly sodium-rich

245–275 m (800–900 ft)

plagioclase feldspar;
no olivine

Basaltic intrusion
Calcium-rich
plagioclase feldspar
and pyroxene;
no olivine
Olivine
Basalt

Basalt cooled quickly Sandstone

at the edges of the
intrusion.

Magmatic differentiation
• A process by which rocks of varying composition can arise from a uniform parent
magma.
• The first minerals to crystallize from a cooling magma are the ones that are the
last to melt.
• Fractional crystallization is the process by which the crystals are formed in a
29
cooling magma and are segregated from the remaining liquid.

Example: Basaltic intrusion at Palisades of New Jersey

THE PALISADES INTRUSION

~1200°C ~600°C
Plagioclase Plagioclase
Olivine Plagioclase
crystals f
feldspar feldspar
f
feldspar
Pyroxene Pyroxene
Magma with
Olivine Olivine composition C
Magma with Magma with Magma with
composition A composition B composition C

Olivine Pyroxene and A gradient of Plagioclase

crystallizes plagioclase pyroxene and feldspar
first. feldspar feldspar is continues to
crystallize. established. crystallize.
30
 Volcanic Process

Volcanoes transport magma from Earth’s interior to its surface, where rocks
are formed and gases are injected into the atmosphere 31

Lava flow Ash falls and pyroclasts

Country Volcano
rock

Sill

Dikes cut
Sill
across layers
of country
Sill rock…

…but sills run

parallel to them.

Batholiths are the largest

forms of plutons, covering
at least 100 km2.
32
 Igneous rocks can be classified by the proportions of
silica and silicate minerals they contain.

Four compositional groups:

• Felsic (acid) igneous rocks (Felsic= feldspar + silica)

light in color, eg. granite
• Intermediate igneous rocks (composition between Felsic
and Mafic)
• Mafic (basic) igneous rocks (Mafic= magnesium + ferric)
dark in color, eg. basalt
• Ultramafic (ultrabasic) igneous rocks (contains extremely
large amounts of Mg and Fe)

Note: Each of these terms can also be applied to describe magma.

33

Common Minerals of Igneous Rocks

(Acid)

(Basic)

ferro-magnesian 34
Classification of Igneous Rocks
• Texture
Acid Basi • Mineral compositio
c

Fine grained
Coarse grained

Igneous rocks
can be
classified by
the
proportions of
silica and
silicate
minerals they
contain.
Viscosity increasing 35

Texture of Igneous rocks

Texture (size of crystals)

• Coarse-grained rocks
• Fine-grained rocks
• Mixed texture rocks

Crystal size is related to rate of magma cooling

The more slowly it cools, the larger the crystal size in the resulting
rock.
Intrusive igneous rocks (plutonic rock):
¾ formed by the slow cooling of magma in Earth’s interior
¾ interlocking, large, coarse crystals
Extrusive igneous rocks (volcanic rock):
¾ formed by the rapid cooling of magma erupted onto Earth’s surface
¾ formed from two kind of materials: lavas and pyroclasts 36
¾ fine-grained texture or glassy appearance.
 Texture:
The texture, or relative size and arrangement of the component
minerals, of an igneous rock corresponds broadly to the rock’s mode
of occurrence.
Equigranular – Porphyritic – large
plutonic rocks which fragments of
have cooled slowly broken rocks
under Earth’s crust embedded in fine
and form coarse matrix of volcanic
crystalline texture of dust and ash.
approximately equal
size grains.

Vesicular – Flow structure –

expanding gases in banding produced
a magma during its by differential
excursion give rise movement between
to cavities or layers of the viscous
vesicles. material as the lava
37
flowed.

Commonly used terms for describing igneous rock texture

(all may be used as field terms and requires no greater visual aid than a x10 hand lens)

Vitric

38
Sequence of events:
formation of a fissure
eruption

39
Fissure eruption: Laki fissure, Iceland

Flood basalts:
Columbia Plateau,
Washington

40
 Central eruptions:

Mount St. Helens, Washington State,

before, during and after its eruption in
May 1980. Large amount of broken rock
fragments, volcanic ash and dust
generated during volcanic explosion,
which ejects about 1 km3 of pyroclastic
41
material

Pyroclastic flow

Lava

Lahar 42
 Pyroclasts Volcanic ash Bomb Pumice
Extrusive pyroclasts
form in violent
eruptions from lava
in the air.

Extrusive rocks Mafic (basic) Felsic (acid)

Basalt Rhyolite
Extrusive igneous
rocks cool rapidly
and are fine-
grained.
Porphyry
Gabbro Granite Intrusive igneous
rocks cool slowly,
allowing large,
coarse crystals to
form.
Phenocrysts
Intrusive rocks Porphyritic crystals start
(plutonic) to grow beneath Earth’s
surface. Some crystals
A porphyry is an igenous grow large, but the
rock consisting of large remaining melt cools
crystals dispersed within a faster, forming smaller
Porphyry
finer-grained matrix. The crystals.
large crystals are called 43
phenocrysts.

Caldera Volcanoes औ䍡ً

A collapse is triggered by the emptying of
the magma chamber beneath the
volcano, sometimes as the result of a
large explosive volcanic eruption, but also
during effusive eruptions on the flanks of
a volcano or in a connected fissure
system. If enough magma is ejected, the
emptied chamber is unable to support the
weight of the volcanic edifice above it.
Crater Lake, Oregon, formed around 5,680 BC

By Chmee2 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index. 44
php?curid=11988125
Caldera Volcanoes औ䍡ً
Rhyolitic volcanoes in convergent boundary tectonic settings may form caldera
volcanoes. Caldera volcanoes are ones in which the top part of the volcano has
been explosively destroyed following collapse into an underlying drained magma
chamber (Figure below). Caldera volcanoes are the result of very violent eruptions.

The volcanic rocks that occur in Hong Kong are predominantly of rhyolitic
composition, consisting mainly of ash. These rocks were formed by violent
eruptions of ash from caldera-type volcanoes. Ash clouds from caldera-type
volcanoes are commonly so large, that they collapse under gravity and flow over the
landscape like a fiery fluid.

Figure. Formation of a caldera

volcano -
(A) Explosive eruption partially
empties the underlying magma
chamber;
(B) The summit of the volcano
collapses into the empty space left
in the magma chamber, forming a
caldera

http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk/hkss/eng/education
/GS/eng/hkg/chapter2.htm?tab=3 45

Mesozoic Volcanism and Related Rocks in Hong Kong

(165-140 mya)

The volcanic products were erupted in distinct phases during

the Middle and Late Jurassic, and Early Cretaceous periods. 46
什৴ࡸબঃ䍡ًͣHigh Island supervolcano)͵size 18 km, last eruption 140 mya.
47
Hundreds of km3 1.3Ѕьॹ‫ސ‬জ eruption, pile up 1300 m thick over the entire HK.

Distribution of volcanic rocks in Hong

Kong

48
Volcanic rocks alone account for approximately 50% of Hong
Kong's surface area
 Tuffs (Pyroclastic) Joint
surface
Grain sizes
• Fine ash (<0.06 mm)ࢮٌࢱ
• Coarse ash (0.06-2 mm)
• Lapilli (2-60 mm) /ləˈpɪlʌɪ / ࢮٌ䮐
• Blocks and bombs (>60 mm)
+.8677XIIࠍ⚠ዙ

49
Volcanic bomb Volcanic breccia

Volcanic Breccia

50
In terms of their physical characteristics, the tuffs of Hong Kong are classified
according to the recommendations for pyroclastic rocks of the International Union
of Geological Sciences (Schmid, 1981; Le Maitre, 1989) (Figures 5.2 & 5.3).

Classification of pyroclastic rocks Classification of pyroclastic rocks

based on fragmental composition based on clast size (after Schmid,
(after Le Maitre, 1989) 1981;Fisher & Schminke, 1984)

Tuffs are classified according to particle size and the relative amount of pumice /
glass, crystal fragments and rock fragments that made up the rocks 51

However, their compositional classification is based on whole-rock chemistry, since

these rocks commonly contain extremely fine-grained matrix components (e.g. fine
ash comprising devitrified glass and crystals) preventing accurate determination of
their modal mineralogy.

Whole-rock chemical
compositions are
determined according to
the widely used total alkali
versus silica diagram
(Na2O+K2O vs SiO2) of Le
Maitre (1989)

52
http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/about/organisation/vol.html
 Volcanic rock Caldera
⹤⚛ኡ

Granite

Quartz
Monzonite

Schematic representation of caldera development and related subvolcanic

intrusions between 143 to 142 million years ago 53

Columnar jointing

54
Fine ash Coarse ash

55

56
 Rhyolite Lava ⍱㌻ዙ
Rhyolite is an igneous rock type with the same mineral composition as
granite but of very fine grain size, the latter resulting from the extrusion of
the molten rock at the earths surface and its consequent rapid cooling.

‘flow’ banding

Sharp Island
(Photo: G Wang)
Flow-banded lava in the Lantau Volcanic Group on the flanks
of Nei Lak Shan, Lantau Island (Sewell et al. 2000)
57

Volcanic Sedimentary (Volcaniclastic) Rock

Bedding

Folding

Soft sediment deformation in the

Lai Chi Chong Formation, Lai Chi 58
Lai Chi Chong (Photo: G Wang) Chong (Sewell et al. 2000)
Mesozoic Granite and Related Rocks (165-140 mya)

花崗岩

花崗閃長岩

石英二長岩

Distribution of
Plutonic Rocks
in Hong Kong

• 3 main rock types based on mineralogy

(i.e. 80% Granite, 15% Granodiorite, 5% Quartz Monzonite)
Sewell, R.J., Campbell, S.D.G., Fletcher , C.J.N., Lai, K.W. & Kirk, P .A. (2000). The Pre- Quaternary
59
Geology of Hong Kong. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong.
 Plutonic Rocks in Hong Kong
• Formation: relatively uniform
• Weathering: dominate process which controls the
engineering characteristics of plutonic rocks. Unweathered
fresh rock is very strong to extremely strong.
• Discontinuities: faults, shear zone, joints weaken the rock
mass and promote weathering
Granite

Major constituents of Hong Q=quartz Q

Kong plutonic rocks are A=alkali feldspar
including albite
quartz, plagioclase feldspar, P=plagioclase
alkali feldspar, minor amount feldspar
of biotite mica / hornblende
Typical Granite Granodiorite Quartz
Granodiorite
composition Monzonite

Quartz 35 30 <20

Alkali 25 10 35
Feldspar

Plagioclase 25 40 35 Quartz
feldspar A P Monzonite
Biotite mica/ <10 >10 <10
Hornblende Composition of the plutonic rocks 60
(Sewell et al., 2000)
Granite Alkali-feldspar
Micro-granite

Mica

Quartz
Quartz Monzonite ीਸ਼и斴㈏

Quartz Monzonite ीਸ਼и斴㈏

61

㣡ፇ䮳䮧ዙ
Granodiorite㣡

- granitic rocks in
which the plagioclase
feldspar content is
greater than that of the
alkali-feldspar
(Orthoclase); their
dark minerals (biotite,
amphibole) are usually
rather more plentiful
than in granite, and
the amount of quartz
is less.

62
Glossary -- Minerals

Olivine 橄欖石 Magnetite 磁鐵礦 Fe3O4

Pyroxene 輝石 augite 輝石 Haematite 赤鐵礦 Fe2O3
Amphibole (Hornblende) 角閃石 Chlorite 氯酸鹽, 綠泥石
Muscovite Mica白雲母 Calcite方解石 CaCO3
Biotite Mica黑雲母 Dolomite 白雲石;石灰岩
feldspar 長石 Kaolin 高嶺土
(orthoclase) 正長石 Gypsum 石膏 CaSO4.2H20
(plagioclase) 斜長石 Halite 岩鹽 NaCl
Galena 方鉛礦 PbS
albite 鈉長石 Pyrite 黃鐵礦 FeS2
anorthite 鈣長石 Serpentine 蛇紋石
Quartz 石英 水晶 Anhydrite 硬石膏,無水石膏
Talc 滑石
Apatite 磷灰石
alkali 碱 Corundum 金剛砂
cation 陽離子 Fluorite 螢石,氟石
anion 陰離子 orthorhombic Obsidian 黑曜岩
hydroxyl 氫氧根 conchoidal Flint 燧石
isotope 同位素 vitreous Asbestos 石棉
proton 質子 resinous Opal 蛋白石
Glossary -- Rocks Igneous rock - 火成岩

Rhyolite 流紋岩 Andesite 安山石 Basalt 玄武岩 Picrite 苦橄岩

Quartz porphyry Porphyry 斑岩, 玢岩 Dolerite 輝綠岩
石英斑岩
Granite 花崗岩 Diorite 閃長岩 Gabbro 輝長岩 Peridotite 橄欖岩
Dacite - 英安岩

Granodiorite 花崗閃長岩

Pyroclastic rock 火山碎屑岩

Tuff 凝灰岩 Tuffaceous Columnar Jointing 柱狀節理

Pumice 浮石
Breccia 角礫岩 Pluton 深成火成岩
Dyke 岩牆
Porphyritic 斑狀 Phenocrysts 斑晶
Sill 岩床
Vesicular 有氣泡的 Vesicle
Vein 岩脈
phaneritic 顯晶狀 aphanitic 微晶狀
Batholith岩基
fissure 裂縫，裂隙 Laccolith岩蓋
Glossary -- Sedimentary rock - 沉積岩 diagenesis 成岩作用

Conglomerate 礫岩 Evaporite 蒸發岩

Breccia 角礫岩 Limestone - 石灰岩

Grit 粗砂石 Dolomite - 白雲石;石灰岩

Sandstone 沙岩 Arkose; Lithic; Quartz Chert 燧石, 黑硅石; cherty adj.
arenite; Graywacke
Siltstone 沙泥岩 Flint - 燧石, 火石
Mudstone 泥岩 Shale 頁岩
Claystone 黏土岩

Detrital - 由岩屑形成的 detritus Rudaceous 礫質的

Terrigenous 陸生的 Arenaceous 沙質的
Siliceous 矽酸的, 矽質的 Argillaceous 泥質的
Calcareous 鈣質的,石灰質的 Carbonaceous 碳質的;含碳的
Pyroclastic 火山碎屑的 Saline 含鹽的
Bioclastic 生物碎屑 Ferruginous 含鐵的
Fissile 易裂的 oolite 鲕粒岩 oolitic
Glossary

Metamorphic Rock - 變質岩

foliated 葉片狀 granoblastic 花岗变晶状

Slate 板岩 Hornfels 角頁岩

Phyllite 千枚岩 Quartzite 石英岩

Schist 片岩 Marble 大理石

Greenstone 綠岩
Gneiss 片麻岩
Amphibolite 角閃岩
Migmatite 混合岩
Granulite 粒變岩