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Chapter 2 Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 20
Working with the Big Ideas in Number and the Australian
Siemon, 2011b). The extent to which this has been achieved is discussed in terms of
Curriculum: Mathematics five big ideas in Number that have been found to be useful in identifying learning
Dianne Siemon needs and informing teacher’s responses to those needs in Victorian, Tasmanian and
John Bleckly South Australian schools.
Denise Neal Why a Focus on Big Ideas?
Students need to learn mathematics in ways that enable them to recognise when
mathematics might help to interpret information or solve practical problems, apply their
knowledge appropriately in contexts where they will have to use mathematical reasoning
processes, choose mathematics that makes sense in the circumstances, make assumptions,
This chapter will explore why big ideas have become a topic of interest in
resolve ambiguity and judge what is reasonable in the context. (Commonwealth of
mathematics education, what these might look like in relation to the teaching and
Australia, 2008, p. 11)
learning of number in the early to the middle years of schooling, and how these are
reflected in the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics. In particular, it will consider Evidence from the 2009 Programme for International Student Assessment [PISA] shows
those ideas and strategies without which student’s progress in mathematics will be that there has been a significant decline in the proportion of Australian students
seriously impacted. Identified as trusting the count, place-value, multiplicative reaching Level 5 or above on the mathematical literacy scale (Thomson, Bortoli,
thinking, partitioning, and proportional reasoning (Siemon, 2006), each idea will be
Nicholas, Hillman & Buckley, 2011). This is consistent with data from the Middle
explored through the lens of a set of diagnostic materials that have been found to be
effective in mainstream and remote Indigenous settings. Two case studies will be Years Numeracy Research Project [MYNRP] which found that a significant proportion
reported to demonstrate the efficacy of the diagnostic tools and their associated of students in Years 5 to 9 experience considerable difficulty interpreting problem
advice in helping teachers identify and respond to the specific learning needs of their situations, applying what they know to solve unfamiliar situations, explaining their
students while building a deeper understanding of the mathematics needed for thinking and communicating mathematically (e.g., Siemon, Virgona & Corneille,
teaching. 2001).
While it is difficult to argue cause and effect at this macro level, there is little
The crowded curriculum and the lack of succinct, unambiguous guidelines about doubt that the opportunity to engage in sustained problem solving and in-depth
the key ideas and strategies needed to make progress in school mathematics have investigations is significantly influenced by the amount of content that teachers feel
long been a concern of teachers. This is particularly the case for Number which is they have to teach and how that content is offered (NCB, 2009). This is reflected in
the area most responsible for the significant range in mathematics achievement in the size and organisation of mathematics textbooks in the middle years where
the middle years of schooling (Siemon, Virgona & Corneille, 2001; Siemon, Breed, mathematics is typically presented as a set of disconnected topics and the primary
Dole, Izard & Virgona, 2006). While the importance of focussing on the ‘big ideas’ is mode of learning is example-practice-practice. The fact that there is considerable
widely recognised (e.g., Charles, 2005; Kuntze, Lerman, Murphy, Kurz-Milcke, Siller overlap in the content of such texts and the vast majority of problems tend to be
& Winbourne, 2009; National Curriculum Board [NCB], 2009: Ontario Ministry of relatively low-level, skill-based repetitious exercises (e.g., Vincent & Stacey, 2008) is
Education, 2006), there is little agreement about what these ideas are and how they unlikely to be conducive to learning mathematics in the way suggested by the
are best represented to support the teaching and learning of mathematics in schools. National Numeracy Review (Commonwealth of Australia, 2008). A focus on the big
The development of the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics [ACM] (Australian ideas is needed to ‘thin out’ the over-crowded curriculum (NCB, 2009; National
Curriculum Assessment Reporting Authority, 2011) provided an important Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008) and create opportunities to rethink and
opportunity to negotiate and articulate the big ideas in school mathematics (see transform existing approaches to the teaching and learning of mathematics.
_________________ Teachers need to understand the big ideas of mathematics and be able to represent
In B. Atweh, M. Goos, R. Jorgensen & D. Siemon, (Eds.). (2012). Engaging the Australian mathematics as a coherent and connected enterprise. (National Council of Teachers of
National Curriculum: Mathematics – Perspectives from the Field. Online Publication: Mathematics, 2000, p. 17)
Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia pp. 19‐45.
21 Big Ideas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 22

A focus on big ideas and the links between them is also needed to strengthen Big Idea #13: Rules of arithmetic and algebra can be used together with notions of
student understanding and help deepen teacher knowledge and confidence for equivalence to transform equations and inequalities so solutions can be found. (p. 18)
teaching mathematics (Charles, 2005), the importance of which has been While not defining a ‘big idea’, the Ontario Ministry of Education (2005) lists five
demonstrated by research on the characteristics of effective teachers of mathematics ‘big ideas’ in number sense and numeration for K to 3 – ‘counting, operational
(e.g., Askew, 1999; Charles, 2005; Clarke & Clarke, 2002; Hattie, 2003; Ma, 1999). For sense, quantity, relationships, and representations’. For Years 4 to 6 ‘counting’ is
instance, effective teachers recognise the connections between different aspects and replaced by ‘proportional reasoning’ and in Years 7 to 8, the list is reduced to
representations of mathematics. They ask timely and appropriate questions, ‘quantity relationships, operational sense, and proportional relationships’. This
facilitate and maintain high-level conversations about important mathematics, approach provides some indication of the developmental progressions involved but
evaluate and respond to student thinking during instruction, promote these are not specifically delineated.
understanding, help students make connections, and target teaching to ensure key More recently, the Awareness of the Big Ideas in Mathematics Classrooms project
ideas and strategies are understood. “A clearly, succinctly written curriculum will (Kuntze, Lerman, Murphy, Siller et al., 2009), which is aimed at “encouraging
assist this” (NCB, 2009, p. 12). teachers’ reflections on overarching concepts in mathematics and on their potential
for learning” (p. 9), has identified four characteristics of big ideas. These can be
What is a ‘Big Idea’ in School Mathematics? summarised as ideas that have high potential for building conceptual
The content of school mathematics has always been subjected to some form of understanding, meta-knowledge about mathematics as a science, meaningful
categorisation. In recent times, these categorisations have included process as well communication strategies, and professional reflection. Examples of big ideas from
as content strands, for example, the National Statement on Mathematics for Australian this standpoint include ‘using multiple representations’, ‘giving arguments or
Schools (Australian Education Council, 1991). For its purposes, PISA categorised proving’ and ‘dealing with infinity’. While these are undoubtedly important
school mathematics in terms of ‘quantity, space and shape, and uncertainty’. In the indicators of mathematical reasoning and best teaching practice, it is not clear how
Discussion Paper on School Mathematics for the 21st Century, the Australian Association these translate to learning trajectories that could be used to inform teaching and
of Mathematics Teachers (2009) added ‘variables, relationships and change’ to the support mathematics learning over time.
PISA list but also included four ‘mathematical actions’. The ACM is organised in For the purposes of the Assessment for Common Misunderstandings (Siemon, 2006)
terms of three content strands – ‘Number and Algebra, Measurement and and the Developmental Maps (Siemon, 2011a) which were developed for the Victorian
Geometry, and Statistics and Probability’ - and four proficiencies. While some of Department of Education and Early Childhood Development [DEECD], a ‘big idea’
these categories (e.g., quantity, uncertainty) might be regarded as really big ideas in in mathematics:
school mathematics, they are too broad to inform teacher’s everyday practice. A  is an idea, strategy, or way of thinking about some key aspect of mathematics
more refined set of key ideas and strategies and the links between them is needed to without which, students’ progress in mathematics will be seriously impacted;
inform teaching and scaffold student learning.  encompasses and connects many other ideas and strategies;
Charles (2005) defines a ‘big idea’ as “a statement of an idea that is central to the  serves as an idealised cognitive model (Lakoff, 1987), that is, it provides an
learning of mathematics, one that links numerous mathematical understandings organising structure or a frame of reference that supports further learning and
into a coherent whole” (p. 10). For example, “Any number, measure, numerical generalizations;
expression, algebraic expression, or equation can be represented in an infinite  cannot be clearly defined but can be observed in activity … (Siemon, 2006,
number of ways that have the same value” (p. 14) is a statement of a big idea. 2011a).
However, while he identifies twenty-one ‘Big Ideas’ in mathematics and provides
‘examples of mathematical understandings’ for each, no claims are made about Why Big Ideas in Number?
possible learning progressions or developmental priorities beyond what is loosely Teachers routinely point to Number as the most difficult aspect of the school
and perhaps unintentionally implied by the organization of the list. For example, mathematics to teach and learn. This is reflected in the time spent on number in the
Big Idea #2: The base ten numeration system is a scheme for recording numbers using school mathematics curriculum and evident in the data from the MYNRP, which
digits 0-9, groups of ten, and place value. … (p. 13) used rich assessment tasks and partial credit items to explore number sense,
23 Big Ideas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 24

measurement and data sense, and space sense in a structured sample of 6859 Year 5 and 8 students performed below curriculum expectations and at least 25% were well
to 9 students in 1999-2001 (Siemon, Virgona & Corneille, 2001). The results of this below expected level (Siemon, Breed et al., 2006).
large-scale study found that there was as much difference in numeracy achievement This discrepancy is unacceptable in a country that prides itself on providing
within schools as between schools, that in any one year level there was there was up opportunities for all (Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training &
to an 8 year range in ability, and the needs of ‘at risk’ learners were not being met. A Youth Affairs, 2008). Multiplicative thinking is a key indicator of success in school
key finding of the MYNRP was that the differences in performance were almost mathematics in the middle years and as such it is imperative that the key ideas and
entirely due to difficulties with larger whole numbers, decimals, fractions, strategies that underpin the transition from additive to multiplicative thinking are
multiplication and division, and proportional reasoning, collectively recognised as clearly articulated and understood by teachers and curriculum developers. A focus
multiplicative thinking (Vergnaud, 1983). on the big ideas in number is essential to inform more targeted approaches to the
As a consequence, the Scaffolding Numeracy in the Middle Years [SNMY] project teaching and learning of mathematics to ensure that all students have the
was designed to explore the development of multiplicative thinking in Years 4 to 8 opportunity to deepen their understanding and participate fully and effectively in
using rich tasks and partial credit items. Rasch modeling (e.g., Bond & Fox, 2001) school mathematics.
was used to analyse the responses of just under 3200 students in three school
clusters (one secondary school and three or more associated primary schools), two Big Ideas in Number and the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics
in Victoria and one in Tasmania (Siemon, Breed et al., 2006). A Learning and Scaffolding student learning is the primary task of teachers of mathematics.
Assessment Framework for Multiplicative Thinking [LAF] was identified on the basis of However, this cannot be achieved without accurate information about what each
this analysis comprising eight hierarchical zones ranging from additive, count-all student knows already and what might be within the student’s grasp with some
strategies (Zone 1) to the sophisticated use of proportional reasoning (Zone 8) with support from the teacher and/or peers. This not only requires a clear understanding
multiplicative thinking not evident on a consistent basis until Zone 4. The of the key ideas, representations and strategies in school mathematics, how they are
proportion of students by Zone by Year level is shown in Figure 1. connected and how they might be acquired over time, it also requires assessment
techniques that expose student thinking, interpretations of what different student
100%
Zone 8
responses might mean, and some practical ideas to address the particular learning
needs identified (Siemon, 2006). As we have seen above, this is particularly
80% Zone 7
important in relation to a relatively small number of ‘big ideas’ and strategies in
Zone 6
60% Number.
Zone 5
The Assessment for Common Misunderstanding tools [hereinafter referred to as the
Zone 4
40% tools] were developed for the Victorian Department of Education and Early
Zone 3
Childhood Development (see Siemon, 2006) to address this need. They draw on
20% Zone 2
research-based tasks and represent what Callingham (2011) has referred to as
Zone 1
0% productive assessment, in that they provide useful, timely, appropriate information
Year Year Year Year Year fit for purpose. Based on earlier work with pre-service teachers and schools in the
4 5 6 7 8 Northern Territory (Siemon, Enilane & McCarthy, 2004), the tools were developed
to help teachers better “understand and monitor their individual students’
Figure 1. Proportions of students by Zone and Year Level from the initial phase of SNMY Project developing strategies and particular learning needs” (National Curriculum Board,
2008, p. xiv) in relation to a small number of very big ideas in Number without
The results of the SNMY confirmed the finding of the MYNRP that there was an
which student’s progress in mathematics will be severely restricted. These ideas are
8 year range in achievement at each year level and when the LAF Zones were
summarised in Table 1. The first five ideas are then considered in terms of their
analysed against curriculum expectations, it was evident that up to 40% of Year 7 associated tools and the ACM (version 1.2) as it is these ideas that most concern the
development of multiplicative thinking in the middle years of schooling.
25 Big Ideas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 26

Table 1. Big ideas in Number by stages of schooling (Siemon, 2006) Trusting the Count
By the end of: Big Idea Indicated by: The term ‘trusting the count’ was originally proposed by Willis (2002) to draw
Foundation Year Trusting the Access to flexible mental objects for the numbers to ten based on part-part-whole
attention to the fact that children may not believe that if they counted the same
Count knowledge derived from subitising and counting (e.g., know that 7 is 1 more than 6, 1 collection again they would arrive at the same amount. More recently this term has
less than 8, 5 and 2, 2 and 5, 3 and 4 without having to make or count a collection of 7) been appropriated and extended to refer not only to the belief that counting will
produce an invariant result (literal interpretation), but also to the capacity to access
Year 2 Place-value Capacity to recognise and work with place-value units and view larger numbers as mental objects for the numbers to ten that render counting unnecessary in most
counts of these units rather than collections of ones (e.g., able to count forwards and
backwards in place-value units) dealings with those numbers (Siemon et al., 2011). Derived primarily from extensive
experiences with subitising (the ability to recognise small collections without
Year 4 Multiplicative Capacity to work flexibly with both the number in each group and the number of groups counting), a child trusts the count for a number such as 8 when he or she can access
Thinking (e.g., can view 6 eights as 5 eights and 1 more eight). Recognises and works with
multiple representations of multiplication and division (e.g., arrays, regions and ‘times a repertoire of knowledge items and images for ‘eightness’ that obviates the need to
as many’ or ‘for each’ idea). represent and count collections of 8 in order to work with 8. Viewed in this way,
Year 6 (Multiplicative) Ability to partition quantities and representations equally using multiplicative reasoning trusting the count also supports a sense of numbers beyond ten, for example, a
Partitioning (e.g., a fifth is smaller than a quarter, estimate 1 fifth on this basis then halve and halve collection of 16 can be recognised as 1 ten and 6 more without counting on by ones
remaining part again to represent fifths), recognise that partitioning distributes over
previous acts of partitioning and that numbers can be divided to create new numbers (Siemon, 2006).
Trusting the count is a big idea that builds on and connects early number ideas
derived from counting and subitising. In particular, it presumes children are
Year 8 Proportional Ability to recognise and work with an extended range of concepts for multiplication and
Reasoning division including rate, ratio, percent, and the ‘for each’ idea, and work with familiar with the number naming sequence and understand what is meant by more,
relationships between relationships less and the same in this context. Trusting the count is not about addition or
Year 10 Generalising Capacity to recognise and represent patterns and relationships in multiple ways
subtraction, although it is a key component of additive thinking. It is about deeply
including symbolic expressions, devise and apply general rules understanding what each of the numbers to ten means and the various ways in
which they might be represented in terms of their parts. It is an essential pre-
The following descriptions draw on material written for the DEECD in 2006 and requisite for understanding larger numbers and developing a sense of quantitative
2011 (Siemon, 2006, 2011a) and Siemon, Beswick, Brady, Clark, Faragher & Warren reasoning (Smith & Thompson, 2007).
(2011). They comprise a number of easy to administer, performance-based tasks Two tools are used to evaluate children’s capacity to trust the count (see Siemon,
designed to address a key area of Number at different levels of schooling from 2006). The first assesses children’s capacity to recognise numbers to 5 without
Foundations to the end of Year 10. In the associated teaching advice a range of counting and on this basis to recognise the remaining numbers to ten without
student responses is identified for each task and, for each of these, an interpretation counting referred to as conceptual subitising by Clements and Samara (2007). The
of what the response implies is provided together with targeted teaching second tool is based on a task developed by Steffe and his colleagues in the early
suggestions. 1980s to evaluate children’s counting strategies (Steffe, Cobb & von Glasersfeld,
1988). It is used in this context to examine the extent to which children have access
to mental objects for the numbers to ten.
The Australian Curriculum: Mathematics [ACM] at this level of schooling refers to
the ‘language and processes of counting’ (ACMNA001) and the ability to ‘connect
number names, numerals and quantities (ACMNA002), ‘subitise small collections’
(ACMNA003) and ‘compare, order and make correspondences between collections’
(ACMNA289). While these capacities are necessary to build mental objects for each
of the numbers to ten, they are not sufficient. By the end of their first 12 to 18
months of school, children need a deep understanding of the numbers to 10 that
27 Big Ideas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 28

goes beyond the language and processes of counting to ensure that when they hear, without recognising tens as units (e.g., ‘partitioning’ 43 as 40 and 3 does not
read, write, or say a number such as ‘seven’, they can imagine that number in terms emphasise ten as a countable unit as 40 is the name for 40 ones). The next two
of its parts (e.g., as 1 more than 6, 5 and 2, or 3 and 4) and how it relates to other descriptors are concerned with assisting calculations (ACMNA053 and
numbers (e.g., as 1 less than 8 or 3 less than 10), without having to make, count or ACMNA073) and the fourth is concerned with the extension of the place-value
literally ‘see’ a collection of 7 objects. A deliberate and explicit focus on the system “to tenths and hundredths” (ACMNA079). Number sequences and skip
development of part-part-whole knowledge is needed to ensure that children move counting are variously referred to in Years 1 and 2 (e.g., ACMNA012 and
beyond the language and processes of counting to develop mental objects for each ACMNA026) but counting by twos, threes, fives or tens does not necessarily mean
of the numbers to ten that they can use flexibly without recourse to materials or that 2, 3, 5 and 10 are understood as countable units. A count of 3, 6, 9, 12, … or 10,
models. 20, 30, 40, … could simply be seen as a shortened form of counting by ones.
Place Value The ability to “recognise, model, read, write, and order numbers to at least 100”
(ACMNA013), “to at least 1000” ( ACMNA027), “to at least 10 000 (ACMNA052),
The big idea of place-value in the early years of schooling is that it provides a and “to at least tens of thousands” (ACMNA072) are necessary pre-requisites for
system of new units based on the notion that ‘10 of these is 1 of those’ that can be working with larger numbers but again, these capacities do not necessarily mean
used to work with and think about larger whole numbers in efficient and flexible that children understand the structural basis of the base ten system of numeration
ways. By the end of their third year of school (generally Year 2), most students can or recognise tens, hundreds, and thousands as abstract composite units (Siemon et
count by ones to 100 and beyond, read and write numbers to 1000, orally skip count al., 2011).
by twos, fives and tens, and identify place-value parts (e.g., they can say that there Additive thinking is not regarded as a big idea in its own right as it builds upon
are 4 hundreds 6 tens and 8 ones in 468). However, these behaviours do not the two ideas of trusting the count and place value (Siemon et al., 2011). It is evident
necessarily mean that children understand place-value as many students still think when children work with numbers as mental objects and rename numbers as
about or imagine these numbers as collections of ones, and they are unable to necessary to facilitate calculations. For example, asked to calculate 36 and 27, an
rename numbers in terms of their place-value parts (e.g., rename 476 as 47 tens and accomplished additive thinker might draw on her knowledge of place value to
6 ones) or work in place-value parts (e.g., name the number 2 tens less than 5308). recognise this sum as 5 tens and 13 ones and therefore 63. Alternatively, she might
That is, they do not recognise tens, and hundreds as units within a larger, place- add 2 tens to 36 to get 56 then, recognising 7 as 4 and 3, add 4 to 60 then 3 more to
based system of numeration. arrive at 63.
Four tools are used to evaluate the extent to which children understand place-
value. The first, the Number Naming Tool is based on a task used by Ross (1989) Multiplicative Thinking
and explores the meanings children attach to 2-digit numerals (e.g., the meaning of For the purposes of the SNMY project, multiplicative thinking was described in
6 and 2 in 26) and the extent to which they can be distracted by regrouping 26 terms of:
counters into groups of 4 (i.e., they understand ten as a countable unit). The Efficient  a capacity to work flexibly and efficiently with an extended range of numbers
Counting Tool indicates the extent to which students can use twos, fives or tens as (and the relationships between them);
countable units to count large collections more efficiently. The Sequencing Tool  an ability to recognise and solve a range of problems involving multiplication
explores the strategies students use to locate a 2-digit number on a 0-100 number and/or division including direct and indirect proportion; and
line and the Renaming and Counting Tool examines student’s capacity to name and  the means to communicate this effectively in a variety of ways (e.g., words,
rename a 3-digit number and count forwards and backwards in place-value parts diagrams, symbolic expressions, and written algorithms) (Siemon, Breed et al.,
from a given 4-digit number. 2006)
In the ACM, although number and place-value is used as a thread across all year Multiplicative thinking is a critically important ‘big idea’ as it underpins virtually
levels there are only four references to place-value in the content descriptions, one at all of the work in number and algebra in the middle years of schooling. By the end
Year 1, one at Year 3 and two at Year 4. The first, “count collections to 100 by of Year 4 students need to be able to think about multiplication in a number of
partitioning numbers using place value” (ACMNA014), can be accomplished different ways so they can recognise when multiplication is required and how it
29 Big Ideas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 30

relates to division, develop efficient mental strategies and meaningful forms of digit multiplication), the interpretation of fraction diagrams (e.g., thirds by fifths are
written computation to solve a wider range of problems, and make connections to fifteenths) and ultimately the multiplication of linear factors.
fraction representations, percent, rate and ratio. To achieve this they need to In Year 3 students are expected to “recall multiplication facts of two, three, five
experience multiplication and division in ways that support a critical shift in and ten and related division facts” (ACMNA056). This wording together with the
thinking from a reliance on equal groups and repeated addition to a more general reference to number sequences “increasing and decreasing by twos, threes, fives
understanding of multiplication and division in terms of factor-factor-product and tens” (AMNA026) in Year 2 implies that the multiplication facts are learnt in
(Siemon et al., 2011). sequence (e.g., 1 three, 2 threes, 3 threes, 4 threes, 5 threes etc) rather than on the
Six tools are provided to evaluate multiplicative thinking at this level. These are basis of number of groups irrespective of size (e.g., 3 of anything is double the
summarised in Table 2. group and one more group). The references to “investigate number sequences
involving multiples of 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9” (ACMNA074) and “recalling
Table 2. Tools used to examine the emergence of multiplicative thinking (Siemon, 2006)
multiplication tables” (Fluency proficiency) at Year 4 reinforce this observation. This
Tool Designed to evaluate student’s capacity to: is unfortunate given the reported success of alternate approaches to learning the
Additive strategies access to mental objects for the numbers to ten and efficient mental strategies for addition and
multiplication facts based on commutativity and distributivity (not mentioned in
subtraction the ACM until Year 7) and renaming numbers (e.g., McIntosh & Dole, 2004; Siemon
et al., 2011).
Countable units recognise numbers as abstract composite wholes (Killion, Steffe & Stanic, 1989), that is, as countable
units in the absence of physical materials/models Factors and multiples are referred to in Year 5 (ACMNA098), “properties of
primes, composite, square and triangular numbers” in Year 6 (ACMNA122), indices
Sharing share equally, recognise commutativity (e.g., that 3 groups of 4 is the same as 4 groups of 3),
appreciate the meaning of ‘times as many as’
in Years 7 and 8 (ACMNA149 & ACMNA182), and solving problems involving
specified numbers and operations across year levels (e.g., ACMNA100, ACMNA101
Array and region use the properties of arrays and regions to determine the total amount without counting by ones or and ACMNA103). These content descriptors vary little from the topic-based
skip counting
curriculum of 50 years ago. There is no suggestion of the connections between them
Cartesian product solve problems involving the Cartesian product or ‘for each’ idea of multiplication (e.g., the total or that something other than a repeated addition model of multiplication is needed
number of lunch orders given three types of bread, 4 different fillings and 2 types of fruit)
to support a deep understanding of factors and indices (Confrey, Maloney, Nguyen,
Mojica & Myers, 2009).
Simple proportional Use ‘if … then’ reasoning to solve simple proportional reasoning problems (Clarke & Kamii, 1996)
reasoning Partitioning
The idea that a collection or a quantity can be expressed in terms of its parts is
fundamental to developing a strong sense of number. This can be done additively
In the ACM, the only reference to any of these key ideas is in Foundations where (as in part-part-whole knowledge and renaming whole numbers in terms of their
sharing is mentioned (ACMNA004) and in Year 2 where students are expected to place-value parts) or multiplicatively (as in the production of equal parts). To clarify
recognise and represent “multiplication as repeated addition, groups and arrays” this distinction, Confrey and her colleagues (Confrey, et al., 2009) introduced the
(ACMNA031) and “division as grouping into equal sets” (ACMNA032). However, term equipartitioning (or splitting) to refer to
sharing a collection equally does not necessarily indicate multiplicative thinking
behaviors that create equal-sized groups. In addition, we would assert that division is most
unless students recognise the relationship between the dividend and the quotient directly derived from equipartitioning, with multiplication following as its inverse, rather
(Nunes & Bryant, 1996) and working with arrays is no guarantee of multiplicative than the traditional view that multiplication precedes division. …
thinking either unless the focus of attention is shifted from a count of groups of the Equipartitioning/splitting as an operation leads to partitive division as well as to
same size (additive) to a given number of groups of any size (Siemon et al., 2011). multiplication. (p. 347)
Importantly, the region idea is not mentioned at all and yet this underpins the ‘area’ Multiplicative partitioning, equipartitioning, or partitioning as it is used in this
or ‘by’ idea of multiplication (i.e., each part multiplied by every other part) which is context is a ‘big idea’ that underpins the capacity to work meaningfully with
needed to support the multiplication of larger whole numbers (e.g., 2-digit by 2- rational numbers and their representations. In particular, to compare, order and
31 Big Ideas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 32

rename fractions, build strong connections between multiplication, division, 25% at this level is also somewhat surprising given children’s capacity work with
fractions and decimals, and support the extension of multiplicative thinking to rate, repeated acts of halving (percentages are not referred to at all until Year 7).
ratio and percent (Siemon et al., 2011). Comparing and ordering “common unit fractions” and locating them on a
Seven tools examine the following indicators of partitioning as it is used in this number line (ACMNA102) is consistent with partitioning as is recognising “that the
context. number system can be extended beyond hundredths” (ACMNA104). However,
 Distinguish between fraction and non-fraction representations in multiple given that partitioning supports generalisations about how fractions might be
settings. renamed (e.g., if the total number of parts are increased by a certain factor then the
 Recognise the relationship between the number of equal parts and the size number of parts required is also increased by that factor), it seems strange that the
and name of the parts (e.g., as the number of parts/shares increase the size of comparison of unlike fractions (fractions with unrelated denominators) has been
each part or share decreases). pushed back to Year 7.
 Use efficient multiplicative strategies to construct indicative fraction diagrams Proportional Reasoning
and line models, name and record common fractions and decimals
Proportional reasoning involves recognising and working with relationships
 Recognise that the relative magnitude of a fraction depends upon the
between relationships (i.e., ratios) in different contexts. Proportional reasoning is
relationship between the numerator (‘how many’) and the denominator (‘how
important as it underpins the work done in other domains of mathematics (e.g. scale
much’).
diagrams, the analysis of similar figures in geometry, and calculations involving
 Use meaningful strategies to compare, order and rename common fractions percentages in financial mathematics) and provides a powerful basis for
and decimal fractions. understanding functional relationships more generally.
In the early years, the ACM refers to the capacity to “recognise and describe half
The following indicators of proportional reasoning are examined by eight tools.
as one of two equal pieces” (ACMNA016) and “to recognise and interpret common
uses of halves, quarters and eighths of shapes and collections” (ACMNA033) but no  Use relational thinking (multiplicative) as opposed to absolute thinking
mention is made of the important link to sharing which provides a powerful basis (additive) to analyse change over time or compare relationships.
for the creation of equal parts and the link between fractions and partitive division  Identify and describe relationships between quantities in a range of problem
(Nunes & Bryant, 1996). In Year 3, students are expected to be able to “model and contexts
represent unit fractions including 1/2, 1/4, 1/3, 1/5 and their multiples to a  Work flexibly and confidently with the quantities involved (i.e., measures,
complete whole” (ACMNA058). This suggests that fraction symbols are expected at rates and/or ratios expressed in terms of natural numbers, rational numbers,
this stage, which is problematic given the well known difficulties associated with percents and/or integers).
interpreting fraction symbols and representations (e.g., Lamon, 1999). Also, the  Use a scale factor to enlarge/reduce a 2-dimensional shape or estimate
reference to counting fractions at Year 4 (ACMNA078) appears to privilege the distances on a scale map.
fraction as number or measure idea over the many other representations of The ACM does not refer to proportional reasoning explicitly until Year 9 where
fractions, for example, part-whole relations, quotients, ratios and operators (Confrey reference is made to solving problems involving direct proportion and simple rates
et al., 2009; Lamon 1999). Focussing on fractions as measures could also lead to an (ACMNA208) and enlargements, similarity, ratios and scale factors in relation to
over-reliance on additive, whole number-based approaches to locating fractions on geometrical reasoning (ACMMG220 & ACMMG221). While many of the
a number line at the expense of multiplicative approaches such as partitioning. prerequisite skills are included in Years 6 to 8, these appear in the form of
The inclusion of hundredths at Year 4 (ACMNA079) is mystifying in view of the disconnected and only slightly differentiated skills. For example, “find a simple
research on decimal fraction misconceptions (e.g., Steinle & Stacey, 2004). It has fraction of a quantity” (ACMNA127) at Year 6, “express one quantity as a fraction of
possibly been included here because calculations to the nearest cent have been another”, “find percentages of quantities and express one quantity as a percentage
included at this level (ACMNA080) but there is little/no evidence to suggest that of another” (ACMNA 155, & ACMNA158) at Year 7, and solve a range of problems
being able to work with money contributes to a deep understanding of decimal involving percentages, rates and ratios (ACMNA187 & ACMNA188) at Year 8.
fractions. The fact that there is no mention of percentage benchmarks such as 50%,
33 Big Ideas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 34

Importantly, there is nothing to suggest how these skills relate to one another or in Number. Extensive professional learning on the big ideas was provided to the
their rich connections to multiplicative thinking more generally. numeracy coaches who then worked in their schools with teachers to implement
The Verdict these ideas and strategies in their classrooms. As part of the LNNP evaluation,
coaches were interviewed about the impact and outcomes of the project. The
While it is still early days and it remains to be seen how educational systems and following examples are illustrative of their feedback.
schools will work to bring the ACM to fruition, the casual reader could be forgiven Brianna is the LNNP Numeracy Coach at a rural primary school and she has
for thinking that the ACM is just a thinner version of existing State and Territory been working closely with Emily and her Reception/Year 1 (R/1) class on the big
mathematics curricula. The big ideas described here are not entirely absent from the idea of Trusting the Count. Previously Emily had a strong focus on children being
ACM but they are not visible in ways that might provide “a powerful able to count and match number symbols to collections and number names. She
transformational force for deepening teacher knowledge for teaching mathematics now recognises that this was important but not enough. She believes that the
and energising practice over time” (Siemon, 2011b, p. 68). increased emphasis on developing children’s deep understandings of the numbers 0
The proficiencies which value conceptual understanding alongside procedural to 9 and particularly their part-part-whole understanding (i.e., that seven is five and
fluency as well as mathematical reasoning and problem solving, offer some two, three and four and so on), has paid dividends as children can work flexibly
potential to ‘connect the dots’ but the description of these at each year level is very with numbers from the earliest years. Her children don’t just learn what seven is but
brief and it will require a significant commitment to teacher professional learning to also how to break seven into its parts and put them back together again!
achieve this. Recent experience points to the benefits of focussing on the big ideas In this class Emily and Brianna have used a wide range of materials, such as
and using these as an organising frame to target teaching to learning needs and subitising cards, ten frames, dice, and clothes lines to develop understanding. They
improve student outcomes. Some of this experience is reported in what follows. have also explored electronic technologies like Bee Bots, Interactive whiteboards
and iPods to support learning. The children program Bee Bots to move a given
Working with the Big Ideas in Number
number of steps along a number line, guessing where it will end up or matching the
The following cases illustrate how the Assessment for Common Misunderstandings numeral to the number line position. They talk about ‘how many more steps to ten’.
materials have been used in South Australia and Tasmania to promote teacher They develop their understanding of doubles by playing a doubles dice game on the
professional learning and inform teaching practice. The teacher’s names have been interactive white board. In this game a die is ‘rolled’ and the outcome displayed on
used with permission and their quotes are included in italics to distinguish the the board. The children have to double the number rolled and then select the
teacher voice from other quotes included in the chapter. answer from a line of numbers from 1 to 12. They get one point for each correct
The South Australian Experience answer and have a time limit of 60 seconds to get the highest score they can. Emily
then records this score for each child to map their improvement over time. Some of
In August 2009 the South Australian Department of Education and Children’s the children can double and find the answer in the line up so quickly that visiting
Services [DECS] introduced the Literacy and Numeracy National Partnership adults can’t match the student’s score. The iPod Touches have been a really big hit
[LNNP] project which placed 14 Numeracy Coaches in primary schools. This with the children. They have quickly mastered the navigation and use of the visual
initiative was funded through the Australian Government’s Smarter Schools menus. Emily and Brianna have found some age appropriate iPod apps that focus
National Partnership. The Numeracy Coaches are each based in one or two schools on early number skills and they continue to look for more.
and work with teachers and school leaders to improve numeracy outcomes across Over the time that Emily has been working with the big ideas in number she has
the school. Coaches are supported by an intensive professional learning program learnt a lot about how children learn number concepts. She expresses her own
focussing predominantly on the skills of coaching, mathematical pedagogical learning as,
content knowledge, working with student achievement data, and whole school
I am able to make the learning more hands on and by watching children engaged in
improvement.
learning activities I can often ‘see’ what they are thinking. I have a better grasp of what I’m
The Assessment for Common Misunderstanding materials were used with looking for and my own understanding of conceptual development in the number strand
permission from DEECD as the basis for the coaching initiative and coaches were continues to grow. I can now target children’s learning more accurately to their needs so
provided with a hard copy of these materials which were referred to as the Big Ideas there is less maths time wasted.
35 Big Ideas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 36

Madeline, also working with numeracy coach Brianna, found the big ideas really I’m so glad I have worked with the Big Ideas in Number as a young teacher and that it is
helped her to change her approach to teaching multiplication facts to her Year 3/4 now becoming second nature. When I started teaching I moved on too quickly without
really building strong foundations of understanding. I can now look at the child not just the
class. She now emphasises a strategies approach rather than relying on rote learning
curriculum. I can target learning to my students’ needs not just teach Year 3 or Year 4. I
– the students know, for example, that 5 times a number is ‘half of ten of it’ or that started off dreading maths but now I enjoy teaching maths more than anything.
to find three times a number they can double the number then add on the original
number. Madeline has talked with many of the parents to explain this new Guy is an experienced teacher in a metropolitan primary school with a Year 5/6
approach and says that once she explains the thinking behind a strategies approach class. Guy and Chris, the Numeracy Coach, have been working together on the Big
to the multiplication facts and the benefits for student learning the parents are very Ideas since late 2009 and over this period they have used the diagnostic tools and
supportive. This focus on strategies in the learning of multiplication facts is advice and introduced the students to a range of learning games and activities
consistent with the way that Madeline now encourages students to explain their designed to build on students’ immediate learning needs.
thinking in maths more generally. For example, her class do a short subitising Over time they have developed many other activities that have spring-boarded
activity each day and then explain how they partitioned the numbers to find the from the original advice. One of these is using the additive strategies cards (see
total. Depending on the way that the objects are arranged students might see 8 Figure 1 below) that are projected on the smart-board.
objects as ‘a three and a five’ or ‘two fours’ or ‘two threes and a two’. Students share
their strategies and soon appreciate that numbers are not fixed, they can be broken
apart and put back together again and that there are lots of ways to do this. This
understanding flows into strategies for mental addition so that for example, 18 + 27 33 18 ? 12
could be 18 + 30 – 3 or 18 + 2 + 25 depending on which mental image is more
22 ? 12 48
powerful for the individual student.
Madeline uses the Big Ideas in Number diagnostic tools regularly to identify Figure 1. Additive strategies cards (adapted from Siemon, 2006)
gaps in student learning. Previously, she says, some children were able to ‘hide’ or
Students record their answers and the way they worked it out. They then share
bluff their way along – they appeared to be learning or at least they didn’t stand out
their strategies (e.g., doubling, near doubles, make to the nearest ten, number
as not learning. When using one of the diagnostic tools however students cannot
splitting and compensating) and discuss the relative efficiency of each. Teachers and
bluff their way through, she knows what they do or do not understand. Madeline
students invent new and interesting variations of these 4 square problems and as
finds the Advice section particularly helpful to ensure that she focuses new learning
students become more efficient the problems become more difficult!
appropriately for each student.
Since working with the big ideas Guy has placed more emphasis on children
Madeline has reflected back on her introduction to the Big Ideas and says that
talking about their maths learning and recording their thinking in as many ways as
she initially found the new language, terms like subitising, renaming, trusting the
possible. This approach helps develop mathematical language but also as students
count, quite daunting but with Brianna’s help she persevered. She now finds it
learn about successful approaches from their peers they increase their flexibility in
easier to have discussions with colleagues because if they talk about ‘renaming’ for
working with number. He has implemented a range of classroom strategies and
example they all know what is meant. The students too have enjoyed playing
protocols to support this emphasis. One example is the use of a laminated A3 sheet
around with new language. For example, when working on place value the students
on which the students record their thinking in words, symbols or diagrams. As this
really enjoyed playing with the language and using made up names like ‘onety-one,
work is easily changed or erased students are more inclined to write and record
onety-two’ and so on.
than they are on paper or in a maths book. The students can hold up their laminated
As an early career teacher Madeline has found working on the Big Ideas in
sheets to help explain their thinking to other students and discuss the accuracy and
Number with the support of a Numeracy Coach to be a huge boost to her
efficiency of their strategies.
confidence as a teacher of mathematics. In her first year of teaching in 2009 she
Chris and Guy have used some of the Big Ideas in Number diagnostic tools as
worried that her lack of confidence with maths would spill over into the learning of
whole class or group activities. For example, an activity they use is called Thinking
her students. Now she says,
Strings where a student or teacher randomly places a line of magnetic base 10 blocks
37 Big Ideas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 38

on the white board as shown. Students then count on in place value parts and Amanda who teaches grade 5/6 found that she had students who struggled with
record their thinking as shown in Figure 2. early ideas in place value. She used the place value tools to probe student
understanding and the advice from the website to differentiate instruction to
address the student’s learning needs. Teaching groups were formed to target
200 240 243 443 445 465 565 intervention and pre and post testing showed significant gains in student
understanding.
Figure 2. Use of thinking strings and base 10 blocks
Similarly, school mathematics leaders Pam and Sylvia from a large primary
When students are involved in these activities Chris and Guy have opportunities school note that:
to sit with individual students, observe their responses, probe their thinking and The big ideas provide our teachers with a focus on the important ideas in mathematics. The
give immediate constructive feedback. big ideas leave no doubt about what is sequentially important for students to know and
In working with the language of the Big Ideas in Number, Guy and Chris have understand. They stress the importance of building mental images and visualising
become aware that for many students talking about mathematics strategies and concepts. The focus is on hands-on learning that promotes deep understanding of maths
learning is difficult. These students need explicit scaffolding and support to develop concepts and on building the language of maths. The Assessment for Common
Misunderstandings tools are being developed into kits and will support teachers in
their mathematical vocabulary and the confidence to use it in front of their
assessing students but will also provide teachers with a “where to next?’ for planning for
classmates. learning. The big ideas will underpin our whole school approach document in conjunction
The Tasmanian Experience with the Australian Curriculum.

Over the past two years interest in improving student outcomes in mathematics has With the decision to fully implement the ACM in 2012 in all Tasmanian Schools it
grown in many Tasmanian schools. Professional learning focusing on the big ideas became obvious that teachers need good pedagogical content knowledge and access
in number (Siemon, 2006) was seen by the Tasmanian Department of Education as a to assessment tools which support their curriculum decision-making in response to
means of focusing teachers’ attention on what is important and to encourage school student learning needs.
communities to recognise the importance of developing strong foundations in Curriculum-related assessment information is required for a detailed analysis of students’
number for all strands of the mathematics curriculum. learning needs. These kinds of data are more useful for the purposes of diagnosing
Teachers and school mathematics leaders from all parts of the state have students’ learning needs than assessments focused more on identifying normative
achievement, but not related to the curriculum (Timperley, 2009, p. 22)
participated in professional development workshops and there has been a very high
level of take up of the Assessment for Common Misunderstandings materials sourced As a consequence, in 2011, 11 schools in one geographic region of the state used
and used with permission from DEECD. the big ideas in number and data derived from the associated tools to focus teacher
Many teachers have been surprised about the misunderstandings their students professional learning on meeting student learning needs. The best evidence
have and they have realised the gaps in student understanding which have synthesis of effective professional learning for teachers (Timperley, 2007) was used
contributed to poor performance in NAPLAN and other assessments. For example, as a foundation for the project. Teachers adopted an inquiry approach to their
Maree who teaches a grade 5/6 class realised that some of her students could not teaching and professional learning based on identified student needs and data, not
subitise small collections (ACMNA003) and solved all numerical problems by generic professional learning based on what the Tasmanian Department of
counting by ones. This gave her valuable information about where to target her Education might think teachers need. This approach was framed by an adaptation of
teaching with this group of students. Using a flip camera she was able to capture Timperley’s (2009) teacher inquiry and knowledge-building cycle (see Figure 3) on
some students while they were assessed using the Trust the Count assessment tool the grounds that while high quality assessment is valuable, “much more is needed
and the video footage has been used in several professional learning sessions to help to improve teaching practice in ways that have a substantive impact on student
other teachers unpack the assessment tools and to realise that they too may have learning” (p. 21).
students who struggle with ideas well below where they might expect them to be in
an upper primary class.
39 Big Ideeas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 40

This work will be invaluable in building teacher capacity to focus assessment and
teach for the depth and understanding which is a key pedagogical underpinning of
the mathematics curriculum, for example, “it is preferable for students to study
fewer aspects in more depth rather than studying more aspects superficially”
(National Curriculum Board, 2009, p. 14). This will also help teachers become more
aware of the finer detail of the key ideas underpinning the content descriptors in the
ACM which are often very broad and open to interpretation. As stated in the Shape
of the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics (National Curriculum Board, 2009),
“teachers can make informed classroom decisions interactively if they are aware of
the development of key ideas” (p. 14).
John, who is a facilitator/coach in the project and a former secondary
mathematics teacher, confirms this view when he says:
the big ideas have focused my thinking around the sequential development of ideas. To
address the diverse ability range of our students, teachers need to understand how
mathematical concepts are developed and teachers need to be supported to translate this
into improved classroom practice.
His colleague Wendy, with a background in Early Childhood education concurs
when she reflects on how her work has altered since she has focused on big ideas in
Figure 3. Teacheer inquiry and know
wledge bu
uilding cycle (adaptted from T
Timperley
y, 2009) number:
Project schools were prrovided wwith a fu
ull set off the toolls and teeachers in
nvolvedd in Now that I have a deeper understanding of [the] big ideas it has made me more aware of
the possible misunderstandings that children can have in key areas of number. A huge
thee projecct workeed with school‐‐based lead
l teachers an nd exterrnal faciilitators to
change in my thinking was realising that as an ECE classroom teacher that I hadn't been
en
ngage in data‐drriven con nversatio
ons to determin
d ne professsional leearning needs aand taking children back far enough when designing intervention programs. It was a struggle
tea
aching focus.
f Th
he big iddeas fram
mework k and asssociated d assessm ment too ols enablled to get them to learn and apply strategies and when faced with solving problems they
tea
achers too go beyyond thee data thhey may y have gathered
g d from other
o sou
urces (e..g., would always count on in ones.
NAAPLAN)) to delv ve into student
s misconcceptions in num mber and d use thee advice to This has impacted greatly on my messages to ECE teachers now:
tea
ach in riccher, mo
ore focusssed and
d intentio
onal way ys (e.g., ssee Figurre 4).  Spend more time developing mental images especially with subitising tasks (it is
crucial...then hopefully we won't have children in Grade 6 and beyond still counting
on in ones!)
 Teachers of Grade 1 and Grade 2 should spend more time on and give children more
opportunities for developing Place Value concepts...Counting collections and
recording the number, bundling etc

As teachers involved in this project further explore the ACM and its focus on the
four proficiencies, there is potential for re-visiting the big ideas in number in new
and exciting ways, emphasising the explicit teaching focus for teachers and the
importance of tasks that are selected to focus on both content descriptors and
Fig
gure 4. Ch
hildren wo
orking witth ten-fram
mes and b
bead strin
ngs.
proficiencies.
Tasmanian schools have seen the potential of teacher professional learning based
on in-depth knowledge of student understanding of key ideas in number. The big
41 Big Ideas in Number Siemon, Bleckly & Neal 42

ideas in number provide a valuable framework for exploring questions such as more accurately identified and the teaching is more closely targeted to meeting
“what is important?” “What will give us the greatest leverage in improving student those needs.
outcomes?” Indeed, these big ideas are influencing our small state and engaging
teachers in new learning for themselves and their students! Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge Claudia Johnstone who read earlier
versions of this chapter and provided valuable feedback.
Conclusion
This chapter considered why big ideas have become a focus of attention in recent References
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45 Big Ideas in Number

Authors
Dianne Siemon, RMIT University.
Email: dianne.siemon@rmit.edu.au

John Blekly, South Australian Department of Education and Childhood Services.

Denise Neal, Tasmanian Department of Education.