ELECTRICITY THEORY

Introduction to Electricity
What is Electricity?
●​ A form of energy associated with the presence of electric charge. Ways to Generate Electricity
●​ Closely related to magnetism. 1.​ Friction (Static Electricity) – Rubbing materials together creates a
charge.
History of Electricity 2.​ Thermoelectricity – Heat produces electricity.
●​ 1660 – Otto von Guericke: first electric generating machine 3.​ Piezoelectricity – Pressure on certain materials generates electricity.
●​ 1746 – Leyden Jar: first electrical storage device 4.​ Electrochemistry – Chemical reactions create electricity (e.g.,
●​ 1786 – Luigi Galvani: static electricity in animals batteries).
●​ 1820 – Oersted: discovery of magnetic fields around current-carrying 5.​ Photoelectricity – Light releases electrons from a material.
wires 6.​ Magnetoelectricity – Magnetic fields drive electron flow.
●​ 1831 – Samuel Morse: electromagnetic telegraph (Morse Code)
●​ 1882 – Edison Electric Light Company (later General Electric): electric Units of Electricity
street lighting 1.​ Voltage or electromotive force (E or EMF)
●​ This is the driving force behind current flow. A difference in
Electrical Theory charge creates an electrical pressure, which moves current in
●​ Electricity is a physical phenomenon tied to the behavior of positively one direction.
and negatively charged elementary particles of an atom ●​ The unit of electrical pressure is the volt (V).
Two Main Theories 2.​ Amperage or Inductive Flow (I)
1.​ Classical Theory ●​ The rate of current flow in a closed electrical system is
○​ Electricity is the flow of electrons. measured in a unit called the ampere.
○​ Law of Charges: Opposite charges attract; like charges repel. 3.​ Resistance (R)
2.​ Modern Theory ●​ The length of a conductor (wire), the diameter of the
○​ Electricity involves even smaller subatomic particles with conductor, type of conductor material, and temperature of the
positive or negative electromagnetic charges. conductor affect the resistance to flow of current. The unit
used to measure electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω).
Electric Current and Conductors 4.​ Ohm’s Law
1.​ Electric Current: The flow of electric charge through a conductor. ●​ Current flow is caused by electromotive force or voltage.
2.​ Conductors: Materials that allow electricity to flow easily (e.g., Amperage is the rate of current flow and may be referred to
copper, aluminum). as inductive flow. Resistance (R) refers to the ability of a
3.​ Insulators: Materials that resist the flow of electricity (e.g., rubber, conductor to resist current flow and is measured in ohms.
glass). ●​ Voltage (E), amperage (I), and resistance (Ω) in an active
4.​ Semiconductors: Materials that can act as either conductors or electrical circuit are related through Ohm’s law: E = IR
insulators (e.g., silicon).
 5.​ Power Control Device
●​ The rate at which work is accomplished; it is work or energy ●​ A circuit may also have a control device and/or a protective device,
released divided by time. but these are optional.
●​ The electrical unit of power is watt. In theory, the watt can be ●​ A control device either opens or closes the path of the circuit.
related to other measures of power: ●​ Light switches, thermostats, and time clocks are examples of common
○​ 1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watts control devices found in circuits.
○​ 1 watts = 3.413 Btu/hr Protective Devices
○​ 1,000 watt = 1 kilowatt (kW) ●​ An overcurrent protection device is used to protect either the load
●​ On a direct current circuit, voltage (E) and amperage (I) are and/or the conductors from excessive heat from high amperage
related to wattage through the DC power equation, Also conditions.
known as Joule’s Law: P = EI ●​ Most protective devices open the circuit, thereby interrupting the path
6.​ Energy of current if excessive current is flowing in the circuit. Common
●​ If power used by an appliance is multiplied by the amount of ●​ Examples of protective devices include fuses and circuit breakers.
time that the unit operates, the energy consumption value or
amount of work accomplished is determined. Circuit Configurations
●​ The standard billing for energy consumption is the ●​ Series Circuit
kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is equivalent to1000 watt-hours. ○​ Current passes through all components in sequence.
●​ q = Pt ○​ Disadvantage: If one component fails, the entire circuit stops
working.
Electrical Circuits ○​ Series components have the same currents.
●​ An electric circuit is a continuous path along which an electric current ○​ The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors
can flow. connected in series is the sum of the individual resistances.

Basic Components of a Circuit ●​ Parallel Circuit

1.​ Power Source (e.g., battery, generator) ○​ Current divides and flows through multiple paths.
2.​ Load (e.g., lamp, appliance) ○​ Advantage: If one component fails, others remain functional.
3.​ Conductors (e.g., wires) ○​ In parallel connection, the components have the same
voltages.
Types of Circuits ○​ The equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel is the sum of
1.​ Closed Circuit – an uninterrupted path that allows a continuous flow the inverse of each resistance in parallel or the equivalent
of current through an electrical conductor. resistance of two parallel resistors is equal to the product of
2.​ Open Circuit – If the path of current flow in a circuit is interrupted or their resistances divided by their sum.
opened (turned off).
3.​ Switched Circuit – installed in a circuit (c) to allow the circuit to open
or close to control operation of the lamp.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
1.​ Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) Direct Current (DC) vs. Alternating Current (AC)
●​ The sum of the potential differences (voltages) in a complete 1.​ Direct Current (DC): Flows in one direction (e.g., batteries,
circuit must be zero. flashlights).
●​ The Voltage Law states the relationship between voltage 2.​ Alternating Current (AC): Continuously reverses direction (e.g.,
drops and voltage sources in a complete circuit. By household electricity).
convention, voltage drops are assumed to be negative and ●​ Single-Phase AC – One alternating voltage wave.
voltage gains positive, and according to this law the sum of ●​ Three-Phase AC – Three voltage waves, 120° out of phase,
these two quantities in a complete electrical circuit is equal to used in industrial power distribution.
zero.
●​ This means that the voltage drops around any closed loop in Transformers
a circuit must equal the voltages applied ●​ Transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another using
electromagnetic induction.
2.​ Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) ●​ Serve as an efficient way of converting power at a primary voltage
●​ At any specific instant at any junction (e.g., connection) in an and amperage to the equivalent power at a different secondary
electric circuit, the total current (amperage) flowing into the voltage and amperage.
junction is the same as the total current leaving the junction. Voltage Ratio Formula:
●​ According to the Current Law, when a charge enters a Ep/Es = Np/Ns (Primary Voltage/Secondary Voltage = Primary
junction, it has no place to go except to leave. Turns/Secondary Turns)
●​ By convention, currents flowing into a junction are assumed to
be negative and currents flowing out of the junction positive, Impedance and Power Factor
and by this law the sum of these two quantities is equal to Inductors
zero. ●​ A coil of wire that creates an electromagnetic field.
●​ So, no matter how many paths into and out of a single ●​ On AC circuits, inductive loads are created as current flows through
junction, all the current leaving that junction must equal the coils or windings found in motors, transformers, and light fixture
current arriving at that junction. ballasts (fluorescent and high-intensity discharge fixtures).
Capacitor
Relationship Between Magnetism and Electricity ●​ Composed of metal plates separated by air or a dielectric material
●​ Magnetism – The force of attraction or repulsion between materials. such as paper, ceramic, or mica.
●​ Electromagnetic Induction ●​ Capacitors store electrical energy in an electrostatic field and release
○​ Moving a conductor through a magnetic field generates it later.
electricity.
○​ Current flow creates a surrounding magnetic field.
Effect of Capacitive and Inductive Loads 2.​ Reactive power
●​ The inductive effect on a series AC circuit causes the phase of the ○​ the power that generates the magnetic field required for
current to lag behind the phase of the voltage—that is, peak inductive devices to operate.
amperage lags peak voltage. ○​ It dissipates no energy in the load but which returns to the
●​ The capacitive effect on a series AC circuit causes the phase of source on each alternating current cycle;
the current to lead the phase of the voltage—that is, peak voltage lags 3.​ Apparent power
peak current. ○​ the “power available to use.”
●​ Although there are no inductive and capacitive effects on a DC circuit, ○​ It is expressed in volt-amperes
current flow on an AC circuit is impeded by inductance and ○​ (VA) or kilovolt-ampere (kVA),
capacitance. ○​ product of voltage and current.
●​ Impedance (Z) is a measure of resistance to current flow on an AC
circuit due to the combined effect of resistance, inductance and
capacitance. Impedance is measured in ohms (Ω). ●​ The power factor (PF or cosϕ) for a single-phase circuit is the ratio
●​ Ohm’s Law for AC circuits is :E = IZ between real power and apparent power in a circuit:
○​ PF = (real power / apparent power)
Power Factor ○​ PF = watts / (Volts • Amps) = W / VA
●​ DC and AC circuits perform differently with respect to power use. ○​ The power factor is a number between 0 and 1 (frequently
●​ On a DC circuit, the product of measured voltage and measured expressed as a percentage, (e.g., a 0.7 PF =70% PF).
amperage equals wattage (VA = W).
●​ In contrast, on most AC circuits the computed volt-amperage is ●​ PF is important in the design of AC systems, because if PF is less
different than power consumed (wattage); that is, the product of the than 1.0,
measured voltage and amperage (Vx A) does not equal wattage ●​ the current carrying wire, the transformers being use must
(VA≠W). accommodate the total apparent power.
●​ This phenomenon is directly related to the inductive effects in circuits ●​ Some consumers install PF correction devices (e.g., a capacitor) to
powering motors, transformers, and magnetic ballasts as described cut down on higher costs associated with a low PF. Some industrial
earlier. sites will have large banks of capacitors, called power factor
correction capacitors, specifically for the purpose of correcting the PF
Three Components of AC Power back toward 1 to save on power company charges.
1.​ Real power ●​ The main advantages of the PF correction are as follows:
○​ The “working power” that performs useful effort in a circuit ○​ A high PF reduces the load currents, resulting in a
(e.g., creating heat, light, and motion); considerable saving in hardware costs (i.e., conductors,
○​ it is expressed in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW). switchgear, substation transformers, and so on).
○​ Power companies typically impose low power factor penalties,
so by correcting the PF this penalty can be avoided.
 ○​ The electrical load on the power company is reduced, which BUILDING ELECTRICAL MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
allows the power company to supply the surplus power to
other consumers without increasing its generation capacity. Power Generation and Transmission
●​ Power station
Cost of Electrical Energy and Power ○​ an industrial facility that houses equipment to generate
●​ A utility company will charge its customers for the electrical energy electrical energy.
consumed and, for all but small users (e.g., most residential ●​ Generator
customers), the rate at which energy is consumed. ○​ a mechanical device that converts mechanical energy into
Energy Charge electrical energy.
●​ The energy charge is simply the cost of electrical energy consumed ○​ A generator rotates an armature, a shaft with conductor
($energy). windings wrapped,around an iron core, through a stationary
●​ This may be computed by the following equation, where energy magnetic field, to produce current flow.
consumption (q) is expressed in kilowatt-hours and unit cost of ●​ Rotary engine
electricity ($/kWh) is expressed in dollars per kilowatthours: ○​ called a turbine is connected to the generator and drives the
$energy=q x $/kWh rotation of the armature shaft.
●​ The energy charge is based on energy consumed by the customer ●​ Steam turbine
during a billing period, say once a month or every 30 days. ○​ high pressure steam moves through the turbine, driving
●​ Energy consumed is determined by reading the electric meter. rotation of discs attached to the turbine shaft.
●​ Steam
Demand Limiting and Load Shedding ○​ produced by heating water by burning coal, oil, or natural gas,
●​ Demand limiting is accomplished by disconnecting loads that are not or with heat created by a nuclear reaction.
needed during periods of high demand.
●​ Load shedding is a method by which nonessential equipment and Building Electrical Service Equipment
appliances are deliberately switched off to maintain a uniform load ●​ Service Entrance Conductors
and thus limit demand. Load shifting moves nonessential loads to ○​ are those that run between the service point and the service
periods of low demand. equipment.
●​ The time-of-use (TOU) rate rewards the user for reducing power ●​ Service Drop
consumption during periods when electrical demand is highest and a ○​ is an overhead electrical line running from a utility pole, to a
lower rate for the remainder of the year. customer's building or other premises.
●​ Additional surcharges these includes the service or billing charge ●​ Service Lateral
covers the cost of metering and bill collecting activities such as meter ○​ consists of the underground service conductors between the
reading and preparing and mailing billing statements and. Etc. street main - including risers - and the first point of connection
to the service-entrance conductors in a terminal box, meter, or
other enclosure.
 distribution that, in turn, depends on transformers used to change
●​ Service Entrance voltage, current, and phase of electrical power nearby and within a
○​ includes the components that connect the utility-supplied building.
wiring (the service lateral or service drop) to the service ●​ Building transformers are rated in kVA.
disconnect, excluding the utility’s metering equipment. ●​ Typical sizes used in buildings include 3, 6, 9, 15, 25, 30, 37.5, 45, 50,
●​ Service entrance equipment 75, 112.5, 150, 225, 300, 500, 750, 1000, 1500 kVA, and larger.
○​ receives the service entrance conductors. ●​ Every transformer comes with a nameplate that typically identifies:
○​ The service equipment includes a method of measuring 1.​ Rated kVA
power (metering equipment), a method of cutting off power 2.​ Primary and secondary voltage
(main disconnect or switch gear), and overcurrent protection 3.​ Impedance (if 25 kVA or larger)
devices (circuit breakers or fuses) that protect the service 4.​ Required clearances (if it has ventilating openings)
entrance conductors. Step-down transformer
●​ Electric meter ○​ has a secondary voltage that is less than its primary voltage.
○​ an instrument that is used by the utility company to measure Step-up transformer
and record electrical energy consumed. ○​ one with a secondary voltage that is greater than its primary
○​ In building services rated up to about 400 A, a feed-through voltage.
meter is used. Single-Phase transformer
●​ Switchboard ○​ has a single primary winding and a single secondary winding.
○​ a large cabinet or assembly of metal cabinets in which is ○​ The 7200/240/120 V AC, single-phase, three-wire transformer
connected disconnecting switches, overcorrect protection is used in most residential and small commercial applications
devices (fuses or circuit breakers), other protective devices, where 120 V and 240 V are required.
and instruments designed to divide large amounts of electrical Three-phase transformer
current into smaller amounts of current used by electrical ○​ has three primary and three secondary windings.
equipment. ○​ There are two main types of three phase transformers: delta
●​ Panelboards and wye.
○​ one or more metal cabinets that serve as a single unit,
including buses, automatic overcurrent protection devices Overcurrent Protection: Fuses and Circuit Breakers
(fuses or circuit breakers). 1.​ Overcurrent protection (OCP) device
●​ safeguards the building service or an individual circuit from
Building Transformers excessive current flows.
Transformers ●​ It protects the circuit components from severe overheating
●​ used in transmitting and distributing power from the power plant to a when current flowing through the circuit reaches amperage
substation. that will cause an excessive or dangerous temperature rise in
●​ The operation of a large commercial installation depends on power conductors.
 chemical, heating, or lighting function through the use of electrical
2.​ Circuit Breaker energy.
●​ an overcurrent protection device that serves two purposes: 2.​ Appliance is an end-use piece of utilization equipment designed to
1.​ It acts as a switch that can be opened and closed perform a specific function such as cooking, cleaning, cooling, or
manually, heating.
2.​ it automatically “trips off,” which opens the circuit 3.​ Fixed appliances are permanently attached installations such as a
when current flowing through it exceeds the circuit built-in electric cooktop or oven.
rating. 4.​ Stationary appliances are situated and used at a specific location
3.​ Fuse but can be moved to another outlet such as a refrigerator, clothes
●​ an overcurrent protection device that consists of a strip of washer, or clothes dryer.
metal with a low melting temperature. 5.​ Portable appliances are appliances that can be easily carried or
●​ Under normal operation, electricity flows through the metal moved such as a hair dryer or toaster.
strip. 6.​ Electrical device is a component in an electrical system that is
●​ However, when its current rating is exceeded, the metal strip designed to carry but not use electricity. This includes components
heats up and melts and the circuit is opened, thereby such as switches, receptacles, and relays.
interrupting current flow.
Outlets, Receptacles, and Plugs
OCP Device Ratings ●​ Outlet
●​ Overcurrent Rating of an OCP device ○​ the location in a branch circuit where electricity is used.
○​ highest amperage it can carry continuously without exceeding ○​ For example, a lighting outlet is the location in a branch circuit
a specific temperature limit (e.g., without overheating). where conductors provide power to a light fixture.
○​ If the current (amperage) flowing through the protection ●​ Receptacle
device exceeds the device setting for a significant period, the ○​ a female connecting device with slotted contacts.
OCP device will open. ○​ It is installed at an outlet or on equipment, where it is intended
●​ Interrupting Rating OCP devices to easily establish an electrical connection with an inserted
○​ must have an interrupting rating sufficient for the maximum plug.
possible fault-current (short-circuit). ●​ Plug
○​ If the OCP is not rated to interrupt at the available ○​ connected to a flexible cord that is attached to a portable
fault-current, it could explode while attempting to clear the appliance, light, or equipment.
fault and/or the downstream equipment could suffer serious ○​ Receptacles and plugs offer a simple way to attach or detach
damage, causing possible hazards to occupants and property. an appliance or piece of equipment to/from an electrical
outlet.
Utilization Equipment and Devices ●​ Switch
1.​ Utilization equipment is a broad category of electrical or electronic ○​ device placed between two or more electrical conductors in a
machine or instrument designed to perform a specific mechanical, circuit to safely and intentionally open or close the circuit or to
redirect the path of current in a circuit.
 Conductors
Specialty Switches ●​ Electrical conductor
In addition to the standard switches, there are many types of switches that ○​ any material that conducts electrical current.
perform special functions. These are as follows: ●​ Wire
1.​ Automatic switches ○​ a common electrical conductor.
○​ deactivate a circuit after a preset time period has lapsed. ○​ Most conductors used in building applications are classified
2.​ A dimmer switch (SD) according to a wire gauge standard and on the
○​ a device in the electrical circuit for varying power to a circuit. cross-sectional area of the wire in units called circular mils.
○​ Dimmers are usually included in a lighting installation to vary ○​ A mil is equal to 1>1000 inch, so one circular mil (cmil) is
the intensity of light emitted by the lights. equal to the cross-sectional area of a 0.001 in diameter circle.
3.​ Time clocks ●​ Bus bar
○​ can be used to control the time period that a piece of ○​ an electrical conductor (usually copper or aluminum) that
equipment or a lighting installation operates. serves as a common connection for two or more electrical
○​ Electronic timers allow greater flexibility as they can easily be circuits
set for 7-day cycles. They do require relay switching on large ●​ Buses
loads. ○​ typically solid bars used for power distribution.
4.​ Photocell controls ○​ They are commonly found in panelboards, switchboards, and
○​ sense light and open or close a circuit with the presence of other power distribution equipment.
light. ○​ Buses are typically solid bars used for power distribution.
○​ They can be used to control night lighting in lieu of a time ○​ They are commonly found in panelboards, switchboards, and
clock. other power distribution equipment.
5.​ Occupancy sensors
○​ control a lighting or equipment installation by sensing Conductor Material
occupants in a space. ●​ Best Conductors: Silver (best conductor) and Gold (excellent
6.​ Infrared sensors conductor) but too expensive for regular use.
○​ respond to the motion of an infrared heat source, such as a ●​ Common Conductors: Copper and aluminum are widely used due to
person or animal.heat source to detect motion. cost-effectiveness and conductivity.
7.​ Ultrasonic sensors Conductor Insulation
○​ emit a high-frequency sound that is in the range of 25 to 40 ●​ Purpose: Prevents power loss, short circuits, and ground faults.
kilohertz and well above the capacity of normal human ●​ Types:
hearing. ○​ Indoor wires: Less exposure to elements.
○​ Outdoor wires: Must resist water and UV light.
○​ Underground wires: Must withstand damp and corrosive soil
environments.
Types of Cables Special Wiring Methods
●​ Concealed Knob-and-Tube (K&T) Wiring:
1.​ Cable: A bundle of conductors in a protective outer sheathing for ○​ Old method using insulated conductors on ceramic knobs and
easier installation. tubes.
2.​ Nonmetallic-Sheathed Cable (NM/NMC): ○​ Not allowed where insulation buildup causes heat
○​ NM: For dry, indoor applications. accumulation.
○​ NMC: For dry and damp areas but not wet conditions. Electrical Performance Factors
○​ Used in residential and multifamily dwellings. Power Loss in Conductors
3.​ Underground Feeder (UF) Cable: ●​ Formula: Power loss converts to heat, measured as 1W = 3.413
○​ Flame-retardant, moisture, fungus, and corrosion-resistant. Btu/hr.
○​ Used for direct-burial applications. Conductor Ampacity
4.​ Service Entrance (SE/USE) Cable: ●​ Maximum current a conductor can carry continuously without
○​ SE: For above-ground installations. overheating. Depends on:
○​ USE: For underground installations, not for indoor conduit use ○​ Wire thickness.
unless dual-marked (RHW/USE-2). ○​ Material (Aluminum generates more heat than Copper at the
5.​ Armored Cable (AC/ACT): same size).
○​ AC (BX cable) has a flexible metallic enclosure and bonding ○​ Insulation and sheathing type.
strip. ○​ Number of conductors in close proximity.
○​ ACT uses thermoplastic insulation. ○​ Temperature and exposure conditions.
6.​ Metal-Clad (MC) Cable: Voltage Drops in Conductors
○​ Similar to AC but supports more conductor sizes and types. ●​ Voltage Drop Relation: Proportional to power loss.
○​ Contains a separate grounding conductor. ●​ Follows Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: Voltage drops in a closed circuit
7.​ Flat Conductor Cable (FCC): must sum to the total applied voltage.
○​ Thin cable for installation under carpets.
○​ Used for circuits up to 30A, 300V. Enclosures and Raceways
8.​ Thermostat Cable: ●​ Enclosures
○​ Low-voltage cable for doorbells, chimes, and thermostats. ○​ Electrical boxes and cabinets made of metal (steel,
○​ Made of No. 16 or No. 18 AWG conductors. galvanized steel, aluminum) or nonmetallic (plastic) materials.
9.​ Cords: ○​ Protect conductors, connections, controls, and other electrical
○​ Stranded conductors for flexibility. equipment from damage, wear, corrosion, and sunlight.
○​ Used for power tools, extension cords, and computer power ●​ Electrical Boxes
cords. ○​ Metal and plastic enclosures for switches and outlets.
○​ Available in four primary shapes: square, rectangular,
octagonal, and round.
Conduit and Other Raceways Electric Motors
1.​ Raceway: An enclosed channel (conduit, tube, or gutter) for holding ●​ Used in various household and industrial appliances.
wires, cables, or bus bars. ●​ Rated in horsepower (hp); 1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb/min.
2.​ Rigid Metal Conduit (RMC): Heavy galvanized steel/aluminum tube
with a smooth finish. Types of Motors
3.​ Intermediate Metal Conduit (IMC): Thinner-walled galvanized 1.​ Universal Motor: Operates on both AC and DC power, varying speed
steel/aluminum tube. with load.
4.​ Electrical Metallic Tubing (EMT): Thin-walled galvanized 2.​ Split-phase Motor: Operates on single-phase AC, low torque, slow
steel/aluminum tube (up to 4 in. diameter). start.
5.​ Electrical Nonmetallic Tubing (ENT): Flame-retardant corrugated 3.​ Capacitor Motor: Uses stored energy for rotor startup.
plastic tube, semiflexible. 4.​ Induction Motor: Uses electromagnetic induction; repulsion-start
6.​ Rigid Nonmetallic Conduit: Thin-walled PVC pipe, joined with induction motors handle heavy loads.
solvent-welded fittings.
7.​ Flexible Metal Conduit: Similar to armored cable, but installed Motor Control Devices
without preinstalled wiring. ●​ Motor Controller: Switches designed to start, stop, and protect
8.​ Liquid Tight Flexible Metal Conduit: Covered with a watertight motors.
plastic jacket, resistant to sunlight. ●​ Variable-Frequency Drive (VFD): Controls AC motor speed by
9.​ Liquid Tight Flexible Nonmetallic Conduit: Flexible plastic conduit adjusting power frequency.
for similar applications as flexible metal conduit.
10.​ Cellular Concrete Floor Raceways: Hollow voids in precast Occupant Protection
concrete slabs for wiring. ●​ Electrocution Risk: Small current (6-200 mA) can disrupt heart
11.​ Busway: A standardized, factory-assembled enclosure with bus bars function, leading to fatal fibrillation.
and insulators. ●​ Tamper-Resistant Receptacles: Shutter systems prevent children
○​ Feeder Busway: Delivers large amounts of power with low from inserting objects.
voltage drop (600 A to several thousand A). ●​ Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI): Detects leakage currents
○​ Plug-in Busway: Allows power tap-offs at multiple points (>6 mA) and shuts off power.
(100 A to 3000 A). Types:
1.​ Receptacle Outlet Type: Replaces standard outlets, protecting
Wireways downstream outlets.
●​ Wire Gutters or Wireways: Sheet metal or flame-resistant plastic 2.​ Circuit Breaker Type: Installed in panelboards, protecting entire
troughs that enclose and protect conductors. circuits.
●​ Access through a hinged door or removable cover. 3.​ Portable Type: Plug-in GFCI units for temporary protection.
 Surge Protection
Arc Fault Protection ●​ Power Surge: Sudden voltage/current increase damaging sensitive
●​ Arc Fault: Unintentional discharge causing high heat and potential electronics.
fire hazards. ●​ Surge Protection Devices (SPD): Prevent surges from reaching
○​ Types of Arc Faults: equipment by diverting current to ground.
1.​ Parallel Arcing Fault: Contact between opposite ●​ Types:
polarity wires. a.​ Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV): Semiconductor for AC power
2.​ Ground Arcing Fault: Contact between a wire and applications.
ground. b.​ Gas Discharge Tubes (GDT): Sealed tubes containing gas,
3.​ Series Arcing Fault: Break in a single conductor. breaking down at a set voltage.
●​ Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter (AFCI): Detects low-level arcs and c.​ Zener Diode: Fast response and precise clamping voltage.
shuts off power. Types: d.​ Hybrid Circuit: Combination of GDT and Zener Diode for
1.​ Circuit Breaker Type optimal protection.
2.​ Convenience Outlet Type Inrush Current Protection
3.​ Portable Type ●​ Inrush Current: Instantaneous peak current when turning on an
4.​ Cord-Mounted Type appliance.
●​ Can be as high as 100 times normal current.
Nuisance Tripping
●​ GFCIs and AFCIs can trip frequently due to failing appliances or
lightning.
●​ Essential appliances (refrigerators, freezers) should not be on
GFCI/AFCI-protected outlets.

Electromagnetic Fields (EMF)

●​ Produced by any electrical current.
●​ High levels can cause interference in electronics (EMI).

Equipment Protection
Ground Fault Protection of Equipment (GFP)
●​ Detects and interrupts low-level ground faults.
●​ Uses a current transformer (CT) to monitor current balance.
 ELECTRICAL OUTLETS ●​ Polarized Two-Pronged Outlet – Designed to reduce
electrical shock.
●​ Also known as outlets, electrical sockets, plugs, and wall plugs. ●​ Labeled Three-Pronged Outlet – Has a ground pin for
●​ Allow electrical equipment to connect to the electrical grid, which added safety.
provides alternating current (AC).
●​ Two primary types: 3. GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter) Outlets
○​ Domestic Outlets – Used in homes and offices.
○​ Industrial Outlets – Used in factories and workplaces with ●​ Found in wet areas like kitchens, bathrooms, and garages.
heavy machinery. ●​ Identified by two special buttons:
●​ Outlets work by completing a 'loop of wire' when a device is plugged ○​ Red Button – Reset button.
in, allowing electricity to flow. ○​ Black Button – Test button.
●​ Contains a built-in circuit breaker that shuts off power if moisture is
Types of Electrical Outlets detected, preventing electrical hazards.

1. Standard Outlets 4. Range and Dryer Outlets

●​ Commonly found in homes and offices. ●​ Used for high-power appliances.

●​ Supply 120 volts of electricity. ●​ Range Outlet – Provides electricity to cooking ranges; connected to a
●​ Available in two-pin and three-pin varieties. dedicated circuit breaker.
●​ Three-pin outlets (with a grounded pin) are more common since the ●​ Dryer Outlet – Supplies 240 volts of electricity.
1960s. ○​ Older homes may have three-pin dryer outlets.
●​ Grounded outlets provide safety by directing excess electricity into ○​ Newer homes require four-pin dryer outlets for safety.
the ground if the neutral wire fails.
●​ Ungrounded outlets should be updated by an electrician. 5. USB Outlets

Types: ●​ Standard outlets with built-in USB charging ports.

●​ Convenient for charging USB-powered devices (phones, MP3
●​ Ungrounded Outlet – Lacks a third grounding pin. players) without using a computer.
●​ Grounded Outlet – Includes a third grounding pin for safety. ●​ Becoming more common in modern homes.

2. Non-Polarized Outlets Outlet Layouts from Around the World

●​ Found in very old homes. ●​ Electrical outlets vary by country in terms of voltage, frequency, and
●​ Characterized by two identical pins and a symmetrical receptacle. plug design.
●​ Unsafe due to lack of polarization, increasing the risk of electrical
shock. Surface Type and Flush Type Outlets
●​ Should be replaced immediately for safety.
●​ Surface Type – Mounted on the surface of the wall.
Example: ●​ Flush Type – Installed flush with the wall for a sleek appearance.
 LAMPHOLDERS 3. Bi-Pin or Multiple Pin Types (G)

●​ A device that holds a light bulb or lamp. ●​ Used in pinned base configurations.
●​ It is essential to select a compatible lamp holder for the type of bulb ●​ Pin Configuration: (G(U,X,Y,Z)-xx-x-x).
used. ●​ Examples: GU10, GU24q 2Pin, G13d 3Pin.
●​ Light bulb sockets are identified using a Letter-Number-Letter ●​ Application: Halogen, compact fluorescent, LED bulbs.
(optional) format:
○​ First Letter – Indicates the shape of the base. G-Type Variations
○​ Second Number – Indicates the width of the base or distance
between pins (in mm). ●​ G – Standard base.
○​ Third Letter – Represents the number of pins or contacts. ●​ 24 – Distance between each pin.
●​ q – Quadruple (Four) Pin.
Types of Socket Bases ●​ 1,2,3 – Indicates dowel (slot) position.

1.​ Bayonet Cap Base (B) – Push and twist action. Mounting Types of Lampholders
2.​ Edison Screw Cap Base (E) – Screw action.
3.​ Single Pin Type Base (F) ●​ Flush Type – Installed flat with the surface.
4.​ Bi-Pin or Multi-Pin Type (G) ●​ Surface Type – Mounted on the wall or ceiling.
5.​ Cable Connections (K) ●​ Hanging Type – Suspended from the ceiling.
6.​ Pre-Focused Light Base (P) 1.​ Chain – Uses a chain for suspension.
7.​ Recessed Contact Base (R) 2.​ Weatherproof – Designed for outdoor or damp environments.
8.​ Flange Base Light Bulb Base (F or T)
9.​ Slide Base (S)
10.​ Wedge Base (W)
11.​ Special Type Light Bulb Base (X)

Common Lampholder Types

1. Bayonet Cap (B/BC/SBC)

●​ Connection Type: Push and twist action.

●​ Pin Configuration: (Bxx or BCxx).
●​ Example: B22 (22mm base width).
●​ Application: Regular bulbs, low-voltage halogen lamps.

2. Edison Screw Cap Base (E/ES)

●​ Connection Type: Screw action.

●​ Pin Configuration: (Exx or ESxx).
●​ Example: E26 (26mm base width).
●​ Application: Large chandeliers, decorative lamps.
 SWITCHES ●​ Wall Switch – Used for lighting control in residential and commercial
buildings.
●​ Electromechanical devices used to control power in electrical circuits. ●​ Pull Rope Switch – Emergency stop switch activated by pulling a
●​ They function by opening or closing a circuit to allow or stop the flow rope.
of electricity.
●​ Used in a variety of applications, including industrial machinery, Key Specifications of Switches
household appliances, and automation systems.
●​ Classified based on function, mechanism, and application. ●​ Poles and Throws – Defines the number of circuits controlled and
the number of positions available.
Classification of Switches ●​ Voltage and Current Rating – Specifies the electrical capacity of the
switch.
1. Based on Switching Function ●​ Mounting Type – Determines how the switch is installed (e.g.,
panel-mounted, PCB-mounted).
●​ Single-Pole Single-Throw (SPST) – Simplest type; functions as an ●​ Actuator Type – Refers to the mechanical component used for
on/off switch. activation.
●​ Single-Pole Double-Throw (SPDT) – Can switch between two ●​ Material and Durability – Important for industrial and outdoor
circuits. applications.
●​ Double-Pole Single-Throw (DPST) – Controls two circuits
simultaneously with one switch. Common Applications of Switches
●​ Double-Pole Double-Throw (DPDT) – Allows switching between two
separate circuits with two positions. ●​ Industrial Machinery – Used in automation, conveyor systems, and
manufacturing equipment.
2. Based on Actuation Method ●​ Household Appliances – Found in washing machines, microwaves,
and lighting fixtures.
●​ Pushbutton Switch – Activated by pressing a button. ●​ Medical Equipment – Foot switches used in hospital devices for
●​ Toggle Switch – Uses a lever that moves through a small arc. hands-free operation.
●​ Rocker Switch – Features a rocking mechanism for activation. ●​ Consumer Electronics – Power switches in computers, gaming
●​ Rotary Switch – Rotated to change positions and select functions. consoles, and remote controls.
●​ Slide Switch – Uses a slider to shift between circuit positions. ●​ Automotive Systems – Toggle and rocker switches used in vehicle
●​ Thumbwheel Switch – Controlled by rotating a numbered wheel. dashboards and controls.

3. Based on Application

●​ Limit Switch – Detects motion or position; commonly used in

industrial automation.
●​ Foot Switch – Operated by foot pressure; ideal for hands-free
applications.
●​ Pressure Switch – Senses fluid pressure and sends an electrical
signal.
●​ Level Switch – Detects the level of liquids, powders, or solids in a
container.