GRAMMAR

1️.TENSES

🔹 Present Tenses

 Present Simple → Facts, routines, timetables.

(+) She goes to school every day.
(-) They don’t like spicy food.
(?) Do you play football?
 Present Continuous → Actions happening now or future plans.
(+) He is watching TV.
(-) We aren’t studying now.
(?) Are they coming tomorrow?
 Present Perfect → Experiences, actions affecting the present.
(+) I have visited Paris.
(-) She hasn’t finished her work.
(?) Have you ever eaten sushi?

🔹 Past Tenses

 Past Simple → Completed actions in the past.

(+) I watched a movie yesterday.
(-) She didn’t go to the party.
(?) Did they travel last summer?
 Past Continuous → Ongoing past actions, interrupted actions.
(+) I was reading when the phone rang.
(-) They weren’t sleeping at midnight.
(?) Was she cooking?
 Past Perfect → Actions before another past event.
(+) She had left before I arrived.
(-) They hadn’t finished their work.
(?) Had you ever met him before?

🔹 Future Tenses

 Will → Predictions, spontaneous decisions, promises.

(+) I will call you later.
(-) She won’t be late.
(?) Will they come to the party?
 Be going to → Planned actions, predictions based on evidence.
(+) We are going to visit Rome.
(-) He isn’t going to buy a car.
(?) Are you going to study abroad?

2️. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

 Singular subjects take singular verbs:

The book is interesting.
 Plural subjects take plural verbs:
The books are on the table.
  Uncountable nouns take singular verbs:
Water is essential.
 Either/Neither/Each/Every + singular noun → singular verb:
Each student has a book.
 Both/All/Many/Several + plural noun → plural verb:
Both cats are sleeping.

3️. NOUNS & ARTICLES

 A / An → Used for singular, unspecified nouns.

I have a dog.
She is an artist.
 The → Used for specific nouns.
I saw the Eiffel Tower.
 Countable nouns → Have singular & plural forms.
One apple → Two apples.
 Uncountable nouns → Do not have a plural form.
Water, money, information.

4️. PRONOUNS

 Subject Pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.

She is my sister.
 Object Pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, them.
She called me yesterday.
 Possessive Pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs.
This book is mine.
 Possessive Adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our, their.
This is my house.

5️. ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS & COMPARISONS

Comparisons (Degrees of Comparison)

Degree Adjective Adverb Example

Positive fast quickly He runs fast.
Comparative (2 things) faster more quickly He runs faster than me.
Superlative (3+ things) fastest most quickly He runs the fastest in the team.

Rules for forming Comparatives & Superlatives:

 Short adjectives: add -er / -est

o small → smaller → smallest
 Long adjectives: use more / most
o beautiful → more beautiful → most beautiful
 Irregular adjectives/adverbs:
o good → better → best
o bad → worse → worst
o far → farther/further → farthest/furthest
Examples:

 This exam is easier than the last one.

 She speaks more fluently than him.
 That was the worst day ever!

6️. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

 Type 1 (Real present/future situations):

If it rains, we will stay at home.
 Type 2 (Unreal present situations):
If I were you, I would travel the world.
 Type 3 (Unreal past situations):
If she had studied, she would have passed.

7️. QUANTIFIERS

 Some / Any → Some (positive), Any (negative/questions).

I have some apples.
Do you have any books?
 Much / Many → Much (uncountable), Many (countable).
I don’t have much time.
There are many cars.
 A lot of / Lots of → Used for both countable & uncountable nouns.
She has a lot of friends.

8️. PASSIVE VOICE

9️. MODAL VERBS

Notes on Modals:

 Must vs. Have to → "Must" expresses an internal obligation (personal choice), while "have to"
expresses an external obligation (rules/laws).
 Can vs. May → "Can" is informal permission, while "may" is more formal.
 Shall vs. Will → "Shall" is more formal and used in suggestions.

10. PREPOSITIONS & CONJUNCTIONS

10.1. PREPOSITIONS
10.2. CONJUNCTIONS

1️.Coordinating Conjunctions

Function: Join words, phrases, or independent clauses of equal importance.

Common conjunctions: FANBOYS → For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So.

Examples:

 I wanted to go out, but it was raining.

 You can have tea or coffee.
 She was tired, so she went to bed early.

2️. Subordinating Conjunctions

Function: Connect a dependent clause to an independent clause.

Common subordinating conjunctions: because, although, since, unless, while, after, before, if, when, as,
though, whereas, even though, until.

Examples:

 Because it was late, we went home.

 I will go if you come with me.
  She kept working although she was tired.
 He stayed at home while his friends went out.

3️. Correlative Conjunctions

Function: Used in pairs to connect words or phrases that have equal importance in a sentence. Common
correlative conjunctions: either…or, neither…nor, both…and, not only…but also, whether…or

Examples:

 Either you apologize, or you leave.

 Neither the teacher nor the students knew the answer.
 Both my sister and my brother love chocolate.
 She is not only smart but also hardworking.
 I don’t know whether to stay or leave.

11. RELATIVE CLAUSES

Notes:

 Defining relative clauses → Do not use commas.

 Non-defining relative clauses → Always use commas and do not use "that."
 "That" can replace "who" or "which" in defining clauses but not in non-defining clauses.
12. Infinitives and Gerunds

Form Function/Use Example Sentence

Infinitive (to + After certain verbs (agree, decide, hope, promise, refuse,
She decided to leave early.
verb) want, etc.)
After adjectives It’s important to study hard.
To express purpose ("in order to") He left to catch the bus.
After question words (what, how, where, etc.) I don’t know how to swim.
After "too" and "enough" The tea is too hot to drink.
After certain verbs + object (tell, ask, want, advise, allow,
She asked me to help her.
expect, etc.)
Gerund (verb + - Swimming is my favorite
As a subject
ing) sport.
After prepositions He is good at drawing.
After certain verbs (enjoy, avoid, mind, suggest, finish,
I enjoy reading books.
consider, etc.)
After expressions like "can’t help," "it’s no use," "be used She can’t help laughing at the
to" joke.
After certain verbs + object (e.g., "keep someone from They prevented him from
doing something") leaving.

Verbs that Change Meaning with Infinitives & Gerunds

Verb Infinitive Meaning (Action in the future) Gerund Meaning (Action already happened)
He stopped to talk to me. (He paused another
Stop He stopped talking. (He no longer talks.)
action to talk.)
Remember Remember to call her. (Don’t forget to call.) I remember calling her. (I recall the past action.)
I forgot meeting her. (I don’t remember meeting
Forget He forgot to lock the door. (He didn’t lock it.)
her before.)
Try opening the window. (See if opening the
Try Try to open the door. (Make an effort to open it.)
window helps.)

Notes:

 Some verbs can be followed by both infinitives and gerunds, but the meaning changes (e.g., stop,
remember, forget, try).
 Gerunds are used after prepositions, while infinitives are used after adjectives.
 VOCABULARY

Topic Nouns (N) Verbs (V) Adjectives (Adj) Adverbs (Adv)

habit, housework, wake up, clean up, commute, busy, daily, tired, frequently,
Daily Life
schedule, task, custom prepare, manage productive efficiently, early
relative, colleague, sociable,
meet, support, admire, respect, politely, warmly,
People neighbor, personality, generous,
introduce honestly
friendship responsible, kind
full-time, part- professionally,
occupation, career, apply, hire, resign, negotiate,
Work time, challenging, efficiently,
salary, shift, office complete
demanding successfully
cheerful, exciting,
Leisure & hobby, concert, play, join, enjoy, perform, actively, happily,
entertaining,
Entertainment festival, relaxation, fun explore creatively
relaxing
environment, natural, globally,
The World protect, recycle, pollute,
pollution, climate, endangered, eco- environmentally,
Around Us conserve, destroy
nature, disaster friendly, harmful naturally
destination,
adventurous, abroad,
Tourism & accommodation, book, pack, check in, explore,
affordable, domestically,
Travel passport, itinerary, experience
luxurious, cultural internationally
transportation
message, network, instantly,
Communication text, browse, download, upload, digital, wireless,
application, device, securely,
& Technology interact virtual, innovative
privacy remotely
poverty,
discrimination, donate, support, protest, raise fair, charitable, socially, fairly,
Social Concerns
equality, human rights, awareness, advocate ethical, urgent positively
welfare
freshly,
ingredient, cuisine, spicy, healthy,
Food & Clothes cook, bake, wear, mix, order fashionably,
meal, outfit, brand stylish, casual
elegantly
goal, success, ambitious,
confidently,
Ambitions & determination, achieve, improve, overcome, determined,
optimistically,
Dreams motivation, pursue, inspire hardworking,
efficiently
opportunity passionate