GRAMMAR LESSON IN DETAILS

1. Using Adverbs and Adverbials

Explanation:

 Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs and answer questions like
how, when, where, and why. Examples include "quickly," "yesterday," and
"outside."
 Adverbials function as modifiers, like adverbs, but can be either a single word
or a phrase (e.g., "with enthusiasm" or "in a hurry").
 Prescriptive Grammar: Prescriptive rules specify where adverbs should be
placed for "correct" grammar.
 Descriptive Grammar: Descriptive rules acknowledge variations that sound
natural, even if they don’t strictly follow prescriptive grammar rules.

Common Adverbial Patterns:

 Adverb + Verb: "beautifully made"

 Adverb + Adjective: "quite gracious"
 Adverb + Adverb: "very quickly"
 Adjective + Adverb: "fantastic always"
 Adverbials: words/phrases like "quickly," "before," "after"

Word Forms:

 Noun: names a person, place, thing (e.g., "cat")

 Verb: describes an action (e.g., "run")
 Adjective: modifies a noun (e.g., "beautiful")
 Adverb: modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb (e.g., "quickly")

2. Pronouns: Other, Others, and Another

Explanation:
Pronouns can be tricky because they often replace other nouns, and each has a
specific use.

Other: Used as an adjective, "other" describes additional people or things. It’s

often paired with a noun to clarify what additional items or people are being
discussed.

o Example: "Some students arrived early, but other students arrived

late."
o Note: Without a noun, “other” cannot stand alone and still make sense.
 Others: This is a pronoun that replaces a noun phrase, referring to a group of
additional people or things. It acts on its own, representing a plural noun
previously mentioned in context.

o Example: "Some students arrived early, but others arrived late."

Another: This means “one more” or “an additional one” of the same type and
is usually used with singular nouns.

o Example: "I would like another cup of coffee."

Tip:

 Remember that “other” is used with nouns, “others” stands alone and implies
multiple people or things, and “another” implies one more item or person.

3. Accusative Case Pronouns

Explanation:
Pronouns in the accusative case (or objective case) are used when the pronoun serves
as the object of a verb or preposition. They typically come after the verb or
preposition, acting as the receiver of the action.

 Basic Pronouns in the Accusative Case: me, him, her, us, them.

o Example: "The teacher gave Sarah and me extra homework."

Basic Sentence Structure:

1. Subject (does the action): Noun or pronoun that performs the action (e.g., "I,"
"the teacher").
2. Verb (the action): Describes what is happening (e.g., "gave").
3. Object (receives the action): Noun or pronoun that is affected by the action
(e.g., "me").

Examples:

 "They invited him to the party."

 "Please give us the details."

Tips:

 Use "me" instead of "I" when it is the object of a sentence.

 After a preposition, like "to" or "for," use the accusative pronouns (e.g., "to
him," "for her").
4. Relative and Demonstrative Pronouns

Explanation:

Relative Pronouns: These pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that)

connect clauses and give more information about a noun. They help provide
context or describe a noun further.

o Who: Used for people as the subject. Example: "The man who called
you is here."
o Whom: Used for people as the object. Example: "The woman whom I
met is an artist."
o Whose: Shows possession. Example: "The student whose book is
missing was absent."
o Which: Refers to animals or things. Example: "The house which is on
the hill is beautiful."
o That: Can refer to people, animals, or things in essential clauses.
Example: "The movie that we watched was thrilling."

Demonstrative Pronouns: These (this, that, these, those) are used to point to
specific people, animals, or things.

o This and These: Refer to something close in space or time.

 Example: "This is my favorite book." "These are my friends."

o That and Those: Refer to something farther away.

 Example: "That is an old building." "Those are beautiful

mountains."

Tips:

 Use relative pronouns to join clauses and give details.

 Use demonstrative pronouns to indicate specific items or people, often with
gestures or spatial clues.

5. Subordination and Coordination

Explanation:
 Subordination: Joins two ideas by making one clause dependent on the other.
A subordinating conjunction (e.g., because, although, if, while) connects the
clauses, making one the main focus and the other the subordinate.

o Example: "Because it was raining, she stayed inside."

Coordination: Joins clauses or items of equal importance using coordinating

conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so - FANBOYS).

o Example: "I wanted to go, but I didn’t have time."

Types:

 Compound Sentence: Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating

conjunction.
 Complex Sentence: An independent clause combined with a dependent
clause, often connected by a subordinating conjunction.

Tips:

 Use coordination (FANBOYS) to combine equally important ideas.

 Use subordination to add detail or context to a main idea.

6. Infinitives and Gerunds

Explanation:

Infinitives: The base form of a verb with "to" (e.g., to run, to sing). They can
act as subjects, objects, or complements.

o Example: "He wants to travel."

Gerunds: The -ing form of a verb used as a noun (e.g., swimming, reading).
Gerunds can also function as subjects, objects, or complements.

o Example: "Swimming is fun."

Choosing Infinitives vs. Gerunds:

 Some verbs are followed by an infinitive: agree, decide, hope. ("She decided
to leave.")
 Some verbs are followed by a gerund: enjoy, avoid, mind. ("They enjoy
playing games.")
 Some verbs can take either, with different meanings. ("He remembered to
call" vs. "He remembered calling.")
Tips:

 Memorize which verbs take infinitives, which take gerunds, and which can use
either.

7. Verb Tenses and Perfect Forms

Verb tenses help us understand when an action or event happens (in the past, present,
or future). The perfect forms are specific structures used to describe completed
actions in relation to another point in time.

1. Present Tenses

a. Simple Present

 Usage: Describes general truths, habits, or routines.

 Structure: Subject + base form of the verb (add -s or -es for he/she/it).
o Examples:
 "The sun rises in the east." (general truth)
 "She walks to school every day." (habit)

b. Present Continuous (Progressive)

 Usage: Describes actions happening right now or around the current time.
 Structure: Subject + am/is/are + verb-ing.
o Examples:
 "She is reading a book right now."
 "They are working on the project this week."

c. Present Perfect

 Usage: Describes actions completed at an unspecified time in the past that still
affect the present or actions that began in the past and continue to the present.
 Structure: Subject + have/has + past participle.
o Examples:
 "I have visited France." (The experience affects the present,
though the exact time isn’t specified.)
 "They have known each other for ten years." (Action started in
the past and continues.)

d. Present Perfect Continuous

 Usage: Describes actions that started in the past and are still continuing or
have recently stopped, often with an emphasis on the duration of the action.
  Structure: Subject + have/has been + verb-ing.
o Examples:
 "She has been studying for hours."
 "They have been working on this project since last month."

2. Past Tenses

a. Simple Past

 Usage: Describes completed actions that happened at a specific time in the

past.
 Structure: Subject + past form of the verb.
o Examples:
 "She visited her friend yesterday."
 "They finished the assignment last week."

b. Past Continuous

 Usage: Describes actions that were ongoing at a specific time in the past or
actions interrupted by another action.
 Structure: Subject + was/were + verb-ing.
o Examples:
 "He was reading when the phone rang." (ongoing action
interrupted by another action)
 "They were studying all night."

c. Past Perfect

 Usage: Describes actions that were completed before another past action.
Often used to clarify the sequence of past events.
 Structure: Subject + had + past participle.
o Examples:
 "They had left by the time we arrived." (The action of leaving
happened before the arrival.)
 "She had already eaten when he called."

d. Past Perfect Continuous

 Usage: Describes an ongoing action that was happening up until another past
action, often emphasizing the duration of the activity.
 Structure: Subject + had been + verb-ing.
o Examples:
 "She had been studying for hours before she took the test."
  "They had been living in that house for ten years before
moving."

3. Future Tenses

a. Simple Future

 Usage: Describes actions that will happen at a future time.

 Structure: Subject + will/shall + base form of the verb.
o Examples:
 "I will call you tomorrow."
 "They will finish the project by next week."

b. Future Continuous

 Usage: Describes actions that will be ongoing at a specific time in the future.
 Structure: Subject + will be + verb-ing.
o Examples:
 "She will be working late tomorrow."
 "We will be traveling at this time next week."

c. Future Perfect

 Usage: Describes actions that will be completed before a specific future time.
 Structure: Subject + will have + past participle.
o Examples:
 "They will have finished the project by Friday."
 "She will have left by the time you arrive."

d. Future Perfect Continuous

 Usage: Describes ongoing actions that will continue up to a specific point in

the future, emphasizing the duration of the action.
 Structure: Subject + will have been + verb-ing.
o Examples:
 "By the end of this year, he will have been working here for
five years."
 "They will have been studying for hours by the time the exam
starts."

4. Perfect Forms Summary

The perfect forms (present, past, and future perfect) are used to emphasize that one
action is completed before another point in time or another action:

 Present Perfect (have/has + past participle): Action completed at an

unspecified time before now, affecting the present.
 Past Perfect (had + past participle): Action completed before another action
in the past.
 Future Perfect (will have + past participle): Action that will be completed
before a specific time in the future.

Examples of How to Use Perfect Tenses in Context:

Present Perfect:

o "She has completed the report, so she can relax now." (The action of
completing affects the present.)

Past Perfect:

o "They had eaten dinner before the movie started." (Eating happened
before the movie.)

Future Perfect:

o "By next year, he will have graduated." (Graduation will be complete

by next year.)

Tips for Mastering Verb Tenses and Perfect Forms

1. Use Time Clues: Words like “yesterday,” “now,” “tomorrow,” “since,” and
“by the time” can help determine the correct tense.
2. Understand the Sequence: Perfect tenses clarify the sequence between two
actions, which is especially helpful in past and future narratives.
3. Practice with Timelines: Create a visual timeline to see how each tense and
form fits in relation to one another.
4. Focus on Duration with Continuous Forms: Continuous forms (like past
perfect continuous) emphasize the ongoing nature of actions up to a specific
point in time.

By understanding and practicing these structures, you’ll develop greater accuracy in

describing events clearly and effectively across different times and contexts.
8. Conditionals

Conditionals express situations or events that depend on certain conditions. There are
four main types of conditionals, each with a unique structure and use. Conditionals
often use "if" or "when" to introduce the condition.

1. Zero Conditional

 Usage: Describes general truths or facts that are always true when the
condition is met.
 Structure: If/When + present simple, + present simple.
o Examples:
 "If you heat water, it boils."
 "When it rains, the ground gets wet."

2. First Conditional

 Usage: Describes real or possible situations in the future that are likely to
happen.
 Structure: If + present simple, + will + base verb.
o Examples:
 "If she studies, she will pass the test."
 "We will go for a walk if it doesn’t rain."

3. Second Conditional

 Usage: Describes hypothetical or unlikely situations in the present or future.

 Structure: If + past simple, + would + base verb.
o Examples:
 "If I won the lottery, I would buy a new house."
 "If he were here, he would help us."

4. Third Conditional

 Usage: Describes hypothetical or unreal situations in the past; often expresses

regret or a missed opportunity.
 Structure: If + past perfect, + would have + past participle.
o Examples:
 "If she had studied, she would have passed the test."
 "They would have arrived on time if they had left earlier."

9. Emphatic Verb Forms with 'do' and 'did'

Emphatic forms in English use "do" or "did" to add emphasis to a verb. This structure
is especially useful to stress a point, add intensity, or contradict a negative statement.

1. Emphasis in Positive Sentences

 Structure: Subject + do/does/did + base form of the verb.

o Examples:
 "I do want to go to the party!" (emphasizing the desire to go)
 "She does enjoy playing the piano." (emphasizing enjoyment)

2. Emphasis in Past Actions

 Structure: Subject + did + base form of the verb.

o Examples:
 "He did finish his homework." (stressing that he actually
completed it)
 "They did arrive on time." (emphasizing that they were not
late)

10. Phrasal and Modal Verbs

1. Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs consist of a main verb and one or more particles (prepositions or
adverbs) that change the verb’s meaning. These can sometimes be confusing because
the combined meaning differs from the individual words.

 Examples:
o "give up" (to stop trying): "She gave up smoking."
o "look after" (to take care of): "He looks after his sister."

2. Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express ability, permission, possibility, or
necessity. Common modal verbs include can, could, may, might, must, shall,
should, will, and would.

 Examples:
o "can" (ability): "She can swim well."
o "must" (necessity): "You must wear a seatbelt."

11. Prepositions
Prepositions link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other parts of a sentence, showing
relationships in time, place, direction, etc.

1. Prepositions of Time

 Examples:
o "at" (specific time): "She arrives at 8:00."
o "on" (specific day/date): "He will meet you on Monday."
o "in" (longer period): "We visit them in December."

2. Prepositions of Place

 Examples:
o "at" (specific place): "He’s at the office."
o "in" (enclosed space): "She lives in New York."
o "on" (surface): "The book is on the table."

3. Prepositions of Direction

 Examples:
o "to" (movement towards): "They walked to the park."
o "into" (entering a space): "She walked into the room."