Chapter 1

Vector Analysis

1.1 Scalar Fields and Vector Fields

1.1.1 Scalar Field

A scalar field is a function f : A ⊂ Rn → R, which assigns a scalar value (a real
number or a scalar) to each point in space or a given domain.
Scalar fields are commonly used in mathematics and physics to represent
quantities that have a single numerical value at every point in space. Here are
some more explicit and concrete examples of scalar and vector fields:
Example:
Temperature: The temperature at each point (x, y, z) is given by a scalar
field T (x, y, z) = 20 + x2 − z. At point (1, 2, 3), the temperature is: T (1, 2, 3) =
20 + 12 − 3 = 18◦ C. At point (2, 0, 1), the temperature is: T (2, 0, 1) = 20 + 22 −
1 = 23◦ C.

1.1.2 Vector Field

Definition. A vector field is a function that, for every point M in a domain
→
− →
−
of Rn assigns a vector V (M )= V (M ) = (V1 (M ), V2 (M ), ..., Vn (M )), where the
functions V1 , V2 , ..., Vn are from Rn to R and thus are scalar fields.
Example:
Wind Velocity Field: Suppose the wind velocity (la vitesse du vent) at any
point (x, y, z) in a region is given by: V(x, y, z) = (5x, 2y, z), where each com-
ponent represents the wind speed in different directions. At point (1, 2, 3), the
wind velocity is: V(1, 2, 3) = (5, 4, 3) m/s. This means the wind is blowing (le
vent souffle) at 5 m/s in the x-direction, 4 m/s in the y-direction, and 3 m/s in
the z-direction.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS

1.2 Circulation et gradient

1.2.1 Circulation
→
−
Definition: The circulation of a vector field F along a closed contour (C), is
defined by the line integral:
→
−
I
→
− →
C F = F · d−r
C
H
here indicates that the integration is performed along the closed curve. dr
C
is an infinitesimal displacement vector along the curve. For an open path from
→
−
point a to point b, the circulation of the vector field F is given by:
Z b
→
− −−
→ →
C F = F .dr
a

The circulation can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on the direction

of the vector field relative to the orientation of the path. A positive circulation
indicates that the field is aligned with the path’s orientation, while a negative
circulation indicates opposition. Zero circulation means there is no net flow
along the path.
Examples.
→
−
1. Let the vector field F be defined as
→
−
F (x, y, z) = x2 i + (y + 2z) j + 3 z 2 + y k;

then the circulation of this vector field along the contour C = {(x, y, z) , x = y = 0, 0 ≤ z ≤ h}
is given by
Z B
→− −−
→ →
C F = F .dr
A
→
− →
−
on the curve C, the vector field F (x, y, z) = 2zj + 3z 2 k and dr = dzk, hence
   
0 0
−−
→ →
F .dr =  2z  .  0  = 3z 2 dz ⇒
3z 2 dz
Z B Z h
→−  −−
→ →
C F = F .dr = 3z 2 dz = h3 .
A 0

2. Circulation Around a Circle: Let us consider the vector field:

F(x, y) = (−y, x).

We will evaluate the circulation along a circle of radius R centered at the

origin, parametrized by:

r(t) = (R cos t, R sin t) for t ∈ [0, 2π].

1.2. CIRCULATION ET GRADIENT 3

The infinitesimal displacement dr is given by:

dr
dr =
dt = (−R sin t, R cos t)dt.
dt
H
Now, compute the circulation C(F) = C F · dr. Substituting F and dr:
Z 2π
C(F) = F(R cos t, R sin t) · (−R sin t, R cos t)dt.
0

Hence
Z 2π
C(F) = (−R sin t, R cos t) · (−R sin t, R cos t)dt
0
Z 2π Z 2π
= (R2 sin2 t + R2 cos2 t)dt = R2 dt = R2 (2π) = 2πR2
0 0
H
The circulation around the circle is C(F) = C
F · dr.

1.2.2 The gradient of a scalar field

Definition. Let f be a scalar field f : A ⊂ Rn → R. The gradient of the scalar
field f is defined by
 
−−→ →
− ∂f ∂f ∂f →
−
gradf = ▽.f = , , ..., = ▽.f,
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂xn
→
− 
∂ ∂ ∂

where the nabla operator ▽ = ∂x ,
1 ∂x2
, ..., ∂xn .
Proposition
If α is a real constant and f and g are two scalar fields, then:
−−→ −−→ −−→
grad (f + g) = gradf + gradg
−−−−→ −−→
gradαf = αgradf
−−→ −−→ −−→
grad (f g) = f gradg + g gradf.

Example 1. Gradient of a Simple Scalar Field in R2 . Let f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 .

To find the gradient ∇f , we take the partial derivatives of f with respect to x
and y:

∂f ∂f
= 2x, = 2y
∂x ∂y
Thus, the gradient is:
 
→
− ∂f ∂f
▽f = , = (2x, 2y)
∂x ∂y
4 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS

Example 2. Gradient of a Scalar Field in R3 . Let f (x, y, z) = 3x2 + 2yz.

To find the gradient ∇f , we compute the partial derivatives with respect to x,
y, and z:
∂f ∂f ∂f
= 6x, = 2z, = 2y.
∂x ∂y ∂z
Thus, the gradient is:
→
−
▽f = (6x, 2z, 2y).
Example 3. Gradient of a Temperature Field. Let T (x, y, z) = 100 − 2x2 −
3y − z 2 represent the temperature distribution in a 3D space. To find the
2
→
−
gradient ▽T , we take the partial derivatives with respect to x, y, and z:
∂T ∂T ∂T
= −4x, = −6y, = −2z
∂x ∂y ∂z
Thus, the gradient is:
→
−
▽T = (−4x, −6y, −2z).

1.2.3 Gradient field

→
−
Definition. A vector field V is called a gradient field if it can be expressed
as the gradient of a scalar field f , this means:
→
− →
−
V = ▽f

Star-Shaped Open Sets. A domain D ⊂ R2 is said to be star-shaped with

respect to a point x0 ∈ D if, for any point x ∈ D, the line segment connecting
x0 and x is entirely contained within D. I.e., for any x ∈ D, the set:

{(1 − t)x0 + tx : t ∈ [0, 1]}

is contained in D.
→
−
Remark. In R2 , a vector field V = (V1 , V2 ) is a gradient field if it is defined
on a star shaped open set D ⊂ R2 and it satisfies the following condition:
∂V1 ∂V2
=
∂y ∂x
This condition is known as equality of mixed partial derivatives and ensures
→
−
that the vector field V can be expressed as the gradient of some scalar field f .
Example 1: Gradient Field in R2 . Let the vector field V(x, y) be defined
as:

V(x, y) = 2xy + y 2 + 1, 2xy + x2 = (V1 , V2 ) .

Since R2 is a star-shaped open set, we can check whether V is a gradient field

by verifying if the mixed partial derivatives are equal:
1.2. CIRCULATION ET GRADIENT 5

1. Partial derivative of V1 with respect to y:

∂V1 ∂
2xy + y 2 + 1 = 2x + 2y


=
∂y ∂y
2. Partial derivative of V2 with respect to x:
∂V2 ∂
2xy + x2 = 2x + 2y


=
∂x ∂x
Since:
∂V1 ∂V2
=
∂y ∂x
the vector field V is a gradient field. Now, let’s find the scalar field f (x, y) such
that V = ∇f. We start by solving ∂f 2
∂x = V1 = 2xy + y + 1:

f (x, y) = x2 y + xy 2 + x + c(y)
∂f
where c(y) is an arbitrary function of y. Now, use ∂y = V2 = 2xy + x2 :

∂
x2 y + xy 2 + x + c(y) = x2 + 2xy + c′ (y)


∂y
Setting this equal to V2 = 2xy + x2 gives c′ (y) = 0, meaning c(y) is a constant.
Thus, the scalar field is:

f (x, y) = x2 y + xy 2 + x + c

where c is a constant, and hence V is a gradient field.

Example 2: Gradient Field in R3 . Now, consider the vector field:

V(x, y, z) = (yz, zx, xy)

→
−
defined on R3 . We want to find a scalar field f (x, y, z) such that V = ∇f .
First, solve ∂f
∂x = yz:
f (x, y, z) = xyz + a(y, z)
∂f
where a(y, z) is a function of y and z. Now, use ∂y = zx:

∂ ∂a
(xyz + a(y, z)) = xz + = zx.
∂y ∂y
∂a
This implies that ∂y = 0, so a(y, z) = b(z), a function of z only. Finally, use
∂f
∂z = xy:
∂
(xyz + b(z)) = xy + b′ (z) = xy.
∂z
This implies that b′ (z) = 0, so b(z) is a constant. Thus, the scalar potential
function is:
f (x, y, z) = xyz + c
→
−
where c is a constant, and therefore V(x, y, z) = ∇f , making V a gradient field.
6 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS

1.3 Divergence and Curl

1.3.1 Divergence of a Vector Field
For a vector field V = (V1 , V2 , V3 ), the divergence of V is defined as:

→
− ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V3
div V = ∇ · V = + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z


Example: Given the vector field V = yx3 + z, y, x2 , we compute its
divergence at the point M = (2, 1, 1).
1. Partial derivative of V1 = yx3 + z with respect to x:

∂V1
= 3x2 y
∂x
2. Partial derivative of V2 = y with respect to y:

∂V2
=1
∂y

3. Partial derivative of V3 = x2 with respect to z:

∂V3
=0
∂z
So, the divergence is:

div V = 3x2 y + 1
At M = (2, 1, 1), we have:

div V = 3(2)2 (1) + 1 = 13

Thus, div V = 13 at point M .

1.3.2 Curl of a Vector Field

For a vector field V = (V1 , V2 , V3 ), the curl of V, is denoted ∇ × V or ∇ΛV
and is defined as:

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl V = ∇ΛV = ∂x ∂y ∂z .
V1 V2 V3
This determinant expands to:

     
∂V3 ∂V2 ∂V3 ∂V1 ∂V2 ∂V1
curl V = − î − − ĵ + − k̂
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y
1.4. LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR FIELD 7

The curl computes a new vector field that measures the rotation of the
original field at each point in space.

Example: Calculate the Curl. Given the vector field V = xy, yz, zx2 ,
the curl is computed as:
1. First component (i-direction):

∂V3 ∂V2
− = −y
∂y ∂z

2. Second component (j-direction):

∂V3 ∂V1
− = 2zx
∂x ∂z
3. Third component (k-direction):

∂V2 ∂V1
− = −x
∂x ∂y

Thus, the curl is:

curl V = (−y, −2zx, −x)

At M = (2, 1, 1), the curl is:

curl V = (−1, −4, −2)

Irrotational Fields
A vector field V is called irrotational if curl V = 0.

Proposition 1 If a vector field V has components that are continuously dif-

ferentiable in C 1 (R3 ), then a necessary and sufficient condition for V to be a
gradient field is that curl V = 0.

1.4 Laplacian of a Scalar Field

The Laplacian of a scalar field f is defined by

→
− →
− −−→ ∂2f ∂2f ∂2f
∆f = ▽. ▽f = div gradf = 2
+ 2 + 2
∂x ∂y ∂z

Example. The Laplacian of the scalar field f (x, y, z) = exyz is calculated

as follows:

∂2f ∂2f ∂2f

∆f = 2
+ 2 + 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
8 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS

we have
∂f ∂2f
= yzexyz , = y 2 z 2 exyz
∂x ∂x2
∂f ∂2f
= xzexyz , = x2 z 2 exyz
∂y ∂x2
∂f ∂2f
= xyexyz , = x2 y 2 exyz
∂z ∂x2
hence
∂2f ∂2f ∂2f
+ 2 + 2 = y 2 z 2 + x2 z 2 + x2 y 2 exyz .


∆f = 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
Important Relations in Vector Calculus
In vector calculus, several important relations connect different vector op-
erations. Here are some key relations involving the gradient, divergence, and
curl:
1.Divergence and Curl. The divergence of the curl of any vector field is
always zero:
div(∇ΛV) = 0
This means that the divergence of a curl field does not contribute any net flow
out of an infinitesimal volume.
2. Curl and Gradient. The curl of the gradient of any scalar field is always
zero:
∇Λ(∇f ) = 0
This indicates that a gradient field is irrotational. Conversely, if the curl of a
vector field A is the zero vector, then A is a gradient field. We conclude that
the circulation of a gradient field along a closed curve is always zero.
3.. Laplacian. The Laplacian operator combines the divergence and the
gradient:
∆f = ∇ · ∇f
The Laplacian of a scalar field f is a measure of the curvature or spread of the
field.
Remark:
1. The divergence of a vector field at a given point measures the tendency
of the field to ”spread out” or ”converge” at that point. If the divergence is
positive at a point, it means that the field ”spreads out” from that point, which
can be interpreted as a source. If the divergence is negative at a point, it means
that the field ”converges” toward that point, which can be interpreted as a sink.
If the divergence is zero at a point, it means that the field has neither a source
nor a sink at that location, and it is often described as ”incompressible” at that
point.
2. The curl of a vector field at a given point measures the local rotation of
the field around that point. If the curl is non-zero at a point, it means that the
field is rotating or swirling around that point. The direction and magnitude of
the curl indicate the axis and speed of the rotation.
1.5. SCALAR POTENTIALS AND VECTOR POTENTIALS 9

1.5 Scalar Potentials and Vector Potentials

Definition. We say that f is a scalar potential of V, or that V derives from
→
−
the scalar potential f , when V = ∇f . That is,
 
∂f ∂f ∂f
V(M ) = , , .
∂x ∂y ∂z

Proposition: A necessary and sufficient condition for a vector field V to

derive from a scalar potential is that curl(V) = 0. In other words, if the curl of
a vector field is zero, there exists a scalar field f such that V = ∇f .
Exercise: Given the vector field V(x, y, z) = (2xy + z 3 , x2 , 3xz 2 ):
1. Show that this vector field is a gradient field.
2. Determine all the scalar potentials from which it derives.
Solution:
1. Show that V is a gradient field: We calculate the curl of V:

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl(V) = ∇ΛV = ∂x ∂y ∂z
2xy + z 3 x2
3xz 2
Expanding the determinant:

∂(3xz 2 ) ∂(x2 ) ∂(3xz 2 ) ∂(2xy + z 3 ) ∂(x2 ) ∂(2xy + z 3 )

     
curl(V) = i − −j − +k −
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂x ∂y

= i(0 − 0) − j(3z 2 − 3z 2 ) + k(2x − 2x) = 0.

Since the curl is zero, V is a gradient field.
2. Determine the scalar potentials: If V derives from a scalar potential f ,
then:
 
∂f ∂f ∂f
V = ∇f = i+ j+ k .
∂x ∂y ∂z
Therefore, we have:

∂f
= 2xy + z 3 ⇒ f (x, y, z) = x2 y + z 3 x + g(y, z),
∂x
where g(y, z) is a function of y and z.
Next, from ∂f 2
∂y = x + gy (y, z), we get:

x2 + gy (y, z) = x2 ⇒ gy (y, z) = 0 ⇒ g(y, z) = g(z).

∂f
Finally, from ∂z = 3xz 2 + g ′ (z), we get:

3xz 2 + g ′2 ⇒ g ′ (z) = 0 ⇒ g(z) = c,

10 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS

where c is a constant.
Therefore, the scalar potential is:

f (x, y, z) = x2 y + z 3 x + c.
Exercise: Show that if a function f : R3 → R has continuous second partial
derivatives, then curl(∇f ) = 0.
Solution: Let f : R3 → R be a scalar field with continuous second partial
derivatives. We want to show that the curl of the gradient of f is zero, i.e.,
∇Λ(∇f ) = 0.
The gradient of f is:
 
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = , , .
∂x ∂y ∂z
Now, we compute the curl of this gradient field:

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
∇Λ(∇f ) = ∂x ∂y ∂z .
∂f ∂f ∂f
∂x ∂y ∂z

Expanding the determinant:

∂2f ∂2f ∂2f ∂2f ∂2f ∂2f

     
∇Λ(∇f ) = i − −j − +k − .
∂y∂z ∂z∂y ∂x∂z ∂z∂x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x

Since the mixed partial derivatives of f are continuous (by assumption), we

have equality of mixed partials:

∂2f ∂2f ∂2f ∂2f ∂2f ∂2f

= , = , = .
∂y∂z ∂z∂y ∂x∂z ∂z∂x ∂x∂y ∂y∂x
Therefore:

∇Λ(∇f ) = 0.
Thus, curl(∇f ) = 0, which proves the result.

1.5.1 Vector Potentials

Given a vector field V, a vector potential is a vector field A in C 2 such that:

V = ∇ΛA.
Remark: If a vector field V has a vector potential A, then:

∇ · (∇ΛA) = 0,
i.e., the divergence of the curl of a vector potential is zero. A vector field V
derives from a vector potential if ∇ · V = 0.
1.6. CURVILINEAR INTEGRAL 11

1.6 Curvilinear Integral

1.6.1 Parametric Curves
Definition. A parametric curve in R3 is given by:

c : I ⊂ R → R3 , with c(t) = (c1 (t), c2 (t), c3 (t)) ,

where I is an interval, and C = c(I) represents the image of the curve. If

I = [a, b], a closed and bounded interval, the endpoints of the curve C are c(a)
and c(b). The curve is closed if c(a) = c(b). If c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ C 1 (or piecewise C 1 ),
the curve C is a path from point A = c(a) to point B = c(b). The length of the
curve is given by:
Z bq
2 2 2
L= (c′1 (t)) + (c′2 (t)) + (c′3 (t)) dt.
a

Example: The unit circle is parametrized by:

x = cos t, y = sin t, I = [0, 2π].

1.6.2 Curvilinear Integral

→
−
Definition. Let F be a continuous vector field on a domain D ⊂ R3 , and let
c : I = [a, b] → R3 represent a curve C = c(I). The curvilinear integral of the
→
−
vector field F = (F1 , F2 , F3 ) along the curve C is defined as:

   ′ 
b b F1 (c(t)) c1 (t)
→
− →
−
Z Z Z
dc  F2 (c(t))  ·  c′2 (t)  dt
F · dM = F (c(t)) · dt =
dt
C a a F3 (c(t)) c′3 (t)
Z b
= (F1 c′1 + F2 c′2 + F3 c′3 ) dt.
a

→
−
The curvilinear integral of F does not depend on the parametrization of the
curve.
3x2 + y
 
→
− R →−
Example 1. Consider the vector field A = . Evaluate C A ·
5xy 2
d→
−r from (0, 0) to (1, 1) along the curve defined by x = t, y = t2 .
The point (0, 0) corresponds to t = 0, and (1, 1) corresponds to t = 1. Thus:

3x2 + y
Z    
→
− →
Z
dx
A · d−
r = ·
C C 5xy 2 dy

Substituting x = t, y = t2 , we get:
Z t=1  2  Z 1
3t + t2
 
dt 4 10 10
= 4 · = 4t2 dt + 10t4 dt = + = .
t=0 5t · t 2t dt 0 3 5 3
12 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS

1.7 Green’s Theorem

Let (C) be a closed, oriented curve, and let P = P (x, y) and Q = Q(x, y) be
functions of two variables, with continuous partial derivatives on (C) and on its
the interior S. Green’s theorem states:
I ZZ  
∂Q ∂P
P dx + Q dy = − dx dy.
C S ∂x ∂y

This theorem allows converting a double integral into a curvilinear integral.

Example 1. If we take Q = 0 and P = −y in Green’s theorem, we obtain:
ZZ I
dx dy = −y dx,
S C

but: ZZ
dx dy = S = the area enclosed by the curve (C).
S

Thus, we find a formula to compute the area enclosed by the curve (C):
I
S=− y dx.
C
H
Similarly, if we take Q = x and P = 0, we find S = C
x dy.
2 2
Example 2. Consider the ellipse given by the equation xa2 + yb2 = 1. Its
parametric representation is x = a cos t, y = b sin t, with t ranging from 0 to 2π.
The area enclosed by the ellipse is:
I Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π
ab
S=− y dx = − b sin t d(a cos t) = ab sin2 t dt = (1 − cos 2t) dt = πab.
C 0 0 2 0

1.8 Conditions for Path Independence of Curvi-

linear Integrals
→
−
Proposition 2 A vector field F , defined and continuous over a domain D, has
the property of path independence if and only if:

→
− →
I
F · d−r =0
C

for all closed curves contained in D.

Proposition 3 The definition of the curvilinear integral makes sense provided

that the path C is oriented: the curve is traversed from the initial point A = c(a)
to the terminal point B = c(b).
1.9. SURFACE INTEGRAL 13

1.9 Surface Integral

→
−
Given a vector field V and a surface S, each surface element dS near a point
P can be represented by a vector perpendicular to S at point P , referred to as
−
→
dS. If we define →−
n (x, y, z) as the unit vector normal to S at all points, then
−
→ → −
dS = n dS.
Note: For a closed surface S, the vector → −
n is always directed outward from
S.

Flux of a Vector Field

→
−
Definition: The flux Φ of a vector field F through a surface S is given by the
surface integral:

− −
→ → →
− →
ZZ ZZ
Φ= F · dS = F ·−
n dS,
S S

where →−n is the unit normal vector to the surface. The flux measures the
amount of the field passing through a given surface.
Example: Consider the vector field

→
−
F (x, y, z) = (x + z) i + (y + z) j + z k.

Let S = {(x, y, z) : z = 0, x2 + y 2 ≤ R2 }, which represents a disk centered at

→
−
the origin with radius R in the xoy plane. The flux of the vector field F over
the surface S is

→
− → − →
→ −
ZZ ZZ
Φ= F ·−
n dS = F · k dS.
S S

→
−
Calculating F on the surface S where z = 0, we find:

→
−
F (x, y, 0) = xi + yj.

Thus,
   
x 0
− →
→ − − →
→ −
ZZ
F · k =  y  ·  0  =0⇒Φ= F · k dS = 0.
0 1 S

If the flux of a vector field through a given surface is zero, it means the
total amount of the field entering the surface equals the total amount exiting,
indicating no net accumulation of the field within the surface.
14 CHAPTER 1. VECTOR ANALYSIS

1.10 Surface Integral Calculations

1.10.1 Stokes’ Theorem
→
−
To compute the circulation of a vector field F along a closed curve C, we define
→
−
a surface S whose boundary is given by C. Assume the partial derivatives of F
are continuous in the region containing S.
→
−
Theorem: (Stokes’ Theorem) The circulation of F along C is equal to
→
−
the surface integral of the curl of F over any surface S whose boundary is
defined by the curve C:
→
− − →
→ − − −
→ → →
− −
I ZZ ZZ
C F = F ·d l = (∇Λ F ) · dS = (∇Λ F ) · →
n dS.
C S S

The direction of →
−n (the vector perpendicular to S) depends on the integra-
tion direction along C. To determine the direction of → −n , apply the right-hand
rule: if a corkscrew rotates in the direction defined by the orientation of C, the
direction of the corkscrew’s movement gives the direction of → −n.
Example: Let the vector field be
→
−
F = (ex + 2y, xyz, cosx)
and let C be the curve defined by the circle x2 + y 2 = R2 , oriented counter-
→
−
clockwise. Calculate the circulation of F along the oriented curve C.
→
−
Solution: The circulation of F along C is given by

→
− − →
→ −
I
C( F ) = F ·d l
C

Since C lies in the xOy plane, we will take the surface S of integration as
the disk bounded
 by  C in the xOy plane. For counterclockwise orientation, the
0
−
→
vector dS =  0  dx dy.
1
Using Stokes Theorem, we have:

− →
→ − − −
→ →
I ZZ 
F · dl = ∇Λ F · dS
C S
→
−
First, we compute the curl of F :
 
F1
→
−
F =  F2 
F3
Calculating the curl:
 
→
− ∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F1 ∂F3 ∂F2 ∂F1
∇Λ F = − , − , −
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
1.11. OSTROGRADSKY ’S THEOREM 15

Calculating each component: ∂F 3 ∂F2

∂y − ∂z = 0 − xy = −xy,
∂F1
∂z − ∂F3
∂x =
0 − (− sin x) = sin x, ∂F ∂F1
∂x − ∂y = yz − 2 = yz − 2. Thus,
2

 
−xy
→
−
∇Λ F =  sin x 
yz − 2
Substituting into Stokes Theorem:
   
−xy 0
− →
→ −
I ZZ ZZ
F · dl =  sin x · 0 dx dy =
   (yz − 2) dx dy
C S yz − 2 1 S

Over the surface S, z = 0, thus yz = 0. Hence,

− →
→ −
I ZZ
F · dl = −2 dx dy = −2πR2
C S

1.11 Ostrogradsky ’s Theorem

→
−
To compute the total flux of a vector field A through a closed surface S, we
→
−
define V as the volume enclosed by S. Assume the partial derivatives of A are
continuous in V .
Theorem:(Ostrogradsky’s Theorem or Divergence Theorem) The
→
−
flux of A through a closed surface S is equal to the volume integral of the
→
−
divergence of A :
− −
→ → →
− →
−
ZZ ZZZ ZZZ 
Φ= A · dS = div A dV = ∇ · A dV
S V V
 
x + sin(yz)
→
−
Example: Let A =  arctan(xz)  and let S be the closed surface defined
4z
by the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = R2 .
Solution: First, compute the divergence:

→
− ∂(x + sin(yz)) ∂(arctan(xz)) ∂(4z)
∇· A = + + =1+0+4=5
∂x ∂y ∂z
Applying Ostrogradsky’s Theorem:
− −
→ → →
−
ZZ ZZZ  ZZZ
Φ= A · dS = ∇ · A dV = 5 dV
S V V

4 20 3
= 5 · (Volume of the sphere) = 5 · πR3 = πR
3 3