Chapter 14.

Material Handling
Systems

14.1. Material Handling Introduction

Material Handling Definition

Several definitions of Material(s) Handling exist. Materials Handling is defined in
Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia as “The movement of raw materials, semi-
finished goods, and finished articles through various stages of production and
warehousing is called materials handling.”
Material Handling is concerned with the movement, storage, and control of materials
in a (production) process.
Material Handling and logistics are expensive operations which comprise of 10 % to
80 % of the product cost and this percentage tends to rise for inexpensive or
commodity products. Physical distribution alone, i.e., the movement of products
from the manufacturing plants to the customers, accounts for 25 % of the product
cost. Internal to the plants, more than 90 % of the product flow time in a job shop is
spend in material handling functions including waiting for an available machine.

Traditional and Modern Views

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 Figure 14.1 . Material Handling in Early Automotive Assembly

The traditional view of material handling sees material handling operations as non
value-adding and only contributing to the cost of the product. As such, material
handling should be avoided and minimized as much as possible. Since material
handling operations often involve a substantial amount of direct labor and labor is
expensive, many material handling design engineers were very supportive of
automation. This trend is even more pronounced in Japan and Western Europe
where labor is more expensive.
The modern view recognizes the space and time utility of material handling
operations, i.e., a product is worth more if it is at the right place at the right time.
The modern goals in material handling system design are to create a flexible system
that can be used for a variety of products and processes and to integrate the currently
designed material handling system in the overall material handling plan.

Stages in Material Handling System Design

1. WHY?
2. WHAT?
3. WHEN and WHERE?
4. HOW?
5. By WHOM?

14.2. Material Handling Classification

Classification by Material
Material Classes
1. Gasses
2. Liquids
3. Bulk Materials
4. Discrete Load Materials
5. Document, Mail, and Money
6. Livestock
7. People

Unit Load
A unit load is very often used in the material handling of discrete load materials. A
Unit Load is a collection of materials so arranged and restrained that it can be
handled, stored, and controlled as a single entity.
The advantages of using a unit load are amongst others the uniform handling and
uniform storage operations, the reduced burden on information and control systems.
In addition, unit loads allow efficient (macro) external space utilization since each

240 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 load is the same size and storage locations can be sized to accommodate this unit
load and the loads can be packed tightly together without gaps.
The disadvantages of using a unit load are the cost of assembling and disassembling
the unit load, the cost of the container and wrapping, and the cost of the empty
returnable container handling or the disposal cost of single use containers. In
addition, unit loads can have an inefficient (micro) internal space utilization if the
unit loads can be completely filled up.
Prime examples of unit loads are a pallet, drum, over the road truck and ocean going
intermodal container. The last one is illustrated in Figure 14.42.

Classification by Method
Characteristics of Material Handling Methods
Table 14.1. Labor and Control Providers for Material Handling Methods

Capability
Labor Control
Type
Manual Human Human
Mechanized Machine Human
Automated Machine Machine
Table 14.2. Material Handling Methods Characteristics

Characteristic Type
Manual Mechanized Automated
Weight Low High High
Volume Low High High
Speed Low Medium High
Frequency Low Medium High
Capacity Low Medium High
Flexibility High Medium Low
Acquisition cost Low Medium High
Operating cost High Medium Low

Flexibility
Manual

Mechanized &
Soft Automated
Hard
Automation

Capacity
Project Job Shop Flow Shop
Figure 14.2. Material Handling Methods

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 Manual Material Handling

Figure 14.3. Examples of Manual Material Handling

Figure 14.4. Wheelbarrow as an Example Manual Material Handling Equipment

Mechanized Material Handling

Figure 14.5. Fork Lift as an Illustration of Mechanized Material Handling Equipment

242 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Automated Material Handling

Figure 14.6. Deep Lane Storage as an Illustration of Automated Material Handling

Classification by Equipment Types

Pipeline
A pipeline is a system of connected pipes for the transportation of liquids, gasses, and
slurries. Slurries are fine solid particles suspended in a liquid. Pumps, valves, and
other control devices control the flow. Products may be stored temporarily in storage
tanks. Pipelines inside the facilities are usually suspended from the ceiling.
Pipelines usually consist of sections of pipe made of metals, such as steel, cast iron or
aluminum, concrete, or plastics. Pipelines can be used inside the facilities, on
campus environments such as chemical refineries, over for long-distance
transportation. Please see the section on pipelines in the Transportation Systems
chapter for more information on pipelines used in long distance transportation.

Conveyors
Conveyors are used when material needs to be move in a continuous movement over
a fixed path. Conveyors have very limited access area and a very high hardware cost
and are thus suitable only for very high volume operations. Conveyors can be
synchronous or asynchronous. A conveyor is synchronous if all the material on the
conveyor moves at the same time and at the same speed, it is an asynchronous
conveyor otherwise. Examples of synchronous conveyors are belt and roller
conveyors; an example of an asynchronous conveyor is an automated electrified
monorail or AEM.

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 Figure 14.7. Bulk Belt Conveyor for Removal of Gold Mining Debris

Figure 14.8. Bulk Belt Conveyor for Removal of Wood Chips

Figure 14.9. Belt Conveyor in Electronic Assembly

244 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Figure 14.10. Belt Conveyor with Diverter Bar in Electronic Assembly

Figure 14.11. Automatic Order Picking A-Frame with Take-Away Belt Conveyor
(Picture courtesy of Electrocom)

Figure 14.12. Roller Conveyor in Manual Order Picking

(Photo courtesy of Dr. John Bartholdi)

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 Figure 14.13. Roller Conveyor Network in Electronics Manufacturing

Figure 14.14. Roller Conveyor with Diverter in Electronics Manufacturing

246 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Figure 14.15. Inverted Power and Free Conveyor in Automotive Assembly

Figure 14.16. Power and Free Conveyor in Automotive Engine Assembly

Figure 14.17. Power and Free Conveyor in Automotive Final Assembly

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 Figure 14.18. Inverted Automated Electrified Monorail in Typewriter Manufacturing

Crane and Hoists

Cranes and hoists are overhead devices that are primarily used to provide a vertical
movement capability, i.e., for raising and lowering loads. There may also be a
horizontal movement component usually above the factory floor and production
equipment. Cranes and hoists usually have a fixed pulley, a moveable pulley with a
hook or other method of attaching the load and connecting rope or cable. The
material is transported in intermittent moves. Cranes and hoists have limited access
areas, medium hardware costs, and are suitable for medium volume applications.

Figure 14.19. Bridge Crane

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 Figure 14.20. Bridge Crane for Jet Engine Assembly

Bridge cranes cover rectangular areas, while jib cranes cover circular or semi-circular
areas. Bridge cranes can be hung from the ceiling, mounted on the walls, or be floor-
supported. Jib cranes can be floor-supported or wall-mounted. Bridge cranes
provide consistent ease of operation throughout the whole access area. Jib cranes are
more easily operated when the load is at the very end of the boom and are more
difficult to operate as the load approaches the pivot point.

Figure 14.21. Jib and Bridge Crane Access Areas

With ceiling or wall-mounted systems, the support steel of the crane does not
interfere with the handling operations. On the other hand, the cranes require a
building with adequate overhead or wall structure to support the crane. Floor-
supported cranes are free standing and do not put stress on the building’s overhead or
wall structure. Installation of floor-supported cranes is usually more straightforward

Logistics Systems Design Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems •249

 and the cranes are easier to relocate at a later time. Floor-supported cranes require a
reinforced concrete floor.
When sizing a crane, the capacity should be kept to a minimum. If a crane has been
over capacitated, then for each operation extra crane weight has to be moved and the
support structures might have been designed to sustain larger loads then required.
Long bridge crane lengths are acceptable for slower production cycles or for
maintenance operations, while fast production cycles require a short crane length.
Keep the bridge or crane height to a minimum to clear the operations, since lower
loads are easier to control and to position.

Figure 14.22. Moveable Bulk Crane

Figure 14.23. Moveable Intermodal Container Crane

250 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Industrial Trucks
Industrial trucks are vehicles moving on wheels and excluding over the road trucks,
which are described in long distance carriers. The material is transported in
intermittent moves. The industrial trucks have variable paths and a very wide access
area and low hardware cost. They are primarily used in low volume operations. A
prominent example is the forklift truck, which is an industrial truck used for
transporting a load horizontally and for elevating or lowering a load to store it.

Figure 14.24. Counterbalanced Fork Lift Truck Illustration

Figure 14.25. Hand Truck

Figure 14.26. Riding Hand Truck

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 Figure 14.27. Tractor Truck for Trailer Trains

Figure 14.28. Tractor-Trailer Example

Figure 14.29. Tractor with Double Pallet Trailer Example

252 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Figure 14.30. Counterbalanced Forklift Truck

Figure 14.31. Counterbalanced Forklift Truck

Figure 14.32. Narrow Aisle Straddle Truck

Figure 14.33. Order Picking Truck

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 Figure 14.34. Stacker Cranes

Figure 14.35. AGV with Collision Bumpers

Figure 14.36. AGV with Load Station

254 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Figure 14.37. AGV Leaving Load Station

Figure 14.38. AGVS Interfacing with AS/RS

Figure 14.39. Multiload AGVS in Electronics Manufacturing

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 Figure 14.40. Multiload AGVS Interfacing with a Clean Room

Containers and Supports

The primary goal of containers is to maintain a unit load. Prime examples of
containers are pallet, drum, and intermodal containers.
In the 1960s large and fast ocean-going ships were designed specifically for carrying
containers above deck as well in their hold. The cargo was easily loaded and
unloaded which minimized the time spent in port. The container was then
transported further by rail or truck, which decreased the overall transit time of the
products and avoided damage and loss in the ports. Such containers are called
intermodal and except for bulk, ore, or crude products, make now up the majority of
the international freight. The shift to the transportation of freight in large,
standardized containers is called containerization. The ports that can handle these
containers rapidly and transfer them to internal transportation systems are expensive
and their operations are complex.
A significant operational concern is the management of the empty containers,
especially between countries with a large trade imbalance or cargo traffic that is
unbalanced.

Figure 14.41. Ocean-Going Intermodal Container Ship

256 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Figure 14.42. Ocean-Going Intermodal Container

Storage Equipment
The primary goal of storage equipment is to store material.
Examples of person-to-part storage equipment are block stacking, pallet racks,
gravity flow racks, and bin shelving. An example of a part-to-person storage
equipment is a carousel.

Figure 14.43. Block Stacking Household Appliances with Clamp Truck

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 Figure 14.44. Shelves in a Ladder Arrangement

Figure 14.45. Order Picking from Shelves

Figure 14.46. Unit Load Pallet Rack with Pallet Jack and Straddle Truck

258 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Figure 14.47. Quantity LED Indicators on Shelves (Pick-To-Light)
(Picture courtesy of AutoPick)

Figure 14.48. Small Parts Carousel

Auxiliary Equipment
The term auxiliary equipment is a catch all category for all other devices used in
material handling, such as bar code readers, stretch wrappers, palletizers, lift tables,
measuring frames, air film handling equipment, radio frequency terminals…

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 Figure 14.49. Pallet Positioners For Ergonomic Operations

Figure 14.50. Radio-Frequency Communications during Order Picking in Cold Storage

(Picture courtesy of Vocollect)

Figure 14.51. Radio-Frequency Terminal Architecture for Warehouse Communications

(Figure courtesy of Vocollect)

Storage and Retrieval Systems

Storage and retrieval systems provide the combined function of handling and storage
the material. Examples are unit load automated storage and retrieval systems

260 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 (AS/RS) which store and retrieve whole pallets, miniload systems with storage
drawers, microload systems with storage totes (sometimes also called tote stackers),
and carousels with extractors. Other examples are the A and V-frame order picking
systems for very high volume order picking operations. All these are examples of
storage and retrieval systems where the material is moved to the input/output point.
A person-aboard AS/RS is an example of systems where the picker is move to the
part.

Figure 14.52. Unit Load AS/RS Illustration

Figure 14.53. Unit Load Automated Storage/Retrieval System

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 Figure 14.54. Unit Load Automated Storage/Retrieval System with Baskets

Figure 14.55. Unit Load Automated Storage/Retrieval System for Paper Rolls

262 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Figure 14.56. Unit Load Automated Storage/Retrieval System for Thread Coils

Figure 14.57. Miniload Automated Storage/Retrieval System

Figure 14.58. Deep Lane Storage Illustration

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 Figure 14.59. Deep Lane Storage Warehouse Illustration

Figure 14.60. Two-Sided Deep Lane Storage Warehouse

Figure 61. Deep Lane Unit Load Automated Storage Retrieval Detail
(Activ System, photo courtesy of Retrotech)

264 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Figure 62. Deep Lane Unit Load Staging Warehouse
(Activ System, photo courtesy of Retrotech)

Figure 14.63. Automatic Order Picking A-Frame

(Picture courtesy of Electrocom)

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 Figure 14.64. Person-Aboard Order Picking

Figure 14.65. In-the-Aisle View of Person-Aboard Order Picking

Robots
Robot is derived from the Czech word "robota" for (compulsory) hard labor. It was
introduced into the English language by the science fiction literature and is now the
standard term, even after many efforts to create a different term. Robots started to
appear in manufacturing systems from 1960 on.

266 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 Definition
A simple definition of a robot is "a general purpose, programmable machine
possessing certain anthropomorphic characteristics". (Anthropomorphic means
human-like and usually refers to the gripper of the robot that resembles a hand).
Different countries use different definitions and a universal definition is not yet
established. A good introduction to robots can be found in Tanner (1981).
In the United States, the Robot Institute of America defines a robot as "a
programmable, multifunction manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or
specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a
variety of tasks".
The European Common Market defines a robot as "an independently acting and
self controlling machine, equipped with specific tools to handle or machine and
whose movements are programmable with respect to orientation, position and
sequence".
The Japanese Industrial Robot Association has no definition for a robot as such, but
defines the following six classes of robots:
1) Manual manipulator: a device activated and controlled directly by a person.
Examples are the remotely controlled arms and hands used in the handling of nuclear
or toxic materials.
2) Fixed sequence robot: machines mechanically coded for the execution of a fixed
sequence of operations. An example is a car wash robot where all the brushes and
spray guns execute every time the same sequence of operations. An industrial
example is the mass assembly table used for the final assembly of consumer items
such as ballpoint pens, plastic shavers, etc. The mechanical coding uses cams and
levers.
3) Variable sequence robot: machines which have a limited set of fixed sequences of
steps and where the sequence can be independently selected in a mechanical or
pneumatic way or can be determined by feedback. An example is a programmable
dishwasher that can execute different cycles and/or can abort a cycle based on error
conditions such as a blocked arm.
4) Play back robot: a person teaches the robot a sequence of actions by actually
taking the robot hand or pendant and making the movements. The steps are stored
electronically. The programming is said to be one on-line since the robot cannot
continue executing its old sequence while it is learning a new task. Examples of this
class of robots are the painting and some welding robots. (This programming is
comparable to teaching a baby how to eat).
5) Numerically controlled robot: the program to steer the robot is developed by a
computer. It is transferred to the robot on a storage device such as a paper tape or
floppy disk for the early NC (Numerically Controlled) Robots. Currently, the robots
have an on-line communications link with the computer for a CNC (Computer
Numerically Controlled) Robot or DNC (Direct Numerically Controlled or, recently,
Distributed Numerically Controlled) robot. Examples of such robots are the spot and
continuous welding robots. This class is probably most in use in the manufacturing
industry. Programming is said to be off-line, i.e. by the computer while the robot
keeps on working. Special purpose languages to program robots have been
developed such as AML (A Manufacturing Language) by IBM and APT
(Automatically Programmed Tools) by MIT. (This level of programming is
comparable to the written assembly instructions in consumer products).
6) Intelligent robot: the robot reacts based on its programming and observations of
the world through a sensory system. These robots are primarily used in assembly (in

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 the electronics industry) and for inspection tasks. (This level corresponds
approximately to a kindergarten level approach to problem solving). The vision
system can recognize consistently two-dimensional, black-and-white objects, but only
if they are completely separated from neighboring objects and contrast sharply with
their backgrounds.
The first three classes in the Japanese classification are not considered robots in the
European or American definition. This makes comparisons of statistics difficult. It
is estimated that only 10% of the Japanese robots are robots of class 4 or higher. The
statistics that follow take only in consideration robots of class 4 or higher.

Quality Characteristics
The quality or value of a robot depends largely on the following characteristics, with
the first two being of overriding importance:
1) Accuracy or precision or tolerance which indicates how close the mechanical
machine comes to the theoretical, programmed point
2) Repeatability or consistency which indicates the percentage that the mechanical
machine arrives within its tolerance when it repeatedly has to visit the same
programmed point
3) The reach or access area of the robot, also called the size of the work envelope
4) The net load carrying capacity of the robot at the end of the arm so that the robot
stays within its tolerances
5) The movement speed of the robot

Robots Configurations and Characteristics

Degrees of Freedom
Robots can have up to six degrees of freedom, three for the robot arm and three for
the gripper, plus one additional degree of freedom for opening and closing the
gripper. The gripper or wrist degrees of freedom are called pitch (vertical rotation
through the axis of the arm), yaw (horizontal rotation through the axis of the arm),
and roll (rotation around the arm axis). To imitate human movement six degrees of
freedom are required.
Power Supply Types
Robots can have pneumatic, hydraulic or electric power supplies. The more recent
robots mostly have electric direct drive engines at the joints of the arm.
Robot Configurations and Associated Work Envelopes
Robots can be configured as polar, cylindrical, rectangular or Cartesian, and jointed
arm or revolute. The work envelope for a polar robot is a hemisphere, for a
cylindrical robot a cylinder, for a Cartesian robot a box, and for a revolute robot a
cylinder with a dome.

Robot Applications
Robots are primarily used in the three D's areas, i.e. to execute dangerous, dull or
dirty work. Most robots are used for spot welding (up to 40%), continuous or arc
welding (8%), pick and place operations such as machine loading/unloading (23%),
and spray painting (14%). The major user of robots is the automobile industry (up to

268 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 70% of all robots). The newer, more sophisticated robots are used for electronic
component assembly and inspection in the electronics industry.

Figure 14.66. Welding Robot

Figure 14.67. Pick and Place Robot

Figure 14.68. Robotic Spray Painting in Automotive Assembly

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 Figure 14.69. Robotic Assembly

Figure 14.70. Robotic Part Loading in an Automated Machining Cell

Figure 14.71. Robotic Part Unloading with Vacuum Gripper

Future Developments
The development of a truly (artificial) intelligent robot (class 7 if the Japanese
classification system is extended) is very closely related to the development of the
fifth generation computer. An intelligent robot must have the ability to learn or
understand from experience and to respond successfully to a new situation; it must be

270 •Chapter 14. Material Handling Systems Logistics Systems Design

 able to make judgments, associate relevant information and synthesize new
knowledge from such associations, and reach wholly unique and accurate conclusions
for a given situation. Required future developments are:
Enhanced sensory systems such as three-dimensional vision with pattern recognition
and proportional tactile feedback.
Voice programming and verbal response to commands on the manufacturing floor.
Natural Language programming so that the robot will be able to understand
English.
Artificial intelligence, so that such a robot would be able to learn from its own
previous experience and be able to combine programming, experience and feedback.
This futuristic, class 7 robot corresponds to an elementary school level approach to
problem solving. An example of such a robot is HAL in the movie "2001: a space
odyssey".

Statistics
Table 14.3 lists the robot density (number of robots per 10,000 laborers) and the end
of 1983 and the robot growth for the year 1983, (Technivisie, Vol. 2, No 24, April
1984). Table 14.4 provides some data at the end of 1988, (Technivisie, Vol. 7, No
24, April 1989)
Table 14.3. Robot Densities by Country in 1983

Country Robots Labor Force Density Growth

Sweden 1,900 1,352 14 ----
Japan 16,500 19,556 8.4 27%
W. Germany 4,880 11,334 4.3 39%
Belgium 514 1,332 3.9 42%
G. Britain 1,753 5,272 3.3 52%
USA 8,000 29,774 2.7 23%
Italy 1,800 7,787 2.3 ----
France 1,500 7,574 2 57%
Table 14.4. Robot Densities by Country in 1988

Country Robots Labor Force Density Growth

Sweden 1,900 15%
Norway 9%
Poland 8%
Japan 143,000 27%
Belgium 1,232 10%
Netherlands 747 19%
USA 29,000 16%
Singapore 132%
Taiwan 35%

Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots

The primary advantages of the robot are
1) Its quality consistency: day in, day out the same uniform product makes
quality control and scheduling easier.

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 2) Its cost per hour: a robot cost about $6 per hour versus $25 to $40 per
hour for a skilled laborer. The purchase price of robots ranges from
$25,000 to $200,000. Moreover, robots can work continuously during
the whole day and the whole year, which is a necessary requirement to
increase the utilization of the factories.
The primary disadvantages of robots are
1. The capabilities of robots are still limited versus the flexibility of a
laborer, which makes robots only applicable for mass production or for
flexible manufacturing systems with its very large family batch sizes.
2. There could develop future social problems from the use of robots with
respect to employment. Robots eliminate the traditional middle class
manufacturing jobs and only leave the very high level engineering jobs
and the low skill service jobs. A study by the Society of Manufacturing
Engineers states that robots will displace about 4 percent of the nation's
manufacturing workers during the remainder of the century, while at the
same time creating 50,000 robotics related jobs. This is not a current
problem due to the very small percentage of robots in use. Moreover,
most corporations have started massive retraining programs to help
their employees adapt to the changing job requirements.

Long-Distance Carriers
Long distance material handling carriers include land, sea, air, and space
transportation vehicles. Land transportation uses automobiles, trucks, trailers, rail
cars, or unit trains. Sea transportation equipment includes self-propelled ships,
container carriers, barges, and supertankers. Air transportation equipment includes
planes and space transportation relies on reusable space shuttles and single use
rockets.
The choice of transportation system is usually based on a tradeoff between volume
capacity, shipping time, and cost. Air transportation is the quickest, but the most
expensive and with the smallest carrying capacity. As a consequence it is mostly
used for small packages and when inventory costs are especially high. Land
transportation provides the greatest flexibility, especially when trucks are used. Rail
transportation is has a larger carrying capacity than trucks but requires a larger
shipping time and transshipping from one vehicle to another. A new hybrid system is
piggyback, where truck carriers are placed on flat bed rail cars for the long distance
segment of the trip and picked up and delivered by trucks at the origin and
destination points. Water and sea transportation systems have very high carrying
capacity but are usually slower than other transportation means.
For a more detailed discussion of long-distance carriers see the chapter on
Transportation Systems.

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