ZOO 2209: VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY

THE FISHES

About 28,000 living species: eg. Lampreys, hagfish, salmon, trout, sharks, rays, tuna,
sardines, flounder, seahorses, catfish, etc etc

Facts about the Fauna of fishes

 All fish are aquatic & and highly adapted for aquatic life: freshwater and saltwater
habitats. There are no terrestrial fish; although some can survive considerable time
outside of water and can often be found crawling on land
 fish are the most diverse and successful group of living vertebrates forming almost
half of all vertebrate species
 While fish are by far the most abundant and diverse of all vertebrate groups they
remain the least known group of vertebrates eg. estimates are that we have collected
and described only slightly over 1/3rd of fish species
 smallest fish (also, smallest living vertebrate) = stout infant fish, Schindleria
brevipinguis, (Australia): males 7 mm long, female 8.4 mm and weighs 1 mg
 largest fish = whale shark to ~50’, rumors to 70’ (40 tonnes)
 most fish continue to grow throughout adult life (birds & mammals stop growing at
adulthood)

Skin: most with slimy skin and/or scales embedded in skin the slime reduces friction to
improve swimming efficiency

Support & Movement:

 Fish have a highly flexible “backbone” of cartilage or bone that is main support and
framework for swimming muscles. Also, most fish have paired appendages =
appendicular skeleton (paired fins: pectoral and pelvic homologous to our arms and
legs act as rudders, for balance, feelers, weapons, sucking discs, lures to attract prey)
 most fish are very efficient swimmers
 Most of a fish’s body mass is bundles of muscle tissue for swimming = myotomes
with relatively small body cavity for other organs. The muscles are segmented with
zig-zag “W”-shaped bands of muscles along the sides of fish producing “S” shaped
swimming motion
 fish get most propulsion from hind trunk & tail muscles: the dorsal and ventral fins
improve swimming efficiency
 The fastest fish exchange the snake-like motion for more rigid position where most
of the flexing is toward the tail only eg. tuna doesn’t flex body at all; all thrust is
from the tail

Page 1 of 11
 Overall, swimming speeds are not particularly fast compared to running or flight
due to the high density of water eg. 1 ft trout ; 6.5 mph and 2ft salmon; 14mph. The
larger the fish the faster it can usually swim eg barracuda is fastest fish; 27 mph.
 Usually cruising speed is much slower: most speeds reported for fish are speeds as
they jump out of water so they appear to be much faster
 most fish have gills for getting O2 from water

Respiration

 Gills are thin feathery sheets with lots of blood vessels for efficiently getting Oxygen
from water. Some fish can also breath through their skin. A few fish can breath air
 blood is pumped through arteries and veins with simple heart: most with 2
chambered heart; blood is first pumped through gills then out to the rest of the body
(ie. single “circuit”)
 fish are cold-blooded (poikilotherms): the body temperature of most fish is the same
as their environment
 Some fish eg. tunas, mako sharks, maintain a higher temperature in their swimming
muscles: as much as 10º C warmer than surrounding water
 Other fish; eg. Marlins elevate temperature of brains and retinas. Elevated
temperatures promote swimming and enhance nervous activities: such fish are some
of the fastest in the world

Nervous System & Senses

 Fish brains are relatively small and simple compared to other vertebrates but still
considerably more developed than in the invertebrates. The brain is made up of
several distinct functional areas: cerebrum (higher centers), very small cerebellum
(coordination of movement), relatively large brain stem (automatic activities), also
relatively large fish do sleep: stay motionless for several hours
 some marine species (eg. wrasses, Labridae) may bury themselves in sand or spin
“sleeping bags” : cocoons of mucus each night to sleep
 The main sense organ of most fish is the lateral line system = “distance touch”. It is
made up of interconnected tubes and pores along sides of body. It detects vibrations
and current. Most fish depend mainly on the lateral line system for sensory
information to detect food or danger
 most fish have paired immoveable eyes: most fish lack eyelids, fish can see in color
 most water is pretty murky so most fish depend more on the lateral line system than
vision
 fish generally have a good sense of “smell” to detect chemicals in the water

Kinds of Fish:

Three different classes of vertebrates are categorized as “fish

Page 2 of 11
 1. jawless fish (Agnatha): 108 species
2. cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes): 970 species
3. bony fish (Osteichthyes): 27,000 species (96% of all fish) and the most abundant
living group

Lecture Topic: Class Cyclostomata

(Gr., cyklos = circular + stoma = mouth)

Cyclostomata are parasitic vertebrates that comprise the living jawless fish,
morphologically similar to eels. They are popularly known as Agnatha, due to their
jawless mouth. They belong to phylum chordata of kingdom Animalia.

Cyclostomes are believed to have split off before the evolution of dentine and bone,
hence making them jawless. However, many fossil agnathans, including conodonts
found, possessed dentine and bones.

Characteristics of Cyclostomata

Some of the notable characteristics of Cyclostomes are:

 Cyclostomes are early vertebrates with no jaws. Hagfish and lampreys are
among them.
 The body is eel-like in length with a compressed tail and trunk.
 Paired fins are lacking. The cartilaginous fin-rays support the median fin.
 The skin is soft and smooth with a slimy texture and less scaling.
 The trunk and tail include Z-shaped myomeres. The tongue is moved by the
protractor and retractor muscles.
 The stomach is missing and the oesophagus connects to the intestine.
 There is an endoskeleton present.
 Skull is a primitive and simplistic design.
 The notochord is present throughout one's life.
 Around the notochord, neural arches represent the vertebrae.
 In sac-like pouches, there are five to sixteen pairs of gills.
 The heart is divided into two chambers. There is a sinus venous, but no conus
arteriosus.
 Leukocytes and irregular nucleated erythrocytes are found in the blood.
 The brain is visible.
 There are ten pairs or fewer cranial nerves present.
 The nasal sac is solitary and located in the middle of the nose.
 There is a lateral line sense organ.
 A pair of mesonephric kidneys are part of the excretory system.
 The sexes are distinct.

Page 3 of 11
  Gonad is without a gonoduct and is solitary.
 Direct development or a protracted larval stage are also possibilities.

Classification of Cyclostomata

There are two orders in the Cyclostomata class, namely,

1. Petromyzontida
2. Myxinoidea

Petromyzontida Myxinoidea
 Lampreys are included in this category.  Hag-fishes, sometimes known
as slime eels, are among them.

 The buccal funnel has teeth and is  The buccal funnel is missing.
suctorial. In the buccal funnel, the
mouth is present

 The nasal sac is located on the back of  A canal connects the nasal sac
the nose. There is no link between it and to the pharynx.
the pharynx.

 The eyes are useful.  Eyes are a relic of the past.

 There are seven pairs of gill slits.  No gill slits

 There is a well-developed dorsal fin.  The dorsal fin is either missing

or very tiny.

 The branchial basket is finished.  The branchial basket isn't as

developed as it could be.

 The brain has reached its full potential.  The brain is a basic organ.

 The pineal eye has a good amount of  The size of the pineal eye has
development. shrunk.

 The ear canals are semicircular.  There is only one semicircular

canal in the ear.

 The marine lamprey breeds in  All hag-fishes are found in the

freshwater, which has been known for a sea.
long time. It does not, however,

Page 4 of 11
 indiscriminately penetrate all streams
within its range.

Diagrammatic Represenatation of the Lamprey (Top) and Hagfish (Bottom)

Characteristics of Cyclostomata Resembling Amphioxus

The characteristics of Cyclostomata resembling those of Amphioxus are:

 There are no jaws, exoskeleton, or paired fins.

 Continuous notochord but with an added sheath.
 Presence of myotomy, that is segmental musculature, but with minimal variation
from head to tail.
 Straight ciliated food tract with little regional specialisation.
 The number of gill-slits is relatively large.
 Lamprey larvae with endostyle.
 No products and gonads.

Page 5 of 11
Difference between Cyclostomata and Fish

The following are the notable differences between Cyclostomata and Fish:-

Cyclostomata Fish (Pisces)

Cyclostomata has no biting jaws, hair, true Fish has well established jaws, teeth, fins,
teeth, true fin rays, girdles, ribs, stomach, girdles, stomach and spleen.
spleen, or products.
There is no break in the median dorsal fin. Anatomy of fish has a break in the median
dorsal fin.
Cyclostomata has no Diphysa Clic caudal Fish has Diphysa Clic caudal fin
fin
Cyclostomata has single nostrils in the Fish has paired nostrils.
middle
Cyclostomata has an incomplete cranium Fish has a well-constructed cranium
It has weak or no vertebrae It has a well-structured vertebrae
It has a rudimentary pancreas It has a well evolved pancreas that carries
out its functions.
It either has no spinal valve or has a week Fish have spinal valve.
spinal valve in the gut.
Cyclostomata has a tiny brain. Fish have a well evolved brain.
Nerves are not medullated as ninth and Nerves are medullated.
tenth cranial nerves are not found.

Lecture Topic: PISCES

Introduction

Pisces are aquatic creatures with gills that allow them to breathe. They don't have a
genuine spine. Fresh, marine and brackish water may all contain fish. Fins are the

Page 6 of 11
motility organs in fish. Fins, on the other hand, can be paired or unpaired. Ichthyology
is the study of fishes. Meanwhile, they are thought to have originated from sea squirts,
which are similar to primitive fish.

Description

Pisces are true jawed vertebrates with specialized respiratory, excretory, and circulatory
systems. Since the species in this class are poikilotherms, they are unable to control their
own body temperatures. In essence, this category includes all fish. They have breathing
and motility organs that are associated with permanently aquatic life. The gills are the
respiration organs, while the paired and damaged fins are the movement organs.
They're all poikilothermous.

General Characteristics of Pisces

The following are the distinct Pisces traits:
 Aquatic vertebrates, freshwater or marine, herbivorous or carnivorous, cold-
blooded, oviparous, or ovoviviparous.

 The body is normally streamlined and spindle-shaped, with some elongated snake-
like features and a few dorsoventrally compressed features, and is divided into three
parts: head, trunk, and tail.

 True dermal fin-rays assist locomotion by paired pectoral and pelvic fins, as well as
median dorsal and caudal fins. Propulsion is accomplished through the use of a
muscular tail.

 An exoskeleton of dermal scales, denticles, or bony plates covers the body surface,
which is a striking characteristic of Pisces.

 The endoskeleton is made up of cartilaginous or bone tissue. Vertebrae, either bone

or cartilage, frequently replace the notochord. The presence of a well-developed
skull and a system of visceral arches, the first pair of which forms the upper and
lower jaws with the latter articulated with the skull.

 Muscles are divided into myotomes, which have separate dorsal and ventral
sections.

 An alimentary canal with a distinct stomach and pancreas leads to the cloaca or
anus.

 Gills are the organs of breathing.

 The heart is two-chambered and venous, with one auricle and one ventricle.

 The mesonephros of the kidneys is number ten.

Page 7 of 11
 There are five sections in the brain. There are ten pairs of cranial nerves.

 There are no tympanic cavity or ear ossicles. There are three semicircular canals in
the internal ear.

 There is a well-developed lateral line system.

 The sexes are separated. Gonads are usually found in pairs. Gonoducts can either
enter into the cloaca or open independently.

 Internal or external fertilisation is present.

Types of Scales

Placoid Scales Diagram

Fish scales serve as the creature's exoskeleton, which makes sense considering that the
word "exoskeleton" refers to a skeleton that is visible from the outside. Fish scales come
in a variety of shapes and sizes, including placoid, ganoid, cycloid, cosmid, and ctenoid.
Scales are thin, cornified structures that are tiny and thin.
 Since cosmid scales were a distinguishing feature of many extinct fish such as
ostracoderms and placoderms, they are no longer present (or only very rarely
found) on fish in the wild today.

 Placoid scales are the characteristic feature of cartilaginous fishes.

Page 8 of 11
  Ganoid scales resemble little rhomboids. On the skin of a fish, these diamond-
shaped plates fit side by side. Ganoid scales are a distinctive feature of
chondrosteans, a group of fish having a cartilage-based skeleton that includes
sturgeon.

 In addition to being thin and translucent, cycloid scales have a somewhat round
look. Bone makes up the thin upper layer of these scales, while connective tissue
makes up the lower layer. Bowfin, cod, carp, and some lungfish have cycloid
scales on their bodies.

 Ctenidium is the name for anything that has a comb-like look or design. Ctenoid
scales feature comb-like projections on the rear as a result. The bodies of flounder
and sunfish are covered in ctenoid scales.

Classification of Fishes/Pisces
The classification of fishes pdf contains three main classes which are described as
follows:

Placodermi
 It contains fish that are no longer alive.

 All of them are armoured fish. Bony plates or shields serve as their exoskeletons.

 They have a bony endoskeleton.

 These fishes have an autodiastylic jaw suspension.

 The caudal fin of a heterocercal is visible.

 The jaws will not be supported by the hyoid arch.

 There are primitive jaws visible.

 They lasted until the Permian epoch of the Paleozoic era.

 Both Bothriolepis and Climatius are examples of this class.

Elasmobranchi or Chondrichthyes
 These fish are only found in the sea.

 Placoid scales make up the exoskeleton.

 Cartilage is the name for their cartilaginous endoskeleton.

 Amphistylic or hyostylic jaw suspension.

 There are 5-7 pairs of gills present.

Page 9 of 11
  The external gill holes are distinct from the internal gill openings. Operculum
does not cover them.

 There is a heterocercal caudal fin present.

 Males display claspers in preparation for copulation.

 These fishes lack an air bladder.

 Example: Scoliodon and Pristis.

Human Impacts of sharks

1. Shark attacks: 60 - 70 per year; 1-12 fatalities with more casualities reported from
Australian region than anywhere else

2. Shark fishing: ~40 Million/yr are harvested worldwide. Recent estimates are that
shark populations at inshore reefs worldwide have declined by 90%, the primary cause
is China’s growing appetite for shark fin soup: sells for up to $100/bowl
eg. Dubai alone exports 500 tonnes of shark fins and other shark products/ yr to Hong
Kong (~ half the world shark fin production). It is generally a legal harvest but
increasingly being banned eg. “finning” has been outlawed in US, some other countries
are setting quotas

3. Medicinal/Pharmaceuticals: electric rays were used by ancient Egyptians as

“electrotherapy” treatment for arthritis and gout. Chondroitin for joint treatment and
health extracts are being tested for anticancer drugs and weight loss

Osteichthyes
 These fish can be found in the sea, freshwater, and brackish water.

 The exoskeleton will be made up of cycloid, ctenoid, or ganoid scales.

 Bony endoskeleton.

 Jaws suspension is self-adjusting.

 There is tuberculosis present.

 Claspers are not present.

 In most cases, an air bladder is present.

Example- Salmon and Neoceratodus.

Page 10 of 11
Human Impacts of Bony Fish

1. Pets: fish have been kept as pets for 1000’s of years. Outdoor fish ponds have been
around for at least 2000 years. The Romans were the first to bring fish indoors - for
fresh food. 10th century Chinese kept bowls of goldfish in Victorian England marine
aquariums became the rage. 15-30 Million fish of up to 1000 species are sold globally
each year. 20 million fish are sold each year as pets in US alone
2. Research: Over 3.5 - 7 M fish used for research in the US and worldwide each yr
3. Commercial Fisheries: we have harvested fish throughout all of human history.
Today 2.6 billion people worldwide depend on fish for protein. 60% of all fish
comsumption is by the developing world. Commercial fishing employs 200 Million
people worldwide. Today, marine fisheries are in trouble: marine fish catch has
peaked at about 100 million tons and remains stable, in spite of increased efforts to
catch fish, per capita (per person) fish catch is decreasing as population expands, 11
of worlds 17 major fisheries are overfished and in decline.
4. Freshwater Fisheries: fish from inland waters account for 10% of total catch. Many
river basins, especially in developing countries support intensive fisheries. Inland
fish are considered to be the most threatened group among all vertebrates used by
humans
5. Aquaculture (fish farms): global production from fishing and aquaculture stand at
over 100 million tonnes. Almost all the increase is due to Aquaculture. It is the
fastest growing animal protein sector especially in developing countries currently
producing half of the fish we eat and contributes almost 1/3rd world supply of fish
products. Aquaculture produces more than 220 species. Carp are the largest group.
China and other Asian countries are the largest producers
6. “Herbal” Uses of Fish: eg. ancient Greek writings and herbals from China and other
countries have touted the healing properties of seahorses for 1000’s of years

Page 11 of 11