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BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The term bhakti is defined as “devotion” or passionate love for the Divine. Moksha or liberation
from rebirth was not in the following of rules, regulations or societal ordering, but it was through
simple devotion to the Divine. Within the movement at large, useful distinctions have been made
by contemporary scholars between those poet saints who composed verses extolling God with
attributes or form, namely, “saguna” bhaktas, and, Those extolling God without and beyond all
attributes or form, “nirguna.”

As mentioned above, the feeling of Bhakti or devotion can be traced back to the Rig Veda. It is
the very first hymn of Rig Veda, which gives expression to a feeling of intimacy with the highest
God. In the Katha Upanishad it is said that the divine help, which is the reward to Bhakti, is
necessary before one can be saved. The Sveta – Svatara Upanishad speaks of the highest
devotion to God. Panini refres to the object of devotion in the Astadhyayi. The earliest God
connected with Bhakti is Vishnu – Krishna. In the Bhagwad Gita there is emphasis on Love and
devotion to God. The attitude of love to the supreme God continued to be recommended in the
Bhagwat Purana.

Causes for the birth of Bhakti Movement:

Prior to the coming of Islam to India, Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism were the dominant
religions. Hinduism lost its simplicity. Many philosophical schools appeared. Two different
sects, i.e., Vaishnavism and Saivism also appeared within Hinduism. In course of time Sakti
worship also came into existence. Common people were confused on the way of worshipping
God. When Islam came to India, the Hindus observed many ceremonies and worshipped many
Gods and Goddesses. There were all sorts of superstitious beliefs among them. Their religion had
become complex in nature. Added to these, the caste system, untouchability, blind worshipping
and inequality in society caused dissensions among different sections of the people. On the other
hand Islam preached unity of God and brotherhood of man. It emphasized monotheism. It
attacked idol worship. It preached equality of man before God.

The oppressed common people and the people branded as low castes were naturally attracted
towards Islam. It only increased the rivalry among religions. Fanaticism, bigotry, and religious
intolerance began to raise their heads. It was to remove such evils religious leaders appeared in
different parts of India. They preached pure devotion called Bhakti to attain God.

Origin of the Bhakti Movement : Bhakti means personal devotion to God. It stresses the
Union of the individual with God. Bhakti movement originated in South India between the 7th
and the 12th centuries A.D. The Nayanmars, who worshipped Siva, and the Alwars, who
worshipped Vishnu, preached the idea of Bhakti. They carried their message of love and
devotion to various parts of South India through the medium of the local language. They
preached among common people. It made some of the followers of the Vedic faith to revive the
old Vedic religion. Saints like Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhwa gave their concepts of God and
the individual soul.

Bhakti Movement in the North:

The Bhakti movement in North India gained momentum due to the Muslim conquest. The saints
of the Bhakti Movement were men and women of humble origin. They came from all castes and
classes. They had visited from place to place singing devotional songs. They had also preached
the Unity of God and brotherhood of man. They had stressed tolerance among various religious
groups. Their preaching was simple.

The Hindu tradition has generally been divided into a number of important historical and
religious periods through its long development. The formative time frame from 2500—400
B.C.E. is highlighted by what are known as the sacred texts, the Vedas, and a nomadic people
known as the Indo-Aryans; this period is classified as the Vedic Period. Central to the Vedas was
the visionary figure of the rishi, or seer, one who was able to communicate with and about the
various gods of the Vedic pantheon through a complex system of rituals that could only be
conducted by an increasingly powerful priesthood. Liberation, or moksha, was to be found
through the precise performance of ritual.

The Epic and Classical Periods, from 400 B.C.E.—600 C.E. are so named because of their focus
on important texts, namely, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. These epics are concerned with
heroes and heroic battles, kings, queens and ideal roles of individuals. Also of central importance
to this time frame were Law Books concerned with the ideal nature of society. Social order and
stability were to be found in a hierarchical ordering of people as well as specific roles assigned to
each individual’s life stage (ashrama) and position in society (varna) or caste. On the upper
rung of this system was the Brahmin priesthood, followed by Kshatriyas (warriors) and Vaishyas
(merchants), also known as twice-born classes. Only these groups were enabled to take part in an
initiation ceremony known as the “sacred thread,” study the Vedas and take part in Vedic rituals.
Beneath these three groups were the Shudras, those who were servants to the upper three varnas.
Underneath this rung came another subsection, the Untouchables, those whose occupations were
so polluting that they did not even qualify to fit within an ordered society. The way to liberation
from rebirth or moksha was in a true understanding of dharma, recognition and maintenance of
the good of the social order, as exemplified and regulated by the Epics and Law Books.

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Nature of Bhakti Movement Generally speaking the religious movement of this period lies
between 1300 – 1550 A.D. It was non ritualistic and mainly based on Bhakti. It emphasized a
religion or faith, which was essentially Hindu but reflected the vigorous monotheism of Islam.
All Bhakti cults are essentially monotheistic. It is immaterial whether he is called Shiva, Krishna
or Devi. They all symbolize the One and the Eternal. It is the religion, philosophy and social
thinking that were created during this revival, which enabled Hinduism to reassert itself in the
following period. In the religious life of India the glory of period is most resplendent. Ramanand,
Kabir, Mira, and Vallabhacharya in the north, Chaitanya in Bengal, Madhava, Vedanta Desika
and numerous others in the south give to the religious life of the period a vitality that Hinduism
never seems to have enjoyed before.

Characteristics of Bhakti Movement.

One chief characteristic of the Bhakti Movement can be mentioned as belief in One God.
Devotee could worship God by love and devotion. The second characteristic of Bhakti
Movement was that there was no need to worship Idols or to perform elaborate rituals for
seeking his grace. The third feature on which the Bhakti Saints laid stress was the equality of all
castes. There was no distinction of high or low as far as devotion to God was concerned. The
fourth feature was the emphasis, which these saints laid on the Hindu – Muslim Unity.
According, to these saints all men, irrespective of their religion are equal in the eyes of the God.
The saints preached in the language of the common people. They did not use Sanskrit, which was
the language of the cultured few. These saints laid stress on purity of heart and practice of virtues
like Truth, Honesty, Kindness and Charity.

According to these saints, only virtuous man could realize God. These saints considered God as
Omnipresent and Omnipotent. Even a householder could realize God by love and devotion.
Some regarded God as formless or Nirguna while others considered him as having different
forms or Saguna. The basic principles of Bhakti Movement namely love and devotion to one
personal God and the Unity of God were mainly Hindu. But as a result of contact with Islam,
more emphasis was laid on these principles than performance of outward rituals such as Yjnas,
fasts, going to sacred places, bathing in the Ganges or worship of images.

The movement had two main objects in view. One was to reform Hindu religion to enable it
withstand the onslaught of Islamic propaganda. And the second was to bring about a compromise
between Hinduism and Islam.

FACTORS THAT HELPED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT

There were a number of factors which contributed to the rise and growth of the Bhakti
Movement during the Medieval Period. The first important factor can be presumed as the
persecution of Hindus by the Muslim rulers, who tried to convert them to Islam and imposed
Jaziya if they were not prepared to become followers of Islam. This led to the very strong
reactions of Hindus leading to preservation of their religion through Bhakti Movement.
Secondly, the ill-treatment of the lower classes in Hindu society by the persons of upper castes,
the people of the lower caste had to suffer injustice and cruelties. So the teachings of the Bhakti
saints who preached equality of castes as far as the devotion to God was concerned appealed to
the people of lower castes. Thirdly, the elaborate rituals and rigor in religion was not liked by
common man. The Bhakti saints preached the path of devotion and discarded all rituals hence it
appealed to the common man. Next, was the enthusiasm and the inspiration of the Bhakti saints.
They tried to remove the evils of Hindu society and gave it a new vigor and vitality. Last, factor
was the inner vitality of the Hindu religion that resulted in an intellectual and a moral revival of
Hinduism. This Hinduism affected every aspect of thought and generated new moral forces,
which helped to revitalize Hindu life and gave it the dynamism. In the sphere of religion and
normal thinking in law, in literature and even in political ideals, a new life came into being in
India by the middle of the 16th century.

SAINTS OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MEDIEVAL PERIOD

Ramanuja : Ramanuja was one of the earliest reformers. Born in the South, he made a
pilgrimage to some of the holy places in Northern India. He considered God as an Ocean of Love
and beauty. His teachings were based on the Upanishads and Bhagwad Gita. Whatever he taught,
he had taught in the language of the common man. Soon a large number of people became his
followers. Ramanand was his disciple. He took his message to Northern parts of India.

Ramananda : Ramananda was the first reformer to preach in Hindi, the main language spoken
by the people of the North. He was educated at Benaras. He preached that there is nothing high
or low. All men are equal in the eyes of God. He was an ardent worshipper of Rama. He
welcomed people of all castes and status to follow his teachings. He had twelve chief disciples.
One of them was a barber, another was a weaver, the third one was a cobbler and the other was
the famous saint Kabir and the fifth one was a woman named Padmavathi. He considered God as
a loving father. He lived in the 14th century A.D.

Kabir : Kabir was an ardent disciple of Ramananda. It is said that he was the son of a Brahmin
widow who had left him near a tank at Varanasi. A Muslim couple Niru and his wife who were
weavers brought up the child. Later he became a weaver but he was attracted by the teachings of
Swami Ramananda. He wanted unity between the Hindus and the Muslims. He preached that
both the Hindus and the Muslims are the children of a single God. He had no faith in idol
worship, religious rituals and ceremonies. He taught that Allah and Eswar, Ram and Rahim are
one and the same. They are present everywhere. The devotees of Kabir were known as Kabir
Panthis. Thousands of people, both Hindus and Muslims became Kabir’s followers. He probably
lived in the fifteenth century A.D.

Namdeva : Namdeva was a waterman by birth. He hailed from Maharashtra. He composed

beautiful hymns in Marathi. They are full of intense devotion to God. He worshipped Vishnu in
the form of Lord Vithoba. Some of his verses are included in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy
book of the Sikhs. A large number of people from different Castes became his followers.

Guru Nanak. (A.D.1469 -A.D.1538): Guru Nanak was the founder of the Sikh religion. From
his childhood, he did not show any interest in worldly affairs. At the age of 29, he left his home
and became a Sadhu. He went to Mecca and Medina. He had travelled far and wide to spread his
teachings. Guru Nanak had finally settled at Karthpur. He laid emphasis on pure and simple
living. He preached the Unity of God and condemned idolatry. He was against the caste system.
Guru Nanak’s followers are called the Sikhs. He started the Langer or the common kitchen,
where people belonging to all castes or religions could have their meals together. Nanak’s
teachings were in the form of verses. They were collected in a book called the Adi Granth. Later
Adi Grantham was written in a script called Gurmukhi. The holy book of the Sikhs is popularly
known as ‘Grantha Sahib’. It contains verses from Kabir, Namdeva and other Bhakti and Sufi
saints.

Chaitanya (A.D.1485 - A.D.1533): Chaitanya, a great devotee of Lord Krishna, was a saint
from Bengal. From his very childhood, he had showed great interest in education and studied
Sanskrit. He married the daughter of a Saintly person. Later at the age of 24, he renounced the
worldly life and became a sanyasin. He travelled all over the Deccan, Bihar, Bengal and Orissa.
His followers regarded him as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. He helped the old and the needy.
He was opposed to the inequalities of the caste system. He emphasized the need for tolerance,
humanity and love. He spread the message of Bhakti in Bengal. He popularised ‘Sankritan’or
public singing of God’s name. His songs are still very popular in Bengal. He was addressed
`Mahaprabhu’ by his followers.

Tulsi Das : Goswamy Tulsidas was a devotee of Rama. His work gives the story of Rama in
Hindi. He was the foremost in popularizing Rama cult. His other works in Hindi are Janaki
Mangal and Parvathi Mangal. In his writings he insists the duty of a son to his parent, duty of a
student to his teacher and duty of a king to his people.

Guru Ramdas: He was a famous teacher. He was born in A.D. 1608. Chatrapati Shivaji, the
great Maratha ruler, was a follower of Ramdas. He stressed upon the equality of all men before
God. He said that anyone could attain God’s favour by means of Bhakti. Guru Ramdas was not
merely a religious preacher but also a Nation Builder.

Tukaram: was a saint who lived in Maharashtra. He composed a large number of verses called
Abhangas or devotional songs in praise of Panduranga or Krishna. He believed in one God who
was kind, merciful and protective. He wrote all his abhangas in Marathi.

Jnaneshwar: He is one of the greatest saints of Maharashtra. He worshipped Vishnu in the form
of Vithoba or Krishna. At the age of fourteen, he translated the Bhagawad Gita into the Marathi
language. This book is called Jnaneshwari.

SAINTS OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN SOUTH INDIA

Nayanmars : In South India, the Nayanmars and Alwars were the noted saints of the Bhakti
movement. The Nayanmars, the devotees of Siva, were sixty three in number. The most famous
among them were Appar, Sundarar, Thirugnana Sambandar and Manickavachakar. These saints
composed many verses in praise of Lord Siva. A saint named Nambiandar Nambi collected the
devotional songs of Nayanmars. Appar, Sundarar and Thirugnana Sambandar composed the
Thevaram hymns. Manickvachakar’s songs are known as Tiruvachakam. Periyapuranam, written
by Sekhizhar, tells us the life stories of the Nayanmars.

Alwars : The Alwars were the worshippers of Lord Vishnu who were twelve in number. Among
them Nammalwar, Tirumangai Alwar, Andal and Perialwar were famous. The songs of the
Alwars were compiled in a book called Nalayira Divya Prabandham by Nadamuni. The
devotional songs of Andal is called Thiruppavai.

Basava : Basava lived in Karnataka. He founded the Virasaiva or Lingayat sect. According to
Basava, Siva was the supreme God. Basava opposed child marriage and idol worship.

Women:

Many of the bhakti poet-saints rejected asceticism as the crucial means toward liberation; some
bhaktas were instead householders. As well, themes of universalism, a general rejection of
institutionalized religion, and a central focus on inner devotion laid the groundwork for more
egalitarian attitudes toward women and lower caste devotees. Women and shudras, both at the
bottom of the traditional hierarchy ordering society, became the examples of true humility and
devotion. Female poet-saints also played a significant role in the bhakti movement at large.
Nonetheless, many of these women had to struggle for acceptance within the largely male
dominated movement. Only through demonstrations of their utter devotion to the Divine, their
outstanding poetry and stubborn insistence of their spiritual equality with their contemporaries
were these women reluctantly acknowledged and accepted within their ranks. Their struggle
attests to the strength of patriarchal values within both society and within religious and social
movements attempting to pave the way for more egalitarian access to the Divine.

The imagery of bhakti poetry is grounded in the everyday, familiar language of ordinary people.
Women bhaktas wrote of the obstacles of home, family tensions, the absent husband,
meaningless household chores, and restrictions of married life, including their status as married
women. In many cases, they rejected traditional women’s roles and societal norms by leaving
husbands and homes altogether, choosing to become wandering bhaktas; in some instances they
formed communities with other poet-saints. Their new focus was utter devotion and worship of
their Divine Husbands.

Caste status and even masculinity were understood as barriers to liberation, in essence a rejection
of the hierarchy laid out by the Law Books of the Classical Period. Male bhaktas often took on
the female voice calling to her Beloved, utterly submissive to His desires. However, while male
bhaktas could engage in this role playing on a temporary basis, returning at will to their
privileged social status as males, women bhaktas faced overwhelming challenges through their
rejection of societal norms and values, without having the ability to revert back to their
normative roles as wives, mothers and in some cases, the privileges of their original high caste
status.

While it is tempting to see women’s participation within the bhakti movement as a revolt against
the patriarchal norms of the time, there is little evidence to support this perspective. Injustices
and the patriarchal order itself were not a major focus of these poet-saints. Women bhaktas were
simply individuals attempting to lead lives of devotion. Staying largely within the patriarchal
ideology that upheld the chaste and dutiful wife as ideal, these women transferred the object of
their devotion and their duties as the “lovers” or “wives” to their Divine Lover or Husband.
Nonetheless, that their poetry became an integral aspect of the bhakti movement at large is
highly significant and inspirational for many who look to these extraordinary women as ideal
examples of lives intoxicated by love for the Divine. Further, it would appear that with the
movement’s northward advancement (15th through 17th centuries), its radical edge as it
pertained to women’s inclusion, was tempered. Greater numbers of women took part in the
movement’s earlier development (6th to 13th centuries); it is largely male bhaktas and saints that
are today perceived as the spokespersons for the movement in its later manifestations. The poetry
of women bhaktas from this latter time period is generally not indicative of a rejection of societal
norms in terms of leaving family and homes in pursuit of divine love. Instead, some of the later
poet-saints stayed within the confines of the household while expounding on their souls’
journeys, their eternal love for the Divine, as well as their never-ending search for truth.

Female Bhaktas

The poets outlined below represent a panorama of female poet-saints within the Bhakti
movement. Some were extraordinarily radical in their rejection of social norms and values,
leaving husbands, families, and society behind in order to extol their love for God. Others
attempted to fit into more traditional roles in society by maintaining their responsibilities as
wives and mothers. All wrote exquisite poetry that has been passed on through bards and singers
throughout India.

Akkamahadevi, also known as Akka or Mahadevi was a bhakta from the southern region of
Karnataka and devotee of Shiva in the 12th century C.E. Legends tells of her wandering naked in
search of her Divine Lover; her poetry, or vacanas tells of her frustration with societal norms and
roles that restricted her. They also bear witness to her intense, all-encompassing love for Shiva,
whom she addresses as Chennamallikarjuna. Through Shiva and Shiva alone is her love fulfilled;
through separation from her “lord White as jasmine” is her heart broken.

Janabai was born around the 13th century in Maharashtra in a low caste sudra family. As a
young girl she was sent to work in the upper-caste family of Namdev, one of the most revered of
the bhakti poet saints. While within this household, she continued to serve Namdev, both as a
servant and as his devotee. Janabai wrote over three hundred poems focusing on domestic chores
and the restrictions facing her as a low caste woman.
Mirabai, or Mira is said to have been born into a ruling Rajput family. Mirabai’s poetry tells of
her vision of Lord Krishna when she was a child; from that point on Mira vowed that she would
forever be his bride. Despite her wishes she was married into another princely family at a young
age. Yet the numerous legends surrounding Mira tell of an undying devotion toward Krishna, her
true husband. Central to these accounts are Mirabai’s struggles within the family she had been
married into, including unsuccessful attempts made by her jealous husband to kill her. Others
focus on her sisters-in-law’s efforts to obstruct Mirabai in her desires to join the company of
wandering saints, actions deemed utterly improper for a woman of her high-caste status.
Eventually, Mirabai left her husband and family in pilgrimage to various places associated with
“her Dark Lord,” including Brindavan, Krishna’s holy city. There she was initially rejected
because she was a woman. Yet Mirabai’s reputation of devotion, piety, and intellectual
astuteness eventually led to her inclusion within the community of the saints of Brindavan.
Mirabai’s poetry portrays a unique relationship with Krishna; in it she is not only the devoted
bride of Krishna, but Krishna is ardent in his pursuit of Mira. Because of Mirabai’s singular
focus and intense devotion of her Husband, the “lifter of the mountain,” she can be perceived as
simply upholding the “wifely” duties of women and patriarchal norms in general. On the other
hand, she remains for many a symbol of resistance of social order of the day.

Bahinabai or Bahina was a poet-saint from 17th century Maharashtra, writing in the form of
abangas, women’s songs that accompanied their labours, especially in the fields. Her writings are
particularly autobiographical, recounting her childhood, puberty and married life. Despite having
obvious conflicts with her husband due to her overarching and ecstatic love for her Divine Lover
in the form of Lord Vithoba, another name for Krishna, she took her role as wife and
responsibilities to her earthly husband seriously. Her husband was also critical of her allegiance
to the Bhakti poet-saint Tukaram. Nonetheless, her poetry reflects an attitude of duty and
respectful empathy toward both her marriage and her spouse. This becomes clear through her
writings on the responsibilities of women toward their husbands. Though highly unusual, it is
believed that Bahinabai received some classical training from her father, a Brahmin scribe. Her
poetry recounts visions she experiences of the low-caste poet-saint Tukaram; despite her high
caste status, she became his devotee, thus choosing the path of devotion over brahmanical norms
of ritual purity.

Effects of Bhakti Movement: The Bhakti movement had brought the Hindus and the Muslims
closer to each other. The equality concept preached by the leaders reduced the rigidity of the
caste system to a certain extent. The suppressed people gained a feeling of self-respect. The
reformers preached in local languages. It led to the development of Vernacular literature. They
composed hymns and songs in the languages spoken by the people. Therefore there was a
remarkable growth of literature in all the languages. A new language Urdu, a mixture of Persian
and Hindi, was developed. The Bhakti movement freed the common people from the tyranny of
the priests. It checked the excesses of polytheism. It encouraged the spirit of toleration. The gap
between the Hindus and the Muslims was reduced. They began to live amicably together. It
emphasized the value of a pure life of charity and devotion. Finally, it improved the moral and
spiritual ways of life of the medieval society. It provided an example for the future generation to
live with the spirit of toleration.

SUFISM IN INDIA

With the expansion of the Muslim empire and the emergence of sectarian controversies, sufi
movement spread all over the Muslim world. The Sufi movement commenced with a missionary
zeal. Having conquered many lands the Muslims started preaching Islam. As a consequence
people of different lands embraced Islam but did not abdicate their ancestral beliefs altogether.
The stupendous task of preaching the religion was willingly taken up by the sufis in different
parts of the Muslim kingdom. Similar was the case of India Although Indo-Arab Trade could be
dated long before the advent of Islam, yet the Muslims, particularly the merchants, started
pouring in Indian coastal areas and settled there in pockets with the purpose of the advancement
of their trade.

The population of the Muslims being two meagre did not attract the sufis to begin their mission.
With the invasion of Mohammad bin Qasim throngs of Muslims chose India as their abode.
Many of them were left behind in the Indus valley and the adjoining areas. Even after
Mohammad bin Qasim was called back, some sufis and scholars came with the army and stayed
here with a two- fold purpose in mind that is to guide the Muslims to the write path and to preach
Islam to the natives. Although the sufis never in encouraged forceful conversion yet the rulers
supported them in their mission. The sufis also did not check or discourage the local cultural
elements the converts brought with them by way of inheritance. In India also we notice an
amalgam of two cultures. The theologians (Ulama) considered it as an evil of proselytism and
attempted to remove all impurities entering into Islam by way of ancestral beliefs. They resolved
to preserve Islam in its pristine form. The sufis, however, in the pursuit of their mission
interacted with the people in their dialects and persuaded them to accept Islam in their own way.

Shaikh ali Hujwari of Data Gunj was the first reputed sufi in India. Earlier some other sufies like
shaikh Mohammad also visited India but their preceptors did not permit them to stay here.
Shaikh Ali Hujwari on the exhortation of his guide lived here to preach Islam to the native
people. He succesfully performed his task of proselytism in and around Sindh. Hujweri belonged
to the early phase of sufism and emphasized the basic doctrines of sufism like worship of God
,love of God, knowledge of God, purification and annihilation. He paved the path for the future
sufis in India by writing a monumental book Kashful-ul-Mehjoob.

ORDERS OF SUFISM:

Many sufis of different orders migrated into India from various parts of Muslim empire on the
gesture of their preceptors to propagate Islamic values before the Indian natives. They presented
themselves as the best example by practicing the moral values of Islam. The local people drew
inspiration from their simple life and emulated their cherished higher values. The leading sufis of
different orders created a social atmosphere conducive to the growth of a religious personality
engaged in the pursuit of the path of devotion. Even the common man having received education
from the renowned sufis readily approved the higher values and led a full moral life. The sufis
wanted to create a society in which virtues were held high and the evil was completely
eschewed. The sufis of different orders established their seminaries to carry out their appointed
mission. A great number of people belonging to different communities gathered there to listen to
their sermons. They were so greatly impressed that they decided to follow their path. Many of
them, as desired, were initiated into the orders (silsila) and were allowed to practicing mystic
doctrines. Many of the Indian converts became practicing Sufis. Some of them enjoyed a leading
position in the Sufi hierarchy of one or the other order (silsila).

There are many major and minor orders. Some of them were founded in India itself. The major
orders are as follows. (1) Chishtiya order. (2) Qadriya order (3) Suharwardiya order (4) Naqsh
bandiya order.

The minor orders emerged as the off shoot of one or the other major orders.

(a) Major Orders

(1) Chishtiya Order was founded in India by Khwaja Moin-Uddin Chishti. Like many of his
predecessors he also migrated into India from central Asia at the behest of his guide (Peer),
Khawaja Usman. He came here with a firm resolution of serving Islam and the Muslims living in
India. History records that many Muslim rulers since the invasion of Mohammad bin Qasim
attacked India without having a serious concern to establish Muslim empire in this country. After
every attack a great number of Muslims were left behind. Thus the Muslim population went on
increasing in India slowly and gradually. This meagre minority had to be looked after. Some of
the native rulers were not friendly to the Muslim immigrants. They behaved with them cruelly.
Sufi is like Khwaja Moin-uddin was quite sensitive to the cause of the distressed minority. It is
believed, albeit, there is no clear historical evidence, that Khwaja Moin-uddin Chisti invited
Mohammad Ghauri to invade India once again and emancipate the Muslims from the cruelty of
the Ajmer King Prithivi Raj who had defeated him many a time earlier. On accounts of the
political antagonism of the Indian Kings Prithivi Raj was finally overcome and Mohammad
Ghauri established Muslim rule by appointing his slave as the governor of India. Qutbuddin
Aibak, the slave, declared himself as an independent ruler after his master’s death.

Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti vocipherously pursued the task of proselytism in the country. He
travelled to Bangal and other states and converted a great number of natives to Islam. The
religion Islam was greatly welcomed in the caste- ridden Indian society because of the fact that
Islam in its original form admitted no barriers. The Indian sociopolitical scene was quite
conducive to the fulfillment of the mission in mind. No, renowned sufi unlike the Hindu yogis or
Buddhist mystics ever led a life of complete detachment. They only shunned worldly luxuries;
Khwaja Moinuddin followed the legacy of the earliest sufis like Abu-zar Ghaffari. The Khwaja
participated in the battles against the natives in the days of wars and offered them spiritual
remedies in the days of peace. He, however, pleaded always for the communal harmony, spiritual
satisfaction to all, and religious tolerance with all humility and integrity.

The Chishty teachings were carried forward and popularized by his very famous and eminent
disciples like Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, Fareeduddin Ganj-e-Shakar, Nizam uddin
Auliya and Naseeruddin Charagh. All these saints served the people in the best manner. They
lived a life of isolation but never deprived their fellow beings of their blessings. Amongst the
chishtis Shaikh Nizamudin Aulia was the most outstanding sufi of his time. He enjoyed a great
reverence in the people and the nobility. He guided the common masses and the aristocrats. The
kings also paid him great respect and often sought his exhortations particularly at the time of
invasion. They implored him to pray for them for their victory in the ensuing battles. His hospice
always remained crowded. He offered food and shelter to all those who visited him. He never
showed any discrimination on the basis of cast, creed and colour. People of all walks of life
belonging to different religions came to listen to his exhortations. In brief he was the most
popular and the most venerated man of his time. People offered precious gifts in the form of
kinds and cash by which he managed the expenses of his hospice.

Nizamuddin as a sufi, in addition to carrying out the provisions of shariya, emphasized the love
of God. He, for this reason, was commonly known even in his life the beloved of God. He also
practiced the other Chishti teaching in letter and spirit. All the cryptos of his time describe him as
the most eminent sufi of his age.

The next important major order of Sufism in India is the Qadriya. It was founded in the name of
its precursor Abdul Qadir Jilani. The sufis of this order also migrated into India from the
PersioArab land. Muhibullah Shah, Miyan Meer and Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shahjahan,
were the representative sufis of this order. The Qadriyas were not much different from the chistis
except that they owed allegience to their elder. Abdul Qadir Jilani considered him to be the most
perfect sufi of all times. It was an unsubstantiated claim. His spiritual stage, however, was
commanded and widely acknowledged.

Qadriya order in India was introduced quite late in the medieval ages. Abdul Qadir of Badayun
founded it here in the last decades of 14th century. The order became more popular in the
Muslim world including India due to the initiation of Ibnul Arabi into the fold. Most of its
followers, therefore, were the staunch supporters of the very controversial theory of the unity of
existence Wahdat-ul Wujood. The Qadriya order however remained less significant in India as
compared to other three major orders.

The suharwardi order was founded in the name of sheikh shahabuddin Suharwardi Maqtul.
Like Mansoor Hallaj he was also executed on account of his heresies. He was an emanationist
believing in the incarnation (Hulul) of God in man. He deemed himself to be an incarnation of
God. On the basis of his mystic experience he introduced the doctrine of light (Nur) into Sufism.
The theologians, who always showed resistance to all such theories considering them against
Islam, vehemently opposed his spiritual convictions and persuaded the ruler to execute him
declaring him as infidel. Like his predecessor Hallaj, Shahabudin also became a victim of the
court politics. He died quite young but initiated many disciples into his fold. Like Ibnul-Arabi he
also believed in one existence emanating all through the world to make it organic and vibrant.

The Suharwardi order was also introduced later than Chishtiya. Bahauddin Zakarya was the first
and the most important sufi of Suharwardi order in India. He spread and made it popular
particularly in the Northern India. The parents of Bhauddin Zakarya migrated into India in the
search of better livelihood. Bahauddin ,however, had very little to do with the worldly riches. He
had spiritual inclination from the very beginning. Bahauddin heard the inner voice and went to
the sheikh to get mystic training. His preceptor was amused to see that Bahauddin could grasp
the intensity of the mystic experience and transcend many stages in a very short period of
seventeen days.

Bahauddin Zakarya was the contemporary of Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya. The former is believed
to have visited the later at least once. Unlike the chishti saints the Suharwardis considered the
accumulation of wealth as indispensable to offer better services to humanity. After Beheading
Zackary some of his descendents like Sheikh Rukn-ul-din and Sheikh Sadr-ul-uddin carried
forward the legacy of their preceptor. The order remained popular only for a short time.

After chishtis Naqsh bandya order became quite popular in India. Like other orders it also came
into origin in the Perso Arab world. It owes its existence to the silsila of Khwajgan. The order
was founded by Khwaja Baha-ul-din Naqsh band. It was preached and popularized by one of his
very renowned disciples, Khawja Naseer-ul-din Ubaidullah Ahrar. He lived in the Turkish
Empire in the city of Samarqand. He encouraged the Timurid princes to invade the states like
Tashqand and merge them into their kingdom. His advice was carried out. He left behind a
considerably big chain of disciples.

Naqsh Bandya order was introduced in India with the invasion of Babar. The King Babar and
many of his soldiers owed allegiance to ubaid-ul-Ahrar. Many of other disciples also
accompanied Babar in his journey to India. They settled here after the establishment of Mughal
empire. The mission of the Naqsh bandi saints was similar but they emphasized the eradication
of alien elements crept in Islam from the native religions. Khwaja Kalan and his other
compatriots propogated the teachings of their predecessors Ubaid ulah Ahrar and Baha ul- din.

Naqsh bandya order was less tolerant as compared to the Chishties ,Qadries and Suhawardies.
There was another important distinction. The three above mentioned orders claimed themselves
to be the descendents of Ali whereas the Naqshbandies traced their origin from the first caliph,
Abu bakr. Their puritanical approach made them austere and obstinately hard liners. They
wanted to convert India into a Islamic state and recommended to the Mughal kings to impose
jaziya (kind of tax) on the Hindu subjects. The Mughal kings however never acted upon their
advice. Shaikh Ahmad Sir Hindi, a noted Naqsh bandi Saint, vehemently criticized Akbar for his
policy of “Sulah-e-Kul” (compromise with all and his religion “Deen-e-Ilahi” the religion of God
which he founded for the fulfillment of his mission.

The early Nakshbandies were inclined towards wahadata-ul-wadjood the unity of existence, the
theory of Ibnul-Arabi. Later on Shaikh Ahmad Sir Hindi propounded another theory known as
the unity of appearance, wahadul-ul-shahood. All his disciples and some other noted
Nakshbandis were impressed with his theory and followed it rather strictly. Since then, there
arose a serious controversy between the follower of the two schools. It gave way to a severe
conflict inviting harsh and bitter criticism against each other. Instead of a healthy debate it
generated a controversy leading to acrimonious consequences.

Nakshbanya order received better cognizance in India. It produced many notable saints like
Khwaja Khurd, Ahmad Sir Hindi, Khawaja Masoom, Shah wali-ulah his son Shah Abdul Azeez.
Shiakh Abu Ahmad Sir Hindi, although an exalted saint, was quite controversial because of his
alleged heresies and mystic experiences. Jahangir imprisoned him for his political interventions
when he criticized his father Akbar for his policies. Shah Wali-ullah was another outstanding
sufi of this order. Besides being a noted sufi he was an eminent scholar of all theological
sciences.

Although he was trained and initiated in the other three orders as well, yet he chose to practice
Nakshbandi teachings. As sufi Shah wali-ullah tried to resolve the age old controversy between
the two school, namely the unity of existence and the unity of appearance. He offered
reconciliation between the two and argued that the thought content of the two schools is similar
and that they express the same ideas in different words. He also asserted that the wahdut-
ulwujood and wahdut-ul-Shahood are simply two stages in the mystic journey. Ibn-ul-Arabi
reached one stage and Ahmad Sir Hindi soared higher to the next stage. This argument shows his
inclination to the later school.

His son Shah Abdul Azeez carried forward the movement of his father in the field of politics and
Sufism. The two father and the son assume importance due to changing political scene in India.
The Mughal dynasty was dying out. The British were gaining control. There was an all round
decay and decline. Shah abdul-Azeez tried to inspire the Muslims for the restoration of their
political power. He thus like other Nakshbandi saints attempted at reestablishing the supremacy
of Islam in the realm of politics and religion. He also inherited the puritanical attitude which
however proved to be detrimental for the Muslims in India.

(b) Minor orders

In addition to these major orders there are a number of minor orders. Some of them were
founded outside India but many of them were initiated by the sufi saints in India. Irrespective of
the place of their creation, they were basically the off shoots of one or the other major orders.
The Firdausiya and Kubraviya orders owed their origin to suharwardiya order. Shattariya order
came of Qadriya order. The chisties, however, remained loyal to their teachers and hence began
no order in their name. Out of many, Firdausiya and Shaltariya became some what significant.
The Firdausiya was founded by Sharf-uldin yahya Manyari; Phulwari near Patna in Bihar was its
centre. The order was popular in Bihar and Bangal. The Shattariyah order was founded in the
name of Abdulah Shattari. It was popular in the east of Uttar Pradesh. Abdullah Shattari believed
in simplicity and emphasized personal way of worship, “Tariqah”. The minor orders however
could not leave lasting influence on the society. Some of them existed only for a short time and
died out with the death of their founders. The sufis belonging to these orders could not command
much respect. They were considered only as charlatans or heretics.

INTERACTION BETWEEN HINDU AND MUSLIM SAINTS

We are aware that the political expansion, sectarian controversies and the growth of knowledge
gave way to the origin of Sufism and dialectical and scholastic science in the Muslim world. We
also know that the sufis traveled through the Muslim empire with a mission in mind that they
would preach Islam to the native peoples of the conquered lands and remove the defeatist
feelings from their minds without using any force or coercive measures. They were welcomed in
all the countries including India. In order to fulfill their mission they interacted with the
inhabitants of that country. They had to learn the local language for this purpose.

Besides, the sufis also came in contact with the mystics of other religions. In Persia for example
they studied Manichean and Zoroastrian scriptures and discussed them with the mystics of the
creeds and were influenced by their contents. We notice, for this reason, a profound influence of
early Persian mysticism on Islamic Sufism. The devotees of the ancient civilizations left a
tremendous impact in shaping the personality of the Muslim mystics. Some of the Sanskrit texts
like sidhanta were translated into Arabic long before the arrival of Muslims in India in the
omavvi period. Like the other scholars the sufis were also immensely influenced by the Greek
philosophers particularly Plato and Plutinous whose philosophy has great mystic potential.

The sufis continued the same trends and mission when they arrived here in India. Many of them
were sent by their preceptors to pursue the mission of proselytism and to preach Islam even to
the Muslims particularly its moral and spiritual aspect. A number of sufis came to India with the
armies of Muslim invaders. They found the Indian soil fertile for the persuasion of their mission.
After their arrival, they developed contacts with the local people. They learnt their language to
have meaningful dialoge with the people of the area for their work. Not only this but they also
studied the literature of different languages particularly of Sanskrit which deeply affected their
thought. Moreover, the Muslim travelers like Al-Baruni showed keen interest in the Indian
languages and their literature. He studied the yoga of Patanjali with care and interest and referred
to it at many places in his travelogue Kitab-ul-Hind. Many sufis through his translation learnt
and practiced the eight fold path of yoga. The yoga theory was quite in proximity with the sufi
experience of contemplation, meditation and self mortification. The other yoga schools also
fascinated the Muslim sufis. Abdul Qudoos Gangohi his son Rukn-Al-din and his other disciples
were deeply moved by the Nath yogis. They practiced the theory and had the desired experience.
Abdul Quadoos Gangohi wrote his Alkhnama in Hinduvi, the language developed with the
interaction between the Muslim and the Indian natives.

INTERACTION IN THE MUGHAL PERIOD:

The mystics of two communities continued influencing each other even after the decline of the
Bhakti movement. The sufis kept on studying the religious scriptures of Hindu religion either
through translations into Persian or original Sanskrit texts. The Yoga Vashishta, Ramayana and
Mahabharata fascinated not only the sufis but also the scholars. They were rendered into
translation in Persian even in the medieval ages. Some scholars studied Vedas and quoted their
hymns in their works. They also appealed to many sufis who experienced their truth. In the later
medieval ages after the establishment of the Mughal rule the Hindu scriptures became still more
fascinating. The Mughal kings directed the scholars having the knowledge of the two languages
Sanskrit and Persian to translate them into Persian. The bulk of Translation was done in the days
of Akbar. The Muslim sufies, who were cognizant earlier with the spiritual legacy of Hinduism
had then a better knowledge of Vedic and Buddhist mysticism.

Among the Mughal Princes Dara Shikoh was the most outstanding scholar of Hinduism and
Islam. He went through the earlier translation of the Hindu scriptures. He leant Sanskrit in the
company of Pandits. He translated himself some of the important Upanishads in the name of
Sire-Akbar “The great secret”. In his preface he acknowledged that the Upanishads are the
hidden Quran (Quran-e-Maknoon). They have also predicted the arrival of Prophet Mohammad.
In the same book he has equated the three principal angels Gabriel, the Mikail and Israil with
Brahma, Vishnu and shiva.

He wrote another book in Sanskrit and Persian both under the title MAJ-UL-BAHRAIN the
mingling of the two oceans in which he has described 22 points of agreements in the mysticism
of the two religions. In short Dara Shkoh very closely studied the two religions and always held
dear to his breast the Hindu Muslim Unity. He was of the view that mysticism alone could bring
the people closer.

With the accession of Aurangzeb the policy of tolerance and fraternity was badly affected. The
theologians (Ulama) gained ground and became politically more powerful. The puritanic
elements desired to eradicate alien elements from Islam. This gave way to a perilous orthodoxy.
The sufis baring the Nakshbandis were severely condemned. The Nakshbandi mystics were rigid
in attitude and orthodox in their approach. A sufi of shah wali Ulah’s stature wrote letters to the
king Mohammad Shah advising him to deal with the Hindus rather sternly. Although neither
Aurangzeb nor other later Mughal Kings listened to their exhortation yet they continued their
efforts. Sufis like Sarmad were beheaded. Notwithstanding the growing orthodoxy the Hindu
Muslim unity was not affected until the British established their complete rule in India.