BY: VIJAY RANA, FACULTY, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY, SECTOR 25-CHANDIGARH

BHAKTI MOVEMENT
The term ‘Bhakthi’ refers to ‘devotion’. As a movement, it emphasized on the mutual intense emotional
attachment and love of a devotee toward a personal god and of the god for the devotee.
o The development of Bhakti movement took place in Tamil Nadu between the seventh and twelfth centuries. It
was reflected in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alwars (devotees of Vishnu).
These saints looked upon religion not as a cold formal worship but as a loving bond ba sed upon love
between the worshipped and worshipper.
o Originally began in South India in the 9th century with Shankaracharya spread over all parts of India and by
the 16th century was a great spiritual force to reckon with, especially after the great wave made by Kabir,
Nanak and Shri Chaitanya.
o Bhakti traditions accommodated women and the “lower castes” as well.
o Leaders associated with the Bhakthi movement in India
o The Bhakti movement developed under two different schools of thought.
1. Nirgunabhakthi
o They believed in formless worship.
o Nirguna bhakti was worship of an abstract form of god (without attributes).
o It was introduced by Adi Shankara
o Some of the other Bhakthi saints who preached this school of thought are- Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu
Dayal etc.
2. Sagunabhakthi
o It believed in the worship of form.
o Saguna included traditions that focused on the worship of specific deities such as Shiva, Vishnu and
his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualised in
anthropomorphic forms (with attributes).
o It included philosophers such as- Ramanuja, Nimbaraka, Madhva, Vallabha, Meera Bhai, Chaitanya
Mahaprabhu, Tulsidas, Surdas etc

Two types of Bhakti saints emerged who were Alwars and Nayanars:
Alwars Nayanars
Devotees of Lord Vishnu Devotees of Lord Shiva
Work of Alwar saints: Nalayira Divyaprabandham Work of Nayanar Saints: Tevarams and Tevacrams.
(also known as the Fourth Veda)
Andal was the most famous female Alwar saint. Karaikal Ammaiyar was the most famous female
Nayanar saint.

Alwar and Nayanar tradition

o Alwar and Nayanar saints travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.
o During their travels the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as abodes of their chosen deities.
o Very often large temples were later built at these sacred places.
o Women Devotees: One of the most striking features of these traditions was the presence of women.
o These women renounced their social obligations, but did not join an alternative order or become nuns. Their
very existence and their compositions posed a challenge to patriarchal norms. Eg: Andal (Alwar saint) and
KaraikkalAmmaiyar (a devotee of Shiva or follower of Nayanar tradition).
o Compilations of devotional literature
o By the tenth century the compositions of the 12 Alvars were compiled in an anthology known as the Nalayira
Divyaprabandham (”Four Thousand Sacred Compositions”).
o The poems of Apper, Sambandar and Sundarar form the Tevaram, a collection that was compiled and
classified in the the tenth century on the basis of the music of the songs.
o While Buddhism and Jainism had been prevalent in this region for several centuries, drawing support from
merchant and artisan communities, these religious traditions received occasional royal patronage.
o Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered by the peasants.
o The powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, making
land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva. These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil
Shaiva hymns in the temples and organised them into a text called Tevaram.
 BY: VIJAY RANA, FACULTY, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY, SECTOR 25-CHANDIGARH

Reasons behind the spread of Bhakti movement

o The movement started as a response to the evil practices that had crept into Hinduism. Some of the other
reasons which fuelled the spread of the movement across the country were:
o The spread of Islam: the impact of the Muslim rule and Islam put dread in the heart of Hindu masses. The
Hindus had suffered a lot under some of the fanatic rulers. They wanted some solace to heal their despairing
hearts.
o Emergence of great reformers: The chief exponents of the movement were Shankara, Ramanuja, Kabir,
Nanak, Shri Chaitanya, Mirabai, Ramananda, Namdev, Nimbarka, Madhava, Eknath, Surdas, Tulsidas,
Tukaram, Vallabhacharya and Chandidas. They were the propounders of Bhakti movement and gave a call to
the people to worship in the simplest possible way of devotion and love.
o Influence of Sufi sects: The Sufi saints of the Muslim community also inspired the movement.
o Complexity of religion: The high philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads were very complicated for the
common people. They wanted a simple way of worship, simple religious practices and simple social customs.
Alternative was Bhakti marga—a simple way of devotion to get salvation from worldly life.
o Evils in the Hindu Society: Hindu society was full of many social anomalies like rigidity of caste system,
irrelevant rituals and religious practices, blind faiths and social dogmas. Common men in general had
developed an averse attitude towards these social evils and were in need of a liberal form of religion where
they could identify themselves with simple religious practices.

The Emergence of Religious Movements in South India

o The religious movements in South India emerged due to several political, socio-economic and religious
factors.
o Jainism and Buddhism: The South Indian bhakti saints were critical of Buddhists and Jains who enjoyed a
privileged status at the courts of South Indian kings at that time.
o Revivalism: The South Indian bhakti movement is considered the revivalism of Hinduism.
o Authority of Brahmanas: The poet-saints resisted the authority of the orthodox Brahmans by making bhakti
accessible to all without any caste and sex discrimination.
o Rise of Vaishyas and Sudras: The growing classes of urban artisans were attracted to the religious
movements because of their egalitarian ideas, as they were not satisfied with the low status in the traditional
Brahmanical hierarchy.
o Alwars and Nayanars: The Shaiva Nayanar saints and Vaishnava Alvar saints of South India spread the
doctrine of bhakti among different sections of the society irrespective of caste and sex during the period
between the seventh and the tenth century.
o They disregarded the austerities preached by the Jains and the Buddhists and preached that personal
devotion to god was the only means of salvation.

Some of the common teachings associated with Bhakti movement are:

1. It preached equality. This was in stark contrast to the reality where the society was divided on the lines of
religion, caste, gender etc. Ex: Disciples of Ramananda included a weaver, cobbler, barber
2. It preached universal brotherhood built on values such as love, care, and affection etc for everyone in the
society. Ex: Kabir preached universal brotherhood through his Dohas.
3. It strove hard to rid the religion and society of evil practices that had crept into the society over the
years. Ex: Guru Nanak condemned caste difference and rituals like bathing in holy rivers. His idea of
religion was highly practical and strictly moral.
4. Perhaps the most important aspect of the movement was its emphasis on the route of ‘Bhakthi’ rather
than superficial rituals as the mode to realize god and salvation.

VEERSHAIVA AND LINGAYAT MOVEMENT

o The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka, led by a Brahmana named
Basavanna (1106-68).
o Basavanna was initially a Jaina and a minister in the court of a Chalukya king. His followers were known as
Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).
 BY: VIJAY RANA, FACULTY, CHANAKYA IAS ACADEMY, SECTOR 25-CHANDIGARH

o Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to this world.
Therefore they do not practise funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in the Dharmashastras. Instead,
they ceremonially bury their dead.
o The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by Brahmanas.
They also questioned the theory of rebirth. These won them followers amongst those who were marginalised
within the Brahmanical social order.
o The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as post-puberty
marriage and the remarriage of widows.
o The understanding of the Virashaiva tradition is derived from Vachanas (literally, sayings) composed in
Kannada by women and men who joined the movement.
o Lingayatism promotes social equality and rejects Brahmanical notions.
o Basavanna was a propagator of Visishtadvaita. He introduced new public institutions such as the Anubhava
Mantapa (or, the “hall of spiritual experience”), which welcomed men and women from all socio-economic
backgrounds to discuss spiritual and mundane questions of life, in open.

Adi Shankaracharya (8th Century AD)

• He was born at Kaladi in Kerala and became a saint at the age of 5.
• He was the disciple of Govindacharya.
• The person who made Vedic philosophy more popular was Adi Shankaracharya. He tried to give a new
direction to Vedic philosophy with the help of an organisation known as Matha.
• He found four mathas- Badrinath (UK), Jagannath Puri (Odisha), Dwarka (Gujarat) and Sringeri
(Karnataka).
• His philosophy is known as Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism). It is also known as the philosophy of monism or
oneness. He also believes that there is no distinction between Brahman and the self.
o Ramanuja was another well-known Advaita scholar.
• His famous quotes include, “Brahma Satyam Jagat Mithya Jivo Brahmatra Naparaha”, meaning, “The
Absolute Spirit is the reality, the world of appearance is Maya.
• Adi Shankaracharya wrote commentaries on the Upanishads, Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita. Other
works of him include Upadesh Shastri, Vivek Chudamani, and Bhaja Govindum Stotra.
• He wrote commentaries on Brahmasutras. His popular works include-
Vivekachudamani, Saundaryalahari, Bhajagovindam, Shivananda Lahari
• The followers of Shankaracharya are called as Smratas

Advaita Vedanta:
o This doctrine is based on the concept that the higher or true Self is identical to Brahman, the
Absolute Reality. Shankaracharya expounded that the ultimate reality is one; it is the
Brahman. According to Vedanta philosophy, ‘Brahman is true, the world is false and self,
and Brahman is not different.
o In Advaita Vedanta, Jnana yoga is the path of knowledge to Moksha, or liberation from the
cycle of life, death and rebirth.
o This doctrine also believes that Moksha can be achieved in this life (Jivanmukthi) in contrast
to other Indian philosophies that emphasize videhamukti, or Moksha after death.
o Advaita influenced and was influenced by various traditions and texts of Hindu philosophies
such as Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, other sub-schools of Vedanta, Vaishnavism, Shaivism,
the Puranas, the Agamas.

Ramanujacharya (1017-1137)
• He was born at Sriperumbudur (Tamil Nadu).
• He was the disciple of Yamuna Muni and Vedprakash.
• He travelled all over India and ultimately settled down at Srirangam (amil Nadu).
• He opposed Shankara's mayavada and advocated and founded the philosophy called Vishishta Advaita
(qualified non-dualism or qualified monism) and preached Vaishnavism.
• Unlike some Hindu philosophies, Visishtadvaita doesn’t see the world as simply illusion (Maya), which
would make it separate from Brahman. The material world is a part of Brahman’s nature.
• He also established the Shrivaishnava sect.
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• Kulottanga Chola who was a Shaivite banished Ramanujacharya for preaching Vaishnavism
• He wrote Sri Bashya and was the head of Srirangam Vaishnava Math.
• Ramanujacharya preached Shudras and outcastes could also attain salvation by completely surrendering to the
will of the guru.
• He was also referred to as Ilaya Perumal which means the radiant one.
• He became the preceptor of the Bhakti movement and the source for all other Bhakti Schools of thought.
o He inspired mystic poets like Kabir, Meerabai, Annamacharya, Bhakta Ramdas, Thyagaraja and
many others.
• He initiated the concept that Nature and her resources, like Water, Air, Soil, Trees etc., are sacred and
should be protected from pollution.
• Sri Ramanujacharya wrote nine scriptures (the Navrathnas).
o Vedartha Sangraha: A treatise presenting the tenets of Visishtadvaita, a reconciliation of different
conflicting srutis.
o Sri Bhashya: A detailed commentary on the Vedanta Sutras.
▪ Sri Bhashyam is Sri Ramanuja’s magnum opus, which is the greatest commentary on Brahma
Sutras.
o Gita Bhasya: A detailed commentary on the Bhagavad Gita.
o Vedanta Dipa: A brief commentary on the Vedanta Sutras.
o Vedanta Sara: Another brief commentary on the Vedanta Sutras meant for beginners.
o Saranagati Gadya: A prayer of complete surrender to the lotus feet of Lord Srimannarayana.
o Sriranga Gadya: Manuals of self surrender to Lord Vishnu.
o Shri Vaikuntha Gadya: Describes Shri Vaikuntha-loka and the position of the liberated souls.
o Nitya Grantha: A short manual that guides the devotees about daily worship and activities.

Nimbarka

• He was a Telugu Brahmin yogi and philosopher who settled in Mathura (U.P.).
• He was the disciple of Ramanujacharya.
• He was worshipper of Krishna and Radha. He was the first to introduce Radhamadhav cult which was
centered around the worship of Radha and Madhav.
• He founded Dvaitadvaita or dualistic monism. It was centred on the balance between Advaita and Visisht
advaita.
• He wrote Vedanta Parijatasaurabha, a commentary on Brahmasutras.
• He wrote Dashasloki and Vedanta.
• He was also a prominent astronomer.
Madhvacharya (13th Cenury AD)
• Madavacharya was a Vaishnavite Bhakti philosopher.
• Shri Madhvacharya was born in 1238 at a small place near Udupi (Karnataka).
• He was born on the auspicious day of Vijayadashami, and he was named Vasudeva.
• He ranks with Sankaracharya and Ramanuja as one of the three principal philosophers of the Vedanta system
or in other words, he was the third of the trinity of philosophers who influenced Indian thoughts after the
ages of the Vedas and Puranas (the other two being Shankaracharya and Ramanujacharya).
• At the time of initiation, he was given the name Purnaprajna. It was also Achyutapreksha who gave him
the title ‘Madhva’ by which he was more famously known.
• His philosophical system was based on the Bhagavad Purana. He is also believed to have toured North India.
• He gave Dvaita philosophy or or Dualism (Atma cannot join Paramatma).
• The Dvaita School sprung more as a reaction against the system of Advaita and Vishishtadvaita.
• The philosophy of Madhvacharya held that that cit (spirit) and acit (matter) are different realities from
Brahman and do not form His body (sarira).

About Dvaita philosophy

o The basic tenet of Dvaita philosophy is the refutation of the Mayavada of Sri
Shankara. Dvaitha emphasizes that the world is real and not just an illusion.
o The soul is bound to this world through ignorance.
o The way for the soul to release itself from this bondage is to seek the grace of Sri
Hari.
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o To reach Sri Hari, one has to practice Bhakthi, there is no other way .
o To practice Bhakthi, one needs to meditate.
o To meditate, one needs to clear the mind and attain detachment by studying the
sacred texts.

Vallabhacharya (1479-1531)
• Born in Champaranya, presently in Chhattisgarh.
• He was also known as ‘Achinitabhadra’.
• He popularized Krishna Bhakti in the Mathura region, which became a vital center for Krishna
devotion.
• He propounded Suddhadvaita Vedanta (Pure non-dualism).
• He prescribed Pushtimarga (the path of grace) as the means for salvation (extreme devotion to God)
• He founded a school called Rudra Sampradaya. He identified Brahman with Sri Krishna,
characterised by Sat (Being), Cit (consciousness) and Ananda (bliss). According to him, salvation is
through Sneha (deep rooted love for God).
• He was the author of a number of scholarly works in Sanskrit and Brajbhasa, the important being
Subodhini and Siddhant Rahasya
• He was the first to promote Krishna Bhakthi on the basis of Maha Bhagvad Purana.

Ramananda

• Born at Prayag, he was the first great Bhakti saint of North India.
• He was a 14th Century Hindu Vaishnava devotional poet saint, who lived in the Gangetic basin of northern
India. The Hindu tradition recognizes him as the founder of the Ramanandi Sampradaya,
• He opened the door of Bhakti to all without any distinction of birth, caste, creed or sex.
• He was a worshipper of Rama and believed in two great principles, namely as perfect love for god and human
brotherhood.
• His disciples included: (a) Kabir, a Muslim weaver; (b) Raidasa, a cobbler; (c) Sena, a barber; (d) Dhanna a
Jat peasant; (e) Sadhana, a butcher; (f) Narahari, a goldsmith; and(g) Pipa, a Rajput prince.
• Ramananda has been described as “the bridge between the Bhakti movement of the South and the North.”
• His verse is mentioned in the Sikh scripture Adi Granth.
• Some of his works include- Gyan-lila and Yog-cintamani (Hindi), Vaishnava Mata Bhajabhaskara and
Ramarcana paddhati (Sanskrit).
Kabir (1440-1510)
• Born near Benaras, he led the life of a normal householder.
• He was a 15th century Indian mystic poet and saint, whose writings influenced Hinduism’s Bhakti
movement and his verses are found in Sikhism’s scripture Guru Granth Sahib.
• He was the first to reconcile Hinduism and Islam.
• He believed in formless God.
• A disciple of Ramananda, his mission was to preach a religion of love which would unite all castes and creeds.
• He emphasised the unity of god whom he calls by several names, such as Rama, Hari, Allah, etc.
• He strongly denounced Hindu and Muslim rituals.
• He strongly denounced the caste system, especially the practice of untouchability.
• His dohas and sakhi (poems) are found in the Bijak.
• Kabir’s legacy survives and continues through the Kabir panth (“Path of Kabir”), a religious community that
recognizes him as its founder and is one of the Sant Mat sects. Its members are known as Kabir panthis.
• He wrote- Sabad, Bijak, Doha, Holi, and Rekhtal.
Guru Nanak (1469-1539 AD)

• He was born in Talwandi near Lahore.

• Guru Nanak’s birth anniversary is celebrated as Guru Nanak Gurpurab by Sikhs all over the world.
• In 1496, although married and having a family, Nanak set out on a set of spiritual journeys through India,
Tibet and Arabia that lasted nearly 30 years.
• The last part of his life was spent at Kartarpur in the Punjab, where he was joined by many disciples attracted
by his teachings.
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• The most famous teachings attributed to Guru Nanak are that there is only one God, and that all human
beings can have direct access to God with no need of rituals or priests. His most radical social teachings
denounced the caste system and taught that everyone is equal, regardless of caste or gender.
• He introduced the concept of god- that is ‘Vahiguru’, an entity that is shapeless, timeless, omnipresent and
invisible. Other names for God in the Sikh faith are Akaal Purkh and Nirankar.
• All his teachings are composed together to form the sacred book called Guru Granth Sahib, the central holy
religious scripture of Sikhism.

Mirabai (15-16 Century AD)

• She was the most popular Bhakthi reformer

• She was born in Rajasthan. She was the daughter of Ratna Singh Rathor of Merta in Rajasthan.
• She became the wife of Rana Bhojraj, Son of Rana Sanga of Mewar.
• She was highly religious from her childhood and a follower of the Krishna cult of Vaishanavism.
• After the death of her husband, she devoted herself completely too religious pursuits. Mirabai is said to have
Mirabai composed numerous devotional songs.
• Her bhajans were composed in the language of Vraj Bhasha.

Chaitanya
• Chaitanya was the greatest saint of the Bhakti movement.
• Born at Navadwip in Bengal, his original name was Vishwambhar Mishra.
• He was the disciple of Keshav Bharti.
• He preached Vaishnavism in Bengal and Odisha.
• Puri became the main centre of his activities.
• He was also the first to introduce Kirtans in Bhakthi movement.
• He began the Achintayabheda bhedavada School of theology. He preached the religion of intense faith in one
Supreme Being whom he called Krishna or Hari.
• He adored Krishna and Radha and attempted to spiritualise their lives in Vrindavan.
• He settled permanently at Puri where he died.
• After his death, his followers systematised his teachings and organised themselves into a sect called Gaudik-
Vaishanavism.
• Krishnadasa Kaviraja wrote his biography, Chaitanyacharitamrita

Tulsi Das

• He was a contemporary of Akbar.

• He was a great poet and a devotee of Rama.
• He wrote ‘Ramcharit Manas’ in the language of Awadhi, which is part of the Eastern Hindi language family.
• He founded the Sankatmochan Temple dedicated to Lord Hanuman in Varanasi, believed to stand at the
place where he had the sight of the deity.
• He also wrote Hanuman chalisa in Awadhi
• Tulsidas started the Ramlila plays, a folk-theatre adaption of the Ramayana
• Other works of Tulsidas include: Dohavali, Sahitya ratna or Ratna Ramayan, Gitavali , Krishna Gitavali or
Krishnavali and Vinaya Patrika .

Dadu Dayal (16th century)

• He was born into the community of weavers at Ahmedabad.

• He preached Nirgunabhakthi.
• His teachings were compiled in the form of ‘Dadu Dayaram ki Bani’.
• He founded the Brahma Sampradaya or Parabrahma Sampradaya.
• He was the contemporary of Rana Pratap & Akbar.
• In 1575, he met Akbar and influenced him by his views.
• Dadu rejected the Vedas (the earliest Hindu scriptures), caste divisions, and other divisive, external forms of
worship, such as temple visits and pilgrimages.
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• Instead, he focused on japa (the chanting of God's name).

• Dadu's poetic aphorisms and devotional hymns, which served as the medium for his teachings, were
compiled in Bani ("Poetic Utterances' '), a 5,000-verse anthology.

Shankar Dev (15th century saint)

• He was the first to preach Vaishnavism in Brahmaputra valley, Assam.

• He was the founder of Eka Saranadharma and Veerapurushamarga.
• He is widely credited with building on past cultural relics and devising new forms of music
(Borgeet), theatrical performance (Ankia Naat, Bhaona), and dance (Sattriya), literary language (Brajavali).

Purandardasa
• He was a Haridasa philosopher from Karnataka
• He is considered as the father of Carnatic music
• One of his most notable works is Dasa Sahithya
• He introduced the RagaMayamalavagowla as the first scale to be learnt by beginners in the field – a practice
that is still followed today.
• Most of his keertanas deal with social reform and pinpoint the defects in society

Surdas

• Surdas was a blind Hindu devotional poet and singer who wrote compositions in favor of Krishna, the
greatest deity, in the 16th century. He was a famous Vaishnava (Lord Krishna's follower) who is regarded and
appreciated by all Vaishnava traditions.
• As a saint and a poet, he preached the religion of love and devotion to a personal God.
• Surdas was a devotee of Lord Krishna and Radha.
• He made use of Brajbhasa in his works which include Sursagar, Sahitya Ratna and Sur Sarawali.

Gnaneshwar

• He was one of the earliest Maratha reformers.

• He wrote commentary on Bhagvad Gita called as Gnaneswari, popular known as Maratha Bhagvad Gita.
• His followers are known as Varkaris.
• They believe in attaining the presence of God through religious songs or Bhajans and prayers.
• They worship Lord Vithoba whom they believe to be the incarnation of Lord Vishnu.

Eknath
• He was one of the first reformers to emphasize the growth of Marathi language.
• He preached that one could devote oneself to God by leading a family life and discharging all functions of a
householder.
• His works include numerous religious songs called Abhangas, Owees, and Bharuds.

Namdev
• He was a tailor by profession.
• He emphasized on cultural unity of the Marathas by introducing a tradition
called Mahapurusha Sampradaya.
• He believed in equality of all men and women.
• He advocated the practice of devotion to realize god.
• Some of his devotional songs are found in the Guru Granth Sahib.

Tukaram
• He was contemporary of Shivaji.
• He is considered as the greatest Maratha Bhakthi reformer.
• He made popular the Vithoba cult.
• He composed devotional songs on Vithalswamy called as Abhangs.
• He preached the message of equality and universal brotherhood.
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Samrad Ramdas
• He was guru of Shivaji.
• He inspired Shivaji for founding Swaraj.
• The message were compiled in the form of the text called ‘Dasabodha’.
• He was a devotee of Lord Rama.
• He established Ashramas all over India.
• Note: Jnandeva; Namadeva, Eknatha, Tukaram and Ramdas were some of the great Bhakti saints in
Maharashtra.

Narsari
• The original name of Narasi was Narasimha Mehta.
• He popularised Vaishnava cult in Gujarat.
• He wrote 'Vaishnav jan ko’ which became favourite bhajan of Mahatma Gandhi.

Maluk Das
• He was a devotional poet-saint from Prayagraj (Allahabad), India, a religious poet of the Bhakti Movement.
• He was a follower of Kabir.

IMPACT OF THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT

▪ Bhakti saints encouraged simple and ethical living as a path to salvation, challenging immoral societal
norms, challenging social evils like untouchability and encouraging individuals to live justly.
o The movement fostered critical thinking by questioning entrenched religious and social
institutions.
▪ The Bhakti movement made salvation accessible to women and lower castes, breaking down rigid caste
barriers and creating a more inclusive society.
▪ Bhakti saints popularized religious teachings in vernacular languages, enhancing social awareness. The
movement vocally opposed societal evils like infanticide, sati, adultery, and substance abuse, contributing
to the gradual erosion of these practices.
o Music and dance forms such as kirtana, and devotional dance forms like Sattriya flourished,
enriching India’s cultural heritage. The movement integrated music and poetry into religious
worship, creating a lasting legacy in Indian performing arts.
▪ The convergence of Bhakti with Sufi ideals fostered an environment of tolerance, amity, and peaceful
coexistence between different religious communities.