Chapter 2

Single Degree of Freedom Systems

Chapter 2

2.1 Components of the Basic Dynamic System

2.2 Undamped Free Vibration

2.3 Damped Free Vibration

2.4 The Response to Harmonic Excitation

Chapter 2

2.5 Response to Periodic Loading

2.6 Response to Step Force

2.7 Response to Impulsive Loading

2.8 Response to General Dynamic Loading

 Review of
2.2 Undamped Free Vibration
Undamped Free Vibration

Undamped:
Free vibration:

The equation of motion:

The initial conditions :

Homogeneous Equation

Summary
The homogeneous differential equation:
ay  by  cy  0
 

Characteristic equation: ar  br  c  0
2

Characteristic roots: r1 , r2
Characteristic roots General solution
r1  r2 , real values y  c1e r1x  c2 e r2 x
r1  r2  b / 2a y  (c1  c2 x )e r1x
r1,2    i y  e x (c1 cos  x  c2 sin  x )
Undamped Free Vibration

The solution of undamped free vibration:

where:

This solution represents a simple harmonic motion.

ωn Natural frequency
 Undamped Free Vibration
k
Natural circular frequency (rad/s): n 
m
2
Natural Period (s): Tn 
n
 For a linear system, these vibration properties are
independent of the initial displacement and velocity, so
the system takes the same time to complete a vibration cycle,
that is, equal to Tn .
 The natural period (frequency) of the structure is the most
important physical quantity to reflect the dynamic
characteristics of the structure. It must be given when
describing and measuring the dynamic characteristics.
2.3 Damped Free Vibration
2.3 Damped Free Vibration

2.3.1 Critically Damped and Damping Ratio

2.3.2 Underdamped System

2.3.3 Decay of Motion

2.3.4 Free Vibration Tests

2.3 Damped Free Vibration

Free vibration：

The equation of motion:

The initial conditions:

Review: Damping Effect
Damping
Damping, in physics, restraining of vibratory motion,
such as mechanical oscillations by dissipation of
energy. Unless a child keeps pumping a swing, its
motion dies down because of damping. Shock absorbers
in automobiles are examples of damping devices.
2.3 Damped Free Vibration
Substituting u(t)= est into the equation of motion :

obtain the characteristic equation :

Solving the equation gives two roots:

Recall: Homogeneous Equation
Summary
The homogeneous differential equation:
ay  by  cy  0
 

Characteristic equation: ar  br  c  0
2

Characteristic roots: r1 , r2
Characteristic roots General solution
r1  r2 , real values y  c1e r1x  c2 e r2 x
r1  r2  b / 2a y  (c1  c2 x)e r1x
r1,2    i y  e x (c1 cos  x  c2 sin  x )
Recall: Homogeneous Equation

c
• ωn , Overdamped
2m
c
• ωn , Critically damped
2m
c
• ωn , Underdamped
2m
2.3 Damped Free Vibration

Case 1:

c
• I ωn , two real characteristic roots:
2m
the system does not oscillate and returns to its equilibrium
position.
+
2.3 Damped Free Vibration

Case 2:

c
• If ωn , the system oscillates about its equilibrium
2m
position with a progressively decreasing amplitude .

cosβt+ βt)
2.3 Damped Free Vibration

Case 3:

c
• If ωn , the system returns to its equilibrium position
2m
without oscillating.
+
2.3 Damped Free Vibration

c
• If ωn , c is called critical damping.
2m

Critical damping ccr:

ccr  2mn  2 km
2.3 Damped Free Vibration

Free-vibration response with critical damping

2.3.1 Critically Damped and Damping Ratio

Critical damping: the smallest amount of

damping for which no oscillation occurs in the
free-vibration response.

Critical damping is a constant that depends on

system’s mass and stiffness.
2.3.1 Critically Damped and Damping Ratio

Damping ratio: the ratio of the damping constant

c and the critical damping ccr is represented by ζ :

If ζ 1, c<ccr , what happens ?

If ζ 1, c=ccr , what happens ?
If ζ 1 , c>ccr ,what happens ?
2.3.1 Critically Damped and Damping Ratio

(1) If ζ 1, structure system is called underdamped

system;
(2) If ζ 1, structure system is called critically damped
system;
(3) If ζ 1, structure system is called overdamped system.

Steel structure ： ζ 0.01

Reinforced concrete ζ  0.03 Micro vibration

structure ： ζ  0.05 Medium or small
intensity earthquake
2.3.1 Critically Damped and Damping Ratio

Overdamped ，ζ=2
Critically damped ，ζ=1

Underdamped ，ζ=0.1

Free vibration of underdamped, critically damped, and

overdamped system.
2.3.1 Critically Damped and Damping Ratio
Please go to watch the videos to get more in-depth
understanding on three different cases of free vibration with
different damping ratio.
2.3.1 Critically Damped and Damping Ratio
Please go to watch the videos to get more in-depth
understanding on three different cases of free vibration with
different damping ratio.
2.3.2 Responses of Underdamped System

Substituting

into

obtain: ue st

The solution of underdamped system subject to the initial

conditions is:
cos( t)+ ( t))

The coefficients C1 and C2 can be

solved using the initial conditions:
2.3.2 Responses of Underdamped System

The solution of underdamped system subject to the initial

conditions is:

cos( t)+ ( t))

2.3.2 Responses of Underdamped System
The solution of underdamped system subject to the initial
conditions is given by:

where：

ω natural frequency of damped system

TD natural period of damped system
 2.3.2 Underdamped System

D  n 1  2 ω natural frequency of damped

system
Tn TD natural period of damped
TD 
1  2 system
ω n and n are natural frequency and period of undamped
system, respectively.
 Damping has the effect of lowering the natural
frequency and lengthening the natural period.
 For systems with critical damping (ζ＝1), ω =0 and
= ∞.
2.3.2 Underdamped System

u(t) u.(0)
Damped structure

u(0)

Tn Undamped structure
TD

Effects of damping on free vibration.

2.3.2 Underdamped System

Measured ： ω and Range of damping for

most structures
Theoretical ：ωn and Tn
The damping ratio ζ of the

ωn TD
Frequency ratio D= n
T
structure in engineering is

ω
between 1 and 5% gene-
rally, and not more than
20%. Thus, for most
structures, the damped
properties ω and are
approximately equal to the Damping ratio ζ
undamped properties ωn
Effects of damping on the
and Tn , respectively.
natural vibration frequency.
2.3.2 Underdamped System
The more important effect of
damping is on the rate at
which free vibration decays.
It is an important task to
reasonably determine the
damping of the system in
dynamic analysis.
Through the analysis of the
decay curve of the system,
the damping ratio of
different systems can be
effectively distinguished. Figure Free vibration of systems with
four levels of damping
 2.3.3 Decay of Motion
General solution of free-decayed vibration:

 The ratio of successive peaks is dependent on ζ, but

independent of i.
u(t)
u1
TD TD
ui
ui+1

ti ti+TD t

Fig. 2.3.6 Displacement record of a freely vibrating system.

 2.3.3 Decay of Motion
The ratio of successive peaks at ti and ti+TD：
 t  u  0  +nu  0  
u (ti )  e u  0  cos D ti  sin D ti 
n i

 D 
 u  0  +nu  0  
u  0  cos D  ti  TD   sin  D  ti  TD  
n  ti TD 
u (ti  TD )  e
 D 

2 2 
  n ti  n
u ( ti ) e  n 1- 2 1- 2
    t  T  = e  nTD = e =e
u ( t i  TD ) e n i D

The ratio of successive peaks is dependent on ζ, but

independent of i.
 2.3.3 Decay of Motion
ui u(ti ) 2
  exp( nT D )  exp( )
ui1 u(t i  TD ) 1  2

The logarithmic
decrement δ:

The exact damping ratio:

Approximation formula
for small damping ratio:
 2.3.3 Decay of Motion
The peaks ratios over j cycles (ti and ti+jTD ) :

ui u 2
where  = ln  ln i 1   
ui 1 ui  2 1- 2

Where δ denotes the logarithmic decrement

The damping ratio (when it is small):

2.3.4 Free Vibration Tests

：• For small damping ratio （ζ＜20%）, the damping ratio

can be obtained using the following formula:

• The natural period of the system can be determined

from the free vibration record by measuring the time
required to complete one cycle of vibration.
T T
D D

Figure 2.3.7 Acceleration record of a freely vibrating system.

 2.3.4 Free Vibration Tests

：Damping ratio estimation from free vibration test:

 Summary
1. Critical damping
Damping ratio
2. Three cases with different magnitude of damping ratio:
(1) If ζ 1, structure system is called underdamped system;
(2) If ζ 1, structure system is called critically damped system;
(3) If ζ 1, structure system is called overdamped system.

3 The solution of underdamped system subject to the initial

conditions is:
Summary
4 Dynamic properties of Undamped V.S. Damped Free Vibration

Undamped system Damped

system
Natural frequency (rad/s)
D  n 1  2

Natural Period (s)

5 The important effect of damping is on the rate at which free

vibration decays. Through the analysis of the decay curve of the
system, the damping ratio of different systems can be effectively
distinguished.
Summary

6 For the case when the damping ratio is small, it can be estimated
using the ratio of peaks over j circles:

The natural period of the system can be determined from the

free vibration record by measuring the time required to complete
one cycle of vibration.
u(t)
u1 TD TD
ui ui+1

ti ti+TD t
Coming up next …..

The response to harmonic excitation