Topic 1: Trigonometry – Full Concept Guide for NUST NET

What is Trigonometry?

Trigonometry is the study of the relationships between the angles and sides of triangles,
especially right-angled triangles. It also deals with circular functions and their properties.

Basic Trigonometric Ratios (for Right-Angled Triangle)

Ratio Formula Meaning

sinθ opposite / hypotenuse vertical side / slant side

cosθ adjacent / hypotenuse base / slant side

tanθ opposite / adjacent vertical side / base

cotθ 1 / tanθ adjacent / opposite

secθ 1 / cosθ hypotenuse / adjacent

cosecθ 1 / sinθ hypotenuse / opposite

Pythagorean Identities

These are fundamental identities:

1. sin²θ + cos²θ = 1

2. 1 + tan²θ = sec²θ

3. 1 + cot²θ = cosec²θ

Angle Sum and Difference Formulas

These help in simplifying expressions:

• sin(A ± B) = sinAcosB ± cosAsinB

• cos(A ± B) = cosAcosB ∓ sinAsinB

 • tan(A ± B) = (tanA ± tanB) / (1 ∓ tanA·tanB)

Double Angle Formulas

• sin(2θ) = 2sinθcosθ

• cos(2θ) = cos²θ – sin²θ

• tan(2θ) = 2tanθ / (1 – tan²θ)

Reciprocal Identities

• sinθ = 1/cosecθ

• cosθ = 1/secθ

• tanθ = 1/cotθ

Graphs of Trig Functions (Overview)

• sin(x) and cos(x) oscillate between -1 and 1 with a period of 2π.

• tan(x) has a period of π and vertical asymptotes at 90°, 270°, etc.

• Know basic shapes of these graphs!

Trigonometric Equations

Example: Find all values of x such that:

sin(x) = 0.5

Solution: sin(x) = 0.5 → x = 30° or x = 150°

In general: x = 30° + 360°n and x = 150° + 360°n

Application in Height and Distance Problems

• Use right-angle triangle setup.

• Apply sin, cos, tan based on known values.

 Example Problem

Q: If sinθ = 3/5 and θ is in the 1st quadrant, find cosθ and tanθ.

Solution:

Use identity:
sin²θ + cos²θ = 1
⇒ (3/5)² + cos²θ = 1
⇒ 9/25 + cos²θ = 1
⇒ cos²θ = 1 - 9/25 = 16/25
⇒ cosθ = √(16/25) = 4/5

Now:
tanθ = sinθ / cosθ = (3/5) / (4/5) = 3/4

Answer: cosθ = 4/5, tanθ = 3/4

Practice MCQs (with Answers)

1. If sinA = 0.6, cosA = ? (A is acute)

A) 0.8
B) 0.4
C) 0.5
D) 0.3
Answer: A)
→ cosA = √(1 - sin²A) = √(1 - 0.36) = √0.64 = 0.8

2. tan45° × tan30° = ?
A) 1
B) √3
C) 1/√3
D) √3/3
Answer: D)
→ tan45° = 1, tan30° = 1/√3 → 1 × 1/√3 = 1/√3 = √3/3
3. If tanA = 3/4, find sinA and cosA. (A is acute)
A) sinA = 3/5, cosA = 4/5
B) sinA = 4/5, cosA = 3/5
C) sinA = 5/3, cosA = 4/3
D) sinA = 3/4, cosA = 5/4
Answer: A)
→ tanA = opposite/adjacent = 3/4 → hypotenuse = √(3² + 4²) = 5
⇒ sinA = 3/5, cosA = 4/5

Formula Sheet (Quick Recall)

Concept Formula

sin²θ + cos²θ 1

1 + tan²θ sec²θ

sin2θ 2sinθcosθ

cos2θ cos²θ – sin²θ

tan2θ 2tanθ / (1 – tan²θ)

sin(A ± B) sinAcosB ± cosAsinB

cos(A ± B) cosAcosB ∓ sinAsinB

Topic 2: Vectors – Full Concept Guide for NUST NET

What is a Vector?

A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude (size) and direction. In contrast to scalars (which
only have magnitude), vectors are often represented by arrows in space.

Types of Vectors
1. Zero Vector (0): A vector with zero magnitude and no specific direction.

2. Unit Vector (e.g., i, j, k): A vector with magnitude 1, used to indicate direction.

3. Position Vector: A vector representing the position of a point relative to the origin.

4. Displacement Vector: A vector indicating the change in position.

5. Equal Vectors: Vectors that have the same magnitude and direction.

6. Opposite Vectors: Vectors with the same magnitude but opposite directions.

Operations with Vectors

1. Addition:
To add two vectors A and B, place them tail-to-tail or head-to-tail and draw the resultant
vector.
A+B=Resultant Vector\mathbf{A} + \mathbf{B} = \text{Resultant Vector}

2. Subtraction:
Subtraction of vectors is done by adding the opposite.
A−B=A+(−B)\mathbf{A} - \mathbf{B} = \mathbf{A} + (-\mathbf{B})

3. Scalar Multiplication:
Multiplying a vector by a scalar k scales the magnitude of the vector without changing
its direction.
kA=k(axi^+ayj^)k \mathbf{A} = k(a_x \hat{i} + a_y \hat{j})

4. Dot Product (Scalar Product):

The dot product of two vectors A and B is a scalar given by:
A⋅B=∣A∣∣B∣cos⁡(θ)\mathbf{A} \cdot \mathbf{B} = |A| |B| \cos(\theta)
Properties:

o Commutative: A · B = B · A

o Distributive: A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C

o A · A = |A|² (magnitude squared)

5. Cross Product (Vector Product):

The cross product of two vectors A and B results in a vector perpendicular to both A and
B.
A×B=∣A∣∣B∣sin⁡(θ)n^\mathbf{A} \times \mathbf{B} = |A| |B| \sin(\theta) \hat{n}
Where n is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing A and B.
 Vector Components

Any vector can be broken down into horizontal and vertical components using unit vectors i, j,
k:

• 2D vector A = ai + bj

• 3D vector A = ai + bj + ck

Where:

• a, b, c are the magnitudes in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.

• i, j, k are unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions.

Applications of Vectors

1. Physics: Forces, velocity, acceleration, and displacement are all vectors.

2. Geometry: The area of a parallelogram can be calculated using the cross product.

3. Computer Graphics: Vectors are used in rendering, shading, and transformations in 3D

space.

Example Problem

Q: Find the angle between the vectors

A=3i^+4j^\mathbf{A} = 3\hat{i} + 4\hat{j}
B=2i^+6j^\mathbf{B} = 2\hat{i} + 6\hat{j}

Solution:
Use the formula for the dot product:
A⋅B=∣A∣∣B∣cos⁡(θ)\mathbf{A} \cdot \mathbf{B} = |A| |B| \cos(\theta)
First, calculate the magnitudes:
|A| = √(3² + 4²) = 5
|B| = √(2² + 6²) = √40 = 2√10

Now calculate A · B:
A⋅B=(3×2)+(4×6)=6+24=30\mathbf{A} \cdot \mathbf{B} = (3 \times 2) + (4 \times 6) = 6 + 24 =
30
Now solve for θ:
cos⁡(θ)=30(5)(210)=301010=310\cos(\theta) = \frac{30}{(5)(2\sqrt{10})} =
\frac{30}{10\sqrt{10}} = \frac{3}{\sqrt{10}}
θ = cos⁻¹(3/√10) ≈ 45.57°

Answer: Angle θ ≈ 45.57°

Practice MCQs (with Answers)

1. The cross product of two parallel vectors is:

A) Zero vector
B) Unit vector
C) A vector parallel to the given vectors
D) Undefined
Answer: A)
→ If vectors are parallel, the angle between them is 0° or 180°, so sin(θ) = 0, making the cross
product zero.

2. The dot product of two vectors A = 2i + 3j and B = i + 4j is:

A) 14
B) 16
C) 11
D) 8
Answer: C)
→ A · B = (2)(1) + (3)(4) = 2 + 12 = 14

3. Which of the following is a property of a cross product?

A) It is commutative
B) It is associative
C) It is distributive
D) It gives a scalar result
Answer: C)
→ The cross product is distributive but not commutative.
 That’s Vectors – Fully Covered!

Let’s keep moving forward to the next topic: Matrices and Determinants.

Topic 3: Matrices & Determinants – Full Concept Guide for NUST NET

What is a Matrix?

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and columns. The order of a matrix
is given by m × n, where m is the number of rows and n is the number of columns.

Types of Matrices

1. Row Matrix: A matrix with only one row (1 × n).

2. Column Matrix: A matrix with only one column (m × 1).

3. Square Matrix: A matrix with an equal number of rows and columns (m = n).

4. Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix where all non-diagonal elements are zero.

5. Identity Matrix (I): A square matrix where all diagonal elements are 1 and all off-
diagonal elements are 0.

6. Zero Matrix: A matrix where all elements are zero.

Matrix Operations

1. Addition:
Matrices can only be added if they have the same order.
A+B=[aij+bij]A + B = [a_{ij} + b_{ij}]

2. Scalar Multiplication:
Multiply each element of the matrix by a scalar.
kA=k[aij]kA = k[a_{ij}]

3. Matrix Multiplication:
The product of two matrices A (m × n) and B (n × p) is a matrix C (m × p).
C=ABC = AB where: Cij=∑k=1nAik×BkjC_{ij} = \sum_{k=1}^{n} A_{ik} \times B_{kj}
 4. Transpose:
The transpose of matrix A is obtained by swapping rows and columns.
AT=[aji]A^T = [a_{ji}]

Determinants

• A determinant is a scalar value that can be computed from the elements of a square
matrix and encodes certain properties of the matrix.

1. 2 × 2 Matrix:
For matrix A = [a b],
[c d]
det(A)=ad−bc\text{det}(A) = ad - bc

2. 3 × 3 Matrix:
For matrix A = [a b c],
[d e f],
[g h i]
det(A)=a(ei−fh)−b(di−fg)+c(dh−eg)\text{det}(A) = a(ei - fh) - b(di - fg) + c(dh - eg)

Applications of Matrices

1. Solving Systems of Linear Equations: Use matrices to represent and solve linear
equations.

2. Transformations in Geometry:
Matrices are used to perform transformations like translation, scaling, and rotation.

3. Determinants:
Determinants are used to find if a system of linear equations has a unique solution (non-
zero determinant).

Example Problem

Q: Find the determinant of the following matrix:

A=[2413]A = \begin{bmatrix} 2 & 4 \\ 1 & 3 \end{bmatrix}

Solution:
For a 2 × 2 matrix A = [a b],
[c d], the determinant is:
det(A)=ad−bc\text{det}(A) = ad - bc
det(A)=(2)(3)−(4)(1)=6−4=2\text{det}(A) = (2)(3) - (4)(1) = 6 - 4 = 2

Answer: Determinant of A = 2

Practice MCQs (with Answers)

1. The determinant of the matrix

[3524]\begin{bmatrix} 3 & 5 \\ 2 & 4 \end{bmatrix}
A) 7
B) 2
C) 6
D) 1
Answer: C)
→ det(A) = (3 × 4) - (5 × 2) = 12 - 10 = 2

2. Which of the following matrices is not invertible?

A) Identity matrix
B) Zero matrix
C) Diagonal matrix with non-zero diagonal elements
D) Any non-singular matrix
Answer: B)
→ The zero matrix has a determinant of 0, so it’s not invertible.

That's Matrices & Determinants – Fully Covered!

Let’s continue with Conic Sections!

Topic 4: Conic Sections – Full Concept Guide for NUST NET

 What are Conic Sections?

Conic sections are the curves formed by the intersection of a plane with a double-napped cone.
There are four types of conic sections:

1. Circle

2. Ellipse

3. Parabola

4. Hyperbola

Equations of Conics

1. Circle:
Equation: (x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2(x - h)^2 + (y - k)^2 = r^2
Where (h, k) is the center and r is the radius.

2. Ellipse:
Equation: x2a2+y2b2=1\frac{x^2}{a^2} + \frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1
Where a is the semi-major axis and b is the semi-minor axis.

3. Parabola:
Equation: y2=4axy^2 = 4ax (Standard form)
Where a is the distance from the vertex to the focus.

4. Hyperbola:
Equation: x2a2−y2b2=1\frac{x^2}{a^2} - \frac{y^2}{b^2} = 1
Where a and b are the distances related to the foci and vertices.

Properties of Conics

• Circle: All points are equidistant from the center.

• Ellipse: Sum of distances from any point on the ellipse to the foci is constant.

• Parabola: The distance from the vertex to the focus is constant along every point on the
curve.

• Hyperbola: Difference in distances from any point on the hyperbola to the foci is
constant.
 Applications of Conic Sections

1. Astronomy: The orbits of planets and satellites are elliptical.

2. Physics: Parabolic reflectors focus light or sound to a single point (e.g., satellite dishes).

3. Engineering: Parabolas and ellipses appear in structures, arches, and bridges.

Example Problem

Q: Find the equation of a circle with center at (2, 3) and radius 4.

Solution:
Equation: (x−h)2+(y−k)2=r2(x - h)^2 + (y - k)^2 = r^2
Substitute:

(x−2)2+(y−3)2=42(x−2)2+(y−3)2=16(x - 2)^2 + (y - 3)^2 = 4^2 \\ (x - 2)^2 + (y - 3)^2 = 16

Answer: (x - 2)² + (y - 3)² = 16

Practice MCQs (with Answers)

1. The equation of a parabola with focus at (0, 4) and directrix y = -4 is:

A) y² = 16x
B) x² = 16y
C) y² = 16x
D) x² = 16y
Answer: B)
→ The focus-directrix form is y² = 4ax where a = 4.

2. The equation of an ellipse with foci at (0, ±3) and a = 5 is:

A) x252+y232=1\frac{x^2}{5^2} + \frac{y^2}{3^2} = 1
B) x232+y252=1\frac{x^2}{3^2} + \frac{y^2}{5^2} = 1
C) x232+y242=1\frac{x^2}{3^2} + \frac{y^2}{4^2} = 1
D) x242+y252=1\frac{x^2}{4^2} + \frac{y^2}{5^2} = 1
**
Answer: B)**
→ In an ellipse, c² = a² - b², and foci give b = 3.

That's Conic Sections – Fully Covered!

Absolutely! Let's keep going and cover Graphs of Functions next.

Topic 5: Graphs of Functions – Full Concept Guide for NUST NET

What is a Function?

A function is a relation between a set of inputs (domain) and a set of possible outputs (range),
where each input is related to exactly one output.

The general form of a function is:

f:x↦f(x)f: x \mapsto f(x)

For example, f(x)=2x+1f(x) = 2x + 1 is a function that assigns to each value of x a unique value of
f(x).

Types of Functions

1. Linear Function:
A function of the form:
f(x)=mx+cf(x) = mx + c
Where m is the slope and c is the y-intercept.

2. Quadratic Function:
A function of the form:
f(x)=ax2+bx+cf(x) = ax^2 + bx + c
Where the graph is a parabola that opens upwards (if a > 0) or downwards (if a < 0).

3. Cubic Function:
A function of the form:
f(x)=ax3+bx2+cx+df(x) = ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d
The graph of a cubic function can have one or two turning points.
 4. Exponential Function:
A function of the form:
f(x)=axf(x) = a^x
Where the base a is a constant, and the graph increases (if a > 1) or decreases (if 0 < a <
1) exponentially.

5. Logarithmic Function:
The inverse of the exponential function:
f(x)=log⁡a(x)f(x) = \log_a(x)
The graph of the logarithmic function is the reflection of the exponential function across
the line y=xy = x.

6. Trigonometric Functions:
These functions include sine, cosine, tangent, etc., and their graphs repeat periodically.

Graphing Techniques

To graph a function, follow these steps:

1. Find the Domain and Range: The domain is the set of all possible x values for which the
function is defined, and the range is the set of all possible output values (y).

2. Find Intercepts:

o x-intercept: Set f(x)=0f(x) = 0 and solve for x.

o y-intercept: Set x=0x = 0 and solve for f(0)f(0).

3. Identify Asymptotes (if any): For rational functions, find vertical and horizontal
asymptotes by considering limits as xx approaches certain values.

4. Plot Key Points: Calculate the function's value at several points and plot these points on
the graph.

5. Sketch the Graph: After plotting key points, draw the curve that best fits the function’s
behavior.

Examples of Graphs

1. Linear Function:
Example: f(x)=2x+1f(x) = 2x + 1
The graph is a straight line with a slope of 2 and a y-intercept at (0, 1).
 2. Quadratic Function:
Example: f(x)=x2−4f(x) = x^2 - 4
The graph is a parabola that opens upwards and has roots at x = -2 and x = 2.

3. Exponential Function:
Example: f(x)=2xf(x) = 2^x
The graph increases exponentially as x increases.

4. Trigonometric Function:
Example: f(x)=sin⁡(x)f(x) = \sin(x)
The graph oscillates between -1 and 1 and repeats every 2π2\pi units.

Example Problem

Q: Sketch the graph of the quadratic function

f(x)=x2−4x+3f(x) = x^2 - 4x + 3

Solution:
First, find the roots using factoring:

x2−4x+3=0⇒(x−1)(x−3)=0x^2 - 4x + 3 = 0 \quad \Rightarrow \quad (x - 1)(x - 3) = 0

So, the roots are x = 1 and x = 3.

The vertex of the parabola occurs at:

x=−b2a=−(−4)2(1)=2x = \frac{-b}{2a} = \frac{-(-4)}{2(1)} = 2

Substitute x = 2 into the equation to find the y-coordinate of the vertex:

f(2)=22−4(2)+3=4−8+3=−1f(2) = 2^2 - 4(2) + 3 = 4 - 8 + 3 = -1

So, the vertex is at (2, -1).

The graph is a parabola opening upwards, with roots at (1, 0) and (3, 0), and the vertex at (2, -
1).

Answer: Graph is a parabola with vertex at (2, -1) and roots at (1, 0) and (3, 0).

Practice MCQs (with Answers)

1. The graph of the equation
y=x2+2x+1y = x^2 + 2x + 1
A) A straight line
B) A parabola
C) A circle
D) An exponential curve
Answer: B)
→ This is a quadratic function, so its graph is a parabola.

2. The range of the function

f(x)=log⁡(x)f(x) = \log(x)
A) (−∞,0)(-\infty, 0)
B) (0,∞)(0, \infty)
C) (−∞,∞)(-\infty, \infty)
D) (−1,1)(-1, 1)
Answer: C)
→ The range of the logarithmic function is (−∞,∞)(-\infty, \infty).

That's Graphs of Functions – Fully Covered!

Let's keep moving on to Geometry (Implicit in Conics and Vectors)!

Topic 6: Geometry (Implicit in Conics and Vectors) – Full Concept Guide for NUST NET

What is Geometry?

Geometry is the branch of mathematics that deals with shapes, sizes, and properties of space.
The key geometric figures in NUST NET Architecture include lines, angles, triangles, circles,
polygons, and 3D shapes like spheres, cones, and cubes.

Basic Geometrical Concepts

1. Point: An exact location in space with no dimension.

2. Line: A straight path extending infinitely in both directions.

3. Angle: Formed by two rays with a common endpoint (vertex).

Important Geometric Figures

1. Circle:

o Radius (r): The distance from the center to any point on the circle.

o Diameter (d): Twice the radius.

2. Triangle:

o Types: Equilateral, Isosceles, Scalene.

o Pythagoras Theorem:
For a right triangle:
a2+b2=c2a^2 + b^2 = c^2

3. Polygon:
A closed figure with straight sides, e.g., quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon, etc.

4. Parallel and Perpendicular Lines:

o Parallel Lines: Lines that never meet.

o Perpendicular Lines: Lines that intersect at a 90° angle.

3D Geometry

1. Volume and Surface Area:

o Cube:
Volume = a3a^3, Surface Area = 6a26a^2

o Sphere:
Volume = 43πr3\frac{4}{3}\pi r^3, Surface Area = 4πr24\pi r^2

o Cylinder:
Volume = πr2h\pi r^2 h, Surface Area = 2πr(h+r)2\pi r(h + r)

2. Cones and Pyramids:

Volume = 13\frac{1}{3} × Base Area × Height
 Example Problem

Q: Find the volume of a cylinder with radius 3 cm and height 5 cm.

Solution:
Use the formula for the volume of a cylinder:

V=πr2hV = \pi r^2 h

Substitute r=3r = 3 and h=5h = 5:

V=π(3)2(5)=45π≈141.37 cm3V = \pi (3)^2 (5) = 45\pi \approx 141.37 \, \text{cm}^3

Answer: Volume ≈ 141.37 cm³

Practice MCQs (with Answers)

1. The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is:

A) 180°
B) 360°
C) 90°
D) 270°
Answer: A)
→ The sum of the interior angles of any triangle is always 180°.

2. The area of a circle with radius 4 cm is:

A) 16π cm216\pi \, \text{cm}^2
B) 8π cm28\pi \, \text{cm}^2
C) 12π cm212\pi \, \text{cm}^2
D) 32π cm232\pi \, \text{cm}^2
Answer: A)
→ The area of a circle is A=πr2=π(4)2=16π cm2A = \pi r^2 = \pi (4)^2 = 16\pi \, \text{cm}^2.

That's Geometry – Fully Covered!

Next, let's proceed to Calculus (Differentiation & Integration Basics)!

Topic 7: Calculus (Differentiation & Integration Basics) – Full Concept Guide for NUST NET

What is Calculus?

Calculus is the study of change and motion, and it deals with derivatives (rates of change) and
integrals (area under curves).

Differentiation

1. Definition:
The derivative of a function represents the rate of change of the function's value with
respect to the independent variable. It is denoted as f′(x)f'(x) or ddx\frac{d}{dx}.

2. Basic Derivatives:

o Derivative of xnx^n:
ddx(xn)=nxn−1\frac{d}{dx} (x^n) = n x^{n-1}

o Derivative of sin⁡(x)\sin(x):
ddx(sin⁡(x))=cos⁡(x)\frac{d}{dx} (\sin(x)) = \cos(x)

o Derivative of cos⁡(x)\cos(x):
ddx(cos⁡(x))=−sin⁡(x)\frac{d}{dx} (\cos(x)) = -\sin(x)

3. Product Rule:
ddx[f(x)⋅g(x)]=f′(x)⋅g(x)+f(x)⋅g′(x)\frac{d}{dx} [f(x) \cdot g(x)] = f'(x) \cdot g(x) + f(x) \cdot
g'(x)

4. Quotient Rule:
ddx(f(x)g(x))=f′(x)⋅g(x)−f(x)⋅g′(x)[g(x)]2\frac{d}{dx} \left( \frac{f(x)}{g(x)} \right) =
\frac{f'(x) \cdot g(x) - f(x) \cdot g'(x)}{[g(x)]^2}

5. Chain Rule:
ddx[f(g(x))]=f′(g(x))⋅g′(x)\frac{d}{dx} [f(g(x))] = f'(g(x)) \cdot g'(x)

Integration
 1. Definition:
The integral of a function represents the accumulation of quantities, such as area under
a curve. The indefinite integral is denoted as ∫f(x)dx\int f(x) dx.

2. Basic Integrals:

o Integral of xnx^n:
∫xndx=xn+1n+1+C\int x^n dx = \frac{x^{n+1}}{n+1} + C

o Integral of sin⁡(x)\sin(x):
∫sin⁡(x)dx=−cos⁡(x)+C\int \sin(x) dx = -\cos(x) + C

o Integral of cos⁡(x)\cos(x):
∫cos⁡(x)dx=sin⁡(x)+C\int \cos(x) dx = \sin(x) + C

Example Problem

Q: Differentiate the function

f(x)=3x4−5x2+2x−7f(x) = 3x^4 - 5x^2 + 2x - 7

Solution:
Use the power rule to differentiate each term:

f′(x)=12x3−10x+2f'(x) = 12x^3 - 10x + 2

Answer: f′(x)=12x3−10x+2f'(x) = 12x^3 - 10x + 2

Practice MCQs (with Answers)

1. The derivative of
f(x)=5x3−2x2+3f(x) = 5x^3 - 2x^2 + 3
A) 15x2−4x15x^2 - 4x
B) 15x2+4x15x^2 + 4x
C) 5x2−25x^2 - 2
D) 3x2−23x^2 - 2
Answer: A)
→ Use the power rule: f′(x)=15x2−4xf'(x) = 15x^2 - 4x.
2. The integral of
∫(2x+3)dx\int (2x + 3) dx
A) x2+3x+Cx^2 + 3x + C
B) 2x2+3x+C2x^2 + 3x + C
C) x2+3x+3x^2 + 3x + 3
D) 2x2+3x2+C2x^2 + 3x^2 + C
Answer: A)
→ ∫2xdx=x2\int 2x dx = x^2, ∫3dx=3x\int 3 dx = 3x.

That's Calculus – Fully Covered!

Now, let’s proceed to Probability (Permutations & Combinations)!

Topic 8: Probability (Permutations & Combinations) – Full Concept Guide for NUST NET

What is Probability?

Probability is the measure of the likelihood of an event occurring, ranging from 0 (impossible) to
1 (certain).

Permutations

Permutations refer to the arrangement of objects in a specific order. The formula for
permutations is:

P(n,r)=n!(n−r)!P(n, r) = \frac{n!}{(n-r)!}

Where:

• n is the total number of objects.

• r is the number of objects to be arranged.

• ! represents factorial (e.g., 5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1).

 Combinations

Combinations refer to the selection of objects where

the order doesn’t matter. The formula for combinations is:

C(n,r)=n!r!(n−r)!C(n, r) = \frac{n!}{r!(n-r)!}

Example Problem

Q: In how many ways can 4 students be selected from a group of 10?

Solution:
Use the combination formula:

C(10,4)=10!4!(10−4)!=10×9×8×74×3×2×1=210C(10, 4) = \frac{10!}{4!(10-4)!} = \frac{10 \times 9

\times 8 \times 7}{4 \times 3 \times 2 \times 1} = 210

Answer: 210

Practice MCQs (with Answers)

1. The number of permutations of 5 objects taken 3 at a time is:

A) 60
B) 120
C) 180
D) 20
Answer: A)
→ P(5,3)=5!(5−3)!=5×4×31=60P(5, 3) = \frac{5!}{(5-3)!} = \frac{5 \times 4 \times 3}{1} = 60

2. In how many ways can 3 books be selected from a shelf of 7 books?

A) 35
B) 84
C) 140
D) 70
Answer: D)
→ Use combinations:
C(7,3)=7!3!(7−3)!=70C(7, 3) = \frac{7!}{3!(7-3)!} = 70

That's Probability (Permutations & Combinations) – Fully Covered!