Short Lecture Note-Tree Nursery

PART II

1. NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT AND MANAGEMENT

Definitions
Tree Nursery: - Is a place where young plants can grow with special care and protection up to
the point where the young material is able to establish and flourish under field
condition.
 Provides seedlings both for planting program and commercial purpose.
Why to Establish TN?
 Inapplicability of direct sowing of seeds for all of tree Species.
 The need of seedlings in large no. to replace the rapid loss of forests.
 Enables foresters to produce healthy and vigorous plants.
1.2 Types of Nurseries
Based on
 Time duration the nursery is supposed to serve
 Scale of production (related to size of the area to be afforested)
 Availability of suitable nursery site
Nursery can be categorized into:-
A. Permanent nursery
B. Temporary Nursery
C. Extension nursery
A. Permanent Nurseries
 Are large centrally located nurseries that are established: -
- Where a there is a demand for large number of seedlings for long period of time (>5 years)
- Annual seedling production > 0.5 million.
- Usually have permanent workers (trained foreman or forester) hence, have a better control in
most activities and produces quality seedlings.
- Use sophisticated methods of raising seedlings.
- Requires high establishment cost / capital investment/.
- Located far from plantation site in most cases.
- Needs lorry or tractor for transportation
E.g. Most GO’s Nurseries.
B. Temporary Nurseries
 Also called flying/satellite/Field/ Nurseries
 Established for a short period (usually < 5 years)
 Provide a limited numbers of seedlings for local need.
 It is decentralized in nature (can be abandoned or shifted to other places).
 Can be located adjacent/near/with in the planting area hence,
- Reduce transportation cost and time between lifting and planting.
- Less planting shock (Minimizes damage of seedlings) leading to seedlings better survival
under field condition.
- Reduce disease transmission
 Seedlings transportation can be done by workers themselves.
 Use the simplest methods of raising seedlings
 Requires less capital investment (cheap) and more easily manageable.
 Can be done by temporary workers (often less supervised) which usually results poor quality
seedlings. E.g. Many of Ethiopian farmers’ nurseries
Disadvantages
 Has High cost /plant,

C. Extension Nurseries

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 - Used in S/C forestry programs
- Established to provide seedlings of many species useful for the local community for
amenity, fodder, fuel wood, post & poles, fruits etc.
Depending on ownership, Nurseries can also be categorized as Private, Community as well as
GO’s

2.0 Nursery Management

Successful nursery management operations depend on many factors.
* Selection and development of suitable site.
* Efficient supervision and Mgmt.
* Adequate planning
* Orderly timing of operation
* Use of appropriate cultural measures
* Protection from pests, diseases and other damages.
3. Site selection for a forest Nursery
 Choose the best possible site based on preliminary survey of areas.
 Make careful analysis before establishing a forest nursery.
 Site selection inevitably requires a compromise between different factors
Some basic Questions to ask before deciding to establish a new Nursery
 What are the xcs of the forestation site (remote, easy access)?
 What are the market prospects?
 Will the nursery compete with the already existing ones?
 Can already existing nurseries meet the needed planting stock?
 Are labors and trained personnel available?
 What equipment is available on local markets?
 What is the legal framework for establishing a new nursery?
If Conditions allow us establishing nursery, we have to set the objectives:
- Production/year
- Permanent or temporary
- Bare root or potted
- Mechanical or manual production
Major factors to be considered in nursery site selection are:
1) Ecological factors
- Important for best growth of seedlings
A. Climate:
o Includes climatic factors (RF, temperature and wind).
o Choose areas with mild climate, longer growing season, & even distribution of RF
o Climatic condition should be similar to the majority of the planting site( Alt, temp, RF)
o Avoid areas with extremes of temperature, subjected to high wind velocity, hail or ice
storms.
B. Topography
o Avoid areas with large stones and rocks.
o Choose almost level areas (2 -3% slope)
o Avoid exposed windy hill topes as these would be too dry & in higher altitude too cold.
o Avoid valley bottoms as these are subjected to water logging & frost pockets.
o Avoid areas where flooding occurs at any time of the year

C. Soil

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 o Is most important factors for choosing nursery site for producing bare-rooted seedlings
using native soils
o The site should have appropriate soil texture, depth, soil pH, and soil.
o For potted seedlings choose nearby areas where there is adequate sources of soil mixture
(help to reduce transport distance & cost).
o Clay soils with high shrink- well capacity must be avoided ( in all cases)
o Choose areas with soil which are fine sand or sandy loam for bare-root seedlings (as such
soils are not compacted, has good drainage, fewer root rot problems, causes less damages
to the roots during lifting.
o Select sites with soil pH value between 5 - 7 for broad-leaved, and 4.5 - 6 for conifer
species.
 A valuable guide in selecting a potential productive site is to look at the past agronomic history
of the site and native vegetation of the site.
D. Water:-
o Is one of the best criteria for choosing nursery sites
o Select site where there is permanent water supply (both in quantity & quality) for current &
possible future requirements
o Sources could be Springs, Small streams, rivers, ponds, wells)
o For rough estimation 50 liters/1000 plants/day are needed or
10 - 20 liters of water/ day/ productive area
2. Economic factors
 Important for management of nursery
A. Land availability:
 Select a site large enough to allow the production onzf intended number of seedlings.
 If possible, avoid selecting land, claimed by many individuals
B. Labor and Material supply

 The sites for selection should have sufficient number of workers willing to work during
pick periods of seedling production.
 Some required materials to condition soil texture; water holding capacity, drainage, and
fertility should also be available.
C. Accessibility and facilities:
Consider the availability of transport facilities, good communication (Roads, telephone lines),
electric supply, housing for staff and laborers.
3. Social factors
 Consider growth of population, wealth, mode of life of the people as they influence the
acceptance of establishing nursery and their products.
4. Biological factors
 Select site free of serious insects, diseases, weed, pests, as these can affect the growing
seedlings in the nursery.
4. Lay out and Design of a Nursery
Nursery Site Preparation

 Steps to be followed in site preparation for establishing new nursery

1. Felling all the trees on the site (up to 10 m away from proposed boundary.
2. Remove any stumps, termite mounds and big stones
3. Plough the area thoroughly and remove all roots.
4. Peg-out the location of blocks and roads.
5. Level each blocks using leveling (Distribute top soil evenly, avoid sub soil).
6. Board with rakes.

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4.1 Components of Nursery area
Are elements that a nursery (esp. Permanent) should include.
A given tree nursery has two major components(areas); the productive and non-productive
areas
The nursery productive area includes seed bed, transplanting and reserve beds. While the
other major component of a tree nursery which described as non-productive area includes
o Administration area
o Buildings area includes tools and equipment store, seed processing store, seed drying,
seed store, guesthouse, shading, and shelter for plants
o Access roads and inspection paths
o Windbreaks
o Fences and hedge
o Compost site
o Irrigation system

4.2 Size and Shape of a Nursery

o Determining the size and shape after selecting nursery site.
4.2.1 Shape of Nursery
The shape should be as compact as possible.
 Approximately Square shape is recommended, To
- Minimize the length of the boundary for fencing and hence save cost and time, and
- keep the distance between any two places /points/ in the nursery at a minimum
 If not a square shape, rectangular shape is convenient.
 For smaller nurseries, a rectangular shape with blocks spited along the longer side of the
nursery beds may be move economical.
4.2.2 Nursery size.
 There is a lower and upper limit in nursery size.
 The lower is defined by the higher production cost/plant & is ca. 250.000 seedlings/year.
 The area that should be supplied by one nursery limits the upper size
The upper limit is ca. 5 million seedlings /year.
Factors that govern the size of Nurseries
 Level of annual plant production (related to area to be planted annually).
E.g. a common nursery size has an annual plant production of 0.5-2 million seedlings.
 Method of raising seedlings.
Containerized seedlings occupy more bed space than bare-rooted seedlings.
Hence increases the size of nursery
 Areas required for different buildings, roads, paths, and irrigation system.
 Nursery life of plants:
Seedlings demanding long period of time to attain the suitable size need more space and
hence nursery size becomes larger.
Nursery Area calculation
To calculate the most appropriate nursery size, we need to know the
A. Required productive area (Pot beds, seedbed, and reserve beds)
B. Non-productive Areas (areas needed for roads, paths, buildings, fences, windbreak etc)
& is mostly twice that of Productive area.
C. Area for possible future extension (may account 20 - 25% of the total nursery area)

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Example

A forestry project planned to raise 500,000 seedlings annually including replacement of last
year’s failures. A polyethylene tube having 10 cm lay flat will be employed to raise the seedlings.
Expected nursery failure is 10%.
Calculate the total nursery area?

Procedures for calculating the total area

First Step Calculate the productive area

1. Seedling production
Annual seedling production = 500,000
Expected Nursery failure (10 %) 500,000*0.1 = 50,000
(Replanting included) ----------
Total seedling production = 550,000 seedlings/year
2. Calculate area needed for transplant/pot beds:-
Depends on the size of polythene tube. Polythene size 10 cm lay flat.
To calculate the diameter of the pot, use the following formula: -
C= p*D
D= C/p Where, D= diameter of polythene tube
C= circumference of the polythene tube
p= 3.14
C of 10 cm lay flat polythene tube is double of 10. Accordingly the corresponding D will be
20/3.14= 6.4 cm
To calculate the number of tubes/m2 use the formula N= (100/D) 2 ,
Where, N = is tightly packed filled tubes and D= diameter of the pot in centimeter. Or
1pot = 6.4cm
X? 100 cm (1m)
15 pots can be stacked in a strait line on one meter. Therefore the total number of seedlings/m 2 is
15*15 = 225 potted seedlings/m2
To calculate the total area for pot/transplant beds
1m2 = 225 pots
X? 550000 pots

550000 pots/225 = 2444 m2

Note To calculate the transplant beds for bare rooted seedlings, take spacing between rows and
plants. Ex. if the distance between rows is 20 cm and between plants 5cm, the density would be
100 seedlngs/m2
3. Calculate seedbed area, which are usually 20 % of the transplant beds
2444m2 *0.2 = 489 m2
4. Reserved beds area, which is 20 % of, transplant beds and seedbed
2444+489 = 2933 m2
2933*0.2 = 587 m2
Total productive area becomes = 2444+489+587 = 3520 m2

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 Second step is to calculate the non-productive area

As it can be seen practically more non-productive area (Area for access roads, paths between
beds, tools store, seed store, seed processing room, soil dump, compost, fences and wind breaks,
buildings and others are needed and should be calculated.
 As a rule of thumb, the non-productive area will be twice the production area i.e. seed/pot
beds area.
Therefore, the non-productive area of the above example will be
2933*2 = 5866 m2
Total Nursery area = Productive + Non-productive
3520m2 + 5866 m2 = 9386 m2
If 20 % reserve for future expansion is needed the total nursery area becomes
(9386 * 0.2) + 9386 = 11263 m2 i.e. 1.13 ha.
4.3 Nursery Fence, Hedge, wind break
Nursery fence or hedge is needed to
 Demarcate the boundaries
 Protect them against animals and to some extent winds.
4.3.1 Common Fence types
Fencing may be done in three ways
 Barbed or plain galvanized wire (or partly of each)
 Wire mesh (chicken net fence)
 Electric fencing
All fencing types require
- Fencing posts that should be sound, straight, suited size to the purpose, and properly
treated against insect attack.
4.3.2 Hedges
A hedge is a one or two rows of seedlings that are planted in a straight line.
It can serve as shelterbelt in protecting seedlings against strong winds.
Can be considered as live fences

Disadvantages:
 It may take 2-3 years to grow it to full size
 Needs continuous and regular tending (hoeing, weeding watering)
 Needs clipping at least twice a year.
Advantages:
 Cheap to establish,
 Has long life,
 Gives more protection against animals and winds, & also
 Pleasant to look.
Characteristics of a good hedge species
 Grows fastly
 Able to grow in a very restricted space,
 Withstand repeated clipping
 Ever green looking
 Long lived
E.g. Cupressus lussitanica, casuarina, Dodonea Viscosa, etc.
A fully-grown cupressus hedge can grow up to 2m height and 1m wide at base (can be attained
at 3-4 years age)

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Procedure to establish a hedge
1. Allocate a 2.5 -3m wide strip for the hedge along the boundary of the nursery
2. Dig a 1m wide strip in the center of the strip to 30cm depth.
3. Mark out 2 rows, 50 cm apart, and 25 cm from either side of the cultivated strip.
4. Plant vigorous seedlings (30cm tall) at 50 cm interval along each line so that the seedlings in
one row are staggered against the other row of seedlings.
5. Manage them properly (watering, weeding).
6. Start clipping lightly, to form a shape of hedge, wider at base and tapering upwards, when
plants are 1.5m tall.
4.3.3 Wind breaks
Wind breaks are three or four rows of suitable trees and shrubs that are planted on windward
sides of production areas and germination beds or around the nursery.
 Help to reduce drying, eroding, and abusive effects of winds on growing seedlings
 Some times they protect from animals.
Species Selection for WB
 Avoid selecting those species whose root systems compete with bare -root seedlings for water
and nutrients.
Tending operation
 Any insect or disease out break in WB should be controlled quickly to reduce the risk of
spreading to near by nursery seedlings.
4.4 Compartment Division and Bed construction
Compartment is the basic production unit with beds running parallel to the shortest side.
One compartment can hold 10- 20 beds.
It is good if a single compartment can contain 10 beds to shorten the walking distance during
watering.
Germination compartment, buildings, as well as soil storage occupy one compartment each.
For management purposes several compartments can be combined to form blocks that can be
framed by hedges

4.4.1 Bed construction

Seedbeds are mostly 1 meter wide (enables some one to reach the center of the bed during
weeding, watering).
The length of bed could vary from 5-20m.
Preferably all beds should have equal length.
Usually 1 m paths are left in between the beds.
Procedures for seed bed construction
1. Level the site where bed is to be constructed and firm the soil.
2. Mark out the required size and shape of bed with peg and cord.
3. Erect reverting boards 15 cm*3-4 cm in size around the marked area.
4. Place a layer of gravel having 3 cm thickness or sand sieving to a depth of 5 cm in the bed
followed by smoothing and pressing lightly with a flat board. Apply 2-3 cm thick layer of un-
sieved forest soil on the top of gravel for good drainage and to act as filter layer for fine
seedbed soil that would be leached down.
5. Fill the remaining part of the seedbed to the top with seedbed mixture.
6. Level the soil with flat board.
7. Firm the soil in bed using hands to avoid air space/unfilled space. Later firm the soil using
flat board.
8. Protect the surface of beds with a thick layer of green grass and leaves.
Seedbeds should be constructed orienting in East-West direction to have a balanced shade effect.

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4.5 Road
 The road system should minimize the need for transport of materials and seedlings with
vehicles.
 If seedling delivery relies on transport with vehicles, use access ways wide enough to allow
for turning (esp. if trailers are to be used.
 Make the road surface sufficiently stable to support the vehicles during the rainy seasons.
 In order to provide full access from all sides to buildings, soil dump and germination
compartments, construct additional feeder roads.
4.6 Irrigation system:
 The lay out of the irrigation system should follow the natural slope of the nursery site
(enables easy distribution of water in all directions)
 Use gravity to distribute water(When ever possible)
 The discharge of all the water Sources i.e. surface water which includes spring, river, streams,
lake and Ground water which includes wells + pumping system) should considerably exceed
a daily requirement of about 8mm as it avoids construction of expensive storage tanks and /or
ponds
Nursery Water distribution systems
 Two main water distribution systems can be distinguished
The furrow irrigation (open ditches with watering ponds)
(Open channel system)
Advantages
- Are relatively simple, cheap to construct
Disadvantages
- Demands permanent maintenance( to free them from silt & vegetation and
- Require much land area,
- May lead to wastage of water through evaporation
The pipe irrigation (surface, sprinkler, underground)
- The surface pipes:
Advantages
- Are movable inside nurseries,
- Simple to construct
Disadvantages
- Water standing in a pipe may get over heated as pipes exposed to sun and damage
seedlings.
- Pipes impede travel in the nursery.
5.0 Forest Nursery Techniques /Practices/

o Nursery techniques /practice/s are the set of methods for raising seedlings.
There are two general methods of raising tree seedlings
Bare root Plant production
Involves raising seedlings in an open bed from which seedlings are lifted and planted with
root bare of soil
1. Potted plant production
Involves growing seedlings in an individual containers which then taken to the planting
site with a ball of soil around the roots.

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5.1 Historical developments on seedling production (in Tropics)

Bare root seedlings

used like in
Initial stage
temperate regions

Resulted poor field survival, because of high temp, unpredictable season

Seedlings with container like bamboo, earthenware pots and baskets

Seedlings using polythene tubes (recently used):- improved survival of seedlings greatly

5.2 Growing bare-root seedlings

Bare root seedlings are seedlings directly sown and grown on nursery beds with out the need for
containers such as polythene tubes (with out a protective earth
ball around the roots.
o Are cheaper to produce and plant.
o Used where the climate and sites are favorable and planting and transport reliable.
o Can be stored in the field for very short period of time only as are without ball of soil
around the roots that contain moisture and nutrients and protect seedlings from desiccation.
Disadvantages of bare root seedlings:
o Unreliability.
o Require favorable weather conditions, skilled manpower, & careful supervision for their
successful field establishment.
Soil required for bare root seedlings:
o Soil has to be suitable and cultivable like a vegetable garden to a depth of 30-40cm (as we
are using the native soil)
o Avoid mixing of the topsoil layer with the inner one and keep the topsoil on the top of the
bed.
Density and area requirement:
Seedlings in transplant beds are in rows of 20-25cm apart and 5-10 cm distance between
seedlings (50 -100 seedlings/m2).
Transplanting:
o Seedlings for transplanting should be 6-8 cm tall, bigger than those pricked out into pots
and
o Having good root system (4-6cm length of taproot)
Transplanting is done by preparing holes with dibble (or a ditch with a wedge spade) and
inserting the plant with out twisting the roots and filling the hole with soil from the seed bed
which is gently compacted around the plants.
5.3 Growing potted seedlings:
o Are seedlings grown in containers such as polyethylene (plastic) tubes.
o Are expensive to raise in nurseries due to the need for purchasing the required amount and
size of plastic tube, preparing soil mixtures, filling and stacking of pots as a result, and
o Time consuming.
o Difficult to handle seedlings due to the weight and volume of pots filled with soil,
o Expensive to transport during planting.
o Can be stored in the field for longer periods of time before planting with out damage to
seedlings (provided that the seedlings are watered).

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 o Are reliable on all kinds of sites, especially on difficult soils and dry areas.
Size and thickness of Polythene tube
The size of the tube varies according to
o The species &
o The size to which the seedlings should be grown in the nursery.
 The most commonly used size in Ethiopia is 7- 8cm lay flat tubes, &
length about 12-15cm.
 Thickness various between 0.0015 to 0.0005 inches or 0.0375 to 0.0625mm).
 The larger the pot the thicker the tubing should be.
Seedlings shouldn’t grow > 45 cm in height using such tubes and are used to raise seedlings of
cypress, pines, eucalyptus etc.
Large 10cm lay flat tubes are preferable for raising tall and strong plants such as, olea,
podocarpus.
 Generally, best for indigenous hard woods destined for planting in natural forests and
also
 Recommended for planting in dry areas as this larger sized pots can store large quantity
of water in root zones which increase the chance of Survival of seedlings after planting.
A summery of some Advantages and disadvantages of the two methods of raising plants

Methods of raising Advantages Disadvantages

plants
1.Bare-rooted plants  Easy and cheap to transport  poor survival after planting
 Susceptible for desiccation at lifting &
 Easy and cheap to raise during transport
 Cannot be stored for long period in
 Take less nursery space temporary storage areas.
 Require skilled workers & better
supervision
 They need a little more time in the nursery.
2. Container method  Good survival after planting  Takes more nursery space
 Can be stored longer.  Expensive to raise & transport
 Easy for root pruning  Consume time due to preparing soil mixture
 Require less skilled worker & and pot tilling.
supervision  More complicated to raise
 Requires less time in the nursery

5.4 Seed bed and transplanting beds

Bed: Elongated strip of prepared soil in which seed sowing and establishment of seedlings is
made.
 Beds are constructed after the area is leveled and once road and irrigation systems have
been installed (See the procedures)
 Bed construction differs from one method to another. Seedlings could be either bare-
rooted or containerized.
 Beds are generally divided into seedbed or transplanting bed.
Seedbeds: are elongated strip of prepared soil in which seeds are sown and seedlings are raised.
 Should be 1m wide to reach the center of bed from either sides of the bed.
 Length should not be longer than 20m.
Transplant beds:

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Elongated strip of prepared soil or leveled ground in which seedlings are moved from one bed
(seed bed) to another to promote additional growth.

Construction of Transplant beds

Three types can be distinguished for transplanting potted seedlings
A. Storage area for pots/ground level
- Used in nurseries where drainage is good.
- Done by merely leveling and firming the ground followed by pot stacking side by side to
form bed 1m wide and convenient length
- Usually framed with bricks or timber
B. Storage beds with drainage layer
- Used in nurseries where drainage is poor
Procedures
- Dig 1m wide down to 8cm depth & convenient length.
- Place 5 cm thick layer of small stones (<3cm in size)
- Put a layer of 3cm rough forest soil on the gravel & level it
- Stack the filled pots on the top of forest soil
In both methods above pruning is done by knife or secatur.
C. Storage beds with a reverting board frame/raised beds
- Is applied when a piano-wire pruning is intended to use for pruning as reverting board
guides the wire and holds the pots in place
- A soft layer of fine sieved sand/transplant soil mixture underneath the pots facilitates
easy movement of wire
Transplanting bare-root seedlings:-

Two types of bed can be constructed

Traditional bed
- Prepared like beds for vegetables using soils of nursery
- Soil can be improved by adding well-decayed manure/compost
- Use spacing 20-25 cm b/n rows and 5-10 cm b/n seedlings
Swaziland beds
- Improved way of producing seedlings in beds
Advantages
- Allow pruning in all directions (undercutting and side pruning hence,
- Leads to produce seedlings with well developed, dense, & compact root system
- Reverting boards 15-18 cm wide & 3-4 cm thick, straight & smooth in lower edge are
erected along the perimeters of the beds.
- The bed is filled with transplant soil mixture followed by leveling & firming it.

Seedbed soil
Should be
 Light, to avoid heavy clay soil
 Porous textured so that soil allows good root penetration
 Easy for lifting

5.5 Nursery soil mixture and potting.

For the production of bare-root seedlings native (available) soil is used.

Usually, additives such as sand and organic matter are added to it.

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For raising seedlings using pots
Soil ingredients/component mixtures/ for filling of pots are brought from outside the nursery.
The proportion/ratio/ of these different soil components to be used varies
 From place to place
 The species to be raised, and
 The availability of different soil ingredients.
 Find out the best possible potting soil using materials available nearer to the nursery
 Decide on the best mixture/ratio/ through trials/experiment/.
The characteristics (qualities) that make up good nursery soil are: -
¨ Good drainage
¨ Satisfactory contents of essential nutrients.
¨ Good organic matter content to retain moisture.
¨ Sufficient adhesion to form a soil cylinder (keeps the soil in pots without falling
through the bottom).
¨ Correct acidity
¨ Mycorrhiza
Many soil types lack these qualities except, humus rich forest topsoil’s and compost that have
these desirable characteristics than other soils.

Potting Soil Mixtures

A potting soil can be a mixture of all or some of the followings. These are local soil, compost,
forest soil & gravel or sand

The local soil:

Easily available in large amount hence, called basic soil.
Gravel and/ or loamy sand
 Improves drainage, good root penetration
Cattle manure or compost or fertilizer
 Provides organic matter to improve moisture holding capacity &
 Also nutrients.
Forest soil: - Used to
 Improve water-holding capacity
 Provide nutrients.
Soil from pine plantation:
o Required for raising pine species to acquire mycorrhriza that serves for the growth of pines.
Clay
o Helps the soil bound round the roots and form soil cylinder (improves adhesion)
 As forest soil is normally not readily available at the desired quantities under most
circumstances the potting soil is therefore a, mixture of local soils and compost

5.5.1 Determining Quantities of Soil Components Required

Once the ratio of different soil components are determined, the required quantities of forest soil,
sand soil, compost, local and others can be calculated
Parameters required for calculating each component are:-
 Container size (dimensions)
 Number of seedlings to be produced.
 The proportion (ratio) of each component in the total soil mixture.
See example below
Container diameter (D) = 5 cm
Container length (L) = 15Cm

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 Number of seedlings to be raised = 1 million.

The required quantity of soil mixture can be calculated as follows

V = (p* r2 * L*N) +R
p = 3. 14
r = radius of container = ½ D
L = Length of container
N = Number of seedlings to be produced
R = Residual (30 - 40%)
V = 3.14 * 0.000625m2 * 0.15m *106 = 295m3
If the soil mixture to be used is 70% Local soil, 20% sand and 10% forest soil
70% Local soil = 295 * 0.7 = 206.50m3
20% sand = 295 * 0.2 = 59.033
10% forest soil = 295 * 0.1 = 29.5 m3
Total = 295 m3 + R
 Based on these figures the required number of truckloads can be calculated.

In most cases the size of polythene tube is given in lay flat. So in order to calculate the diameter
of the polythene tube, use the following E.g.
Given the size of a pot is 10 cm lay flat. What is the diameter of the pot?
Given lay flat=10cm
C=p*D
D= C/p Where,
C= is circumference of the polythene tube
D= is the diameter of the polythene tube
p = 3.14
In order to obtain C, we usually double the value of the lay flat size which is 10*2, as a result C=
20.
D = C/p
D =20/3.14
=6.4 cm diameter taken from previous example
5.6 Potting Methods
Potting - is the filling of pots with soil.
The pot size to be used varies depending on the tree species to be raised, from place to place,
plantings site & to some extent means of propagation and seed size.
Potting procedure
For potting - First bring all the required quantities of each soil component.
 Screen each components thoroughly using sieves then after
 Mix the components thoroughly and store them nearer to the potting shed.
 Cut the plastic tubes in to individual containers of the required size /length/ 12-15 cm length.
 The soil mixture is then moistened to become humid but not wet.
 Fill the container using a hands or funnel (when filling the lower 1/3 portion of the pot
should be compacted rather firmly to keep the soil from falling out easily. Then, the upper
2/3 portion of the pot compacted gently
as the roots develops more easily.
 Avoid any air pockets inside the pot during filling as this can hamper root development.

Potted seedlings are best suited in the tropics where rainfall is limiting factor & the site is poor.
6. Plant propagation
There are two main methods of propagating plants/seedlings/.
These are: - 1. Propagating using tree seeds.

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 2. Propagating using vegetative parts
6.1 Plant propagation using tree seeds
 The most common method of propagating trees.
 Some forest tree seeds require the application of different pre-treatments.
 Once seeds are prepared and treated well the next step is sowing.
6.2 Sowing Methods
6.2.1 Direct sowing into pots versus seedbed sowing

Initially seeds of most species used to be sown into seedbeds followed by transplanting into beds
or containers. But nowadays, there is a tendency towards more and more direct sowing into pots
to eliminate the labour consuming operation.
Seedbed sowing is recommended,
 If seeds are expensive or scarce
 Germination percent and period is not known,
 If seed takes long time to germinate.
 Seeds are too small
Direct sowing on to pots can be done where: -
 Germination percent is known & to be fairly high.
 Germination period is short.
 Transplanting would cause damage or death to seedlings (a case in very dry areas)
 The species develops a long sensitive taproot.
 If there is a shortage of skilled workers to do the transplanting.
Direct sowing onto pots leads to wastage of pots if germination takes a long time, as the plastic
tubes start to disintegrating and leaching of nutrient in the soils of the pots, owing to many weeks
of watering.

6.2.2 Time of sowing

 Sow seeds timely to acquire seedlings of the right size
(Shoot length) (25cm - 40cm length at the time of planting).
 Adjust the time of sowing with the period of rainy season.
 Recommended sowing dates for different species is presented in the following table. Planting
is done in June. The numbers in the brackets indicate the number of months required for
seedlings to stay in the nursery.
Table; Showing sowing dates for different species in Ethiopia

Acacia cyanophylla, A. mearinsii, A. decurrens) Jan - march (4-6)

A. Melanoxylon. Apyvanina A. Saligna Jan - march (4-6

Albizzia lebbek Jan - march (4-6
Azadirachta indica Jan - march (4-6
Casuarina equisetifolia Cumppinghamiana Sept - Oct (8_9)
Cordia Africana Nov - Jan (4-6)
Croton macrostachys Jan - Feb (4-5)
Cupressus lusitanica Oct - Nov (7-8)
Eckebergia reueppeliana Oct-dec. (7-9)
Eucalyptus camaldulnesis Jan - Feb (4-5)
E. Globules Feb- March (3-4)
E.Grandis. E.Saligna Feb - March (3-4)
Grevillea robusta Jan - March (3-4)

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Hagenia abyssinica Oct - Dec (7-9)
Juniperus procera June - July (12-15)
Melia azedarachta Jan - march (4-6)
Olea hoesteterh Sep- Nov (8-10)
Parkinsonia aculeate Oct - Dec (7-9)
Pinus patula Sept - Nov (8 - 9)
P. radiate Nov - Dec(6-7)
Pithecolobiom dulce Jan - March (4-6)
podocarpus gracilior April - June (8-15)
prosopis juliflora Jan - March (4-6)
pygeum afiricana Sep - Nov (8-10)
Schinus molle Jun - March (4-6)
6.2.3 Density of sowing
 Larger seeds should be sown at a lower density of 800-1500m2.
 For smaller seeds (like eucalyptus, pines and cypresses) sowing density can be decided so
as to obtain 2000 seedlings/m2 of the seedbed.
Too low density of sowing leads to
 Wastage of seedbed area (not economical)

Too dense sowing

 Increases risk of fungus diseases in the nursery
 Sever competition among seedlings for nutrient, water, light and others.
Parameters required for calculating optimal sowing are:-
 No. of seeds/kg,
 Germination percentage and
 Purity percentages. These are needed to determine the numbers of viable seeds/kg.
E.g. Pinus patula has 135,000 seeds /kg and a germination rate of 85%. How much seed should
be sown to each square meter to obtain a density of 2000 seedlings / m2?
Solution; - each kg of seed produces (85/100 * 135,000 seedlings = 114, 750 seedlings assume
100% purity.
114,750 = 1000g
2000 x?
2000 * 1000 g = 17.4g/m2
114, 750

6.2.4 Sowing Techniques

Three major techniques of sowing which are

1) Broad cast sowing into seedbeds
2) Drill method
3) Direct sowing in to pots
1. Broad cast sowing into seed
:-Is a method of sowing in which seeds are distributed across the seedbed using hands.
o Is the most common method used recently
o Used for sowing seeds of all sizes, but best suited to smaller seeds.
Procedure
- Level beds for sowing.
- Water beds the day before sowing to attain the right moisture condition and apply broadcast
sowing as evenly as possible.

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- Tree species having too smaller seeds are usually difficult to sow them evenly, as a result
mixing the seed; with an equal or double amount of fine sand helps to achieve an even seed
sowing.
- Cover seeds with seedbed soil mixture or sand at a depth of twice the thickness of the seed.
- Avoid any air pockets between the seeds and soils by pressing the soil gently.
2. Drill Method:-
Is sowing method in which seeds are planted in rows with a seed-drilling implement.
 Has been practical mainly with species having large seeds.
 The depth of the drill should be equivalent to the size of the seed (e.g. 2-3 mm for juniperus
and 2mm for pinus patula).
 Distance between drills is usually about 10 cm.
 A wooden batten, 1m*1cm*3-5cm is needed to press drills on to beds
 The seeds are placed into drills at bottom & drills are covered with seedbed soil mixture and
followed by watering the bed.
3. Direct sowing onto polyethylene tubes

Is placing of seeds in the pots at the specific depth and density.

 Used commonly in recent period.
Advantages helps to eliminate the time consuming operation of transplanting that may cause a
slow growth and, even death of seedlings some times.
 Place seeds in the middle of the pot followed by pressing down and covering with soil.
For large seeds, a hole is first pressed into the soil by a pricking stick and then seeds are placed
into it followed by covering them with soil.
 Avoid the formation of air pockets during sowing.
The no. of seeds to be sown into individual containers is related to germination percentage.
 E.g. If germination is between 35-50%, 3-5 seeds
 If the germination percentage of a seed lot is > 80% sow 1-3 seeds/pot

7. Care and conditioning of seedlings.

If conditioning is not right or care is not taken viable seeds either will not germinate or will be
lost even after seedlings have emerged.
New seedlings may also have to survive hailstorm, scorching sun and temperature. Hence,
Certain steps can be taken to nurture seedlings through this period and ensure their vigor.
7.1 Mulching: - is any artificial modification of the soil surface.
 In nursery operations, mulching means covering the bed surface with a 0.5 - 0.2 cm layer of
organic materials.
 The primary purposes are:-
- To conserve soil moisture by reducing evaporation from the oil & protects it against sun
hence, lowers the soil temperature
- Protects the soil against heavy rains that can wash the seeds which are sown.
- Also minimizes the risk of exposing the seeds to birds and rodents
 Mulching helps to reduce both the frequency and amount of watering needed in areas
where watering is necessary throughout the year.
 To be effective a, layer of mulching should be 1-2cm thick.

Materials for Mulching: - grass, rice straw, rice husk, compost, and partly decomposed forest
litters or saw dust are commonly utilized.
 Avoid use of mulch to beds in rainy areas as this can reduce aeration and risk of damping off
would be increased.
7.2 Watering
- Have a good supply of water for the well growth of seedling.

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 - Avoid too much watering as it is harmful.
- Use clean water with pH value ranging from 5.5 to 6.5.
- Keep newly sown containers seed trays or nursery beds continually moist though not soaking
wet.
No fixed rule about the intervals between watering and quantity of water required, as this varies
with
 Species,
 Soil conditions,
 Age of plants,
 Weather condition, etc.
 A very approximate recommendation for total amount of watering per day is equivalent to 8-
mm rainfall. This means 8 liters of water/m2 of seedbed.
Frequency of watering: -
 Should be done frequently (at least twice a day in small quantities).
 E.g. if watering is done twice a day, four liters/m2 should be applied in each watering.
Time of watering: -
 Should be done early the morning (before 10.00 a.m. & in the afternoon after 4:00 p.m), for
efficient utilization of water sprayed on to them with out being lost.
Avoid too heavy watering, as this causes pudding of soil & poor aeration, which creates
favorable condition to damping off-fungi.
Find out the best possible watering regime for your area.
Fine-hose watering cans must be used in watering of seedbeds with out grass mulch. If not
available, try to use grass much.

Water seedlings immediately after transplanting (2-4 times a day).

7.3 Shading
 Needed in early stages of seedling development from sowing to some time after pricking out, as
seedlings are sensitive to full sun light, high temperature, rain, and dry winds.
 Usually apply shading mat, immediately after removing the mulch.
Benefits of Shade: -
 Reduce soil temperature;
 Minimizes evapo-transpiration rate and damage of seedlings by direct sunshine.
The need for shading/shading intensity/ differs according to
 Species,
 Stages of seedling development,
 Weather condition &
 Location of the nursery.
 Full and dense shade on seedbeds gives best results with most species.
 Full shade for seedlings should be given during the most delicate growth stages, i.e. during
and shortly after transplanting.
 When seedlings are resistant, reduce shading gradually from all day to around mid day and
later to none at all, as light is essential for photosynthesis.
 For the last months in the nursery seedlings should be exposed to full sunlight.

Shade construction:
o Can be constructed as a temporarily or as permanent installation.
o Are built of poles or wooden posts at 2 m interval connected at the top by longitudinal and
cross beams, then shading mats or screens can be placed on top of the scaffolding.
o Simple shade made of forked sticks (60 - 100 cm from the ground) can be used for support of

17
 shades, in private nurseries.
o Too low shades make watering difficult.

Orientation of shade
 In order to obtain the maximum effect of shades, the beds should be oriented in East - West
direction.
 When the sun is north of the equator (April – Sept) the shades should be sloping down to the
north and during the rest of the year, which is the main nursery period with most species in
Ethiopia, the shades should be sloping down towards the South.
 Sloping shades have an advantage over horizontal shads in that it avoids formation of pools
of rain water which may leak & cause some erosion in the seed bed below washing away both
seedlings and soil.
Materials: - like, elephant grass mat, bamboo split matting shads; grass shading or broken leaves
can be applied for making shads.

7.4 Transplanting (“Pricking out”)

o Is a practice of moving seedlings from one bed to another to promote additional growth or it
is the lifting of seedlings from their original seedbed to plant on to another location in the
nursery (transplant bed or from pot to pot).
o Such seedlings called “Transplant”.
o It is a crucial stage in the life of a plant as it always causes a shock to the seedlings even
when done carefully.
o Bad transplanting easily kills the seedling.

Size of seedlings for transplanting

o Conifers can be transplanted as they attain a ”Match stick” size after seed germination.
o Broad-leaved seedlings should also be transplanted soon after germination.
o Acacia and other legumes are transplanted when the first leaves appear after complete
unfolding of cotyledons.
 Watering the empty pots or beds lightly for a couple of days before transplanting, promotes
the germination of seeds of weeds which will be removed soon.

Care to be taken for transplanting

 Moisten the pots/beds prior to transplanting (should not be too wet or dry at the time of
transplanting.
 Use a small tin filled with a mixture of soil and water to keep the lifted seedlings for
transplanting.
 Use a wooden sharpened stick about the size and shape of a pencil for digging a hole, having
a size to cover the young seedlings up to the root collar.
 Seedlings should be handled by the seed coat or the leaves but never by the stem or root,
which are easily burned; thus creating opening entry to damping-off fungi.
 Cut the roots of seedlings using knife or finger mails, which are rather long.

Procedures for transplanting into pots

1. Erect a large portable shade.
2. Water the seedbed to become moistens.
3. The transplanters sit on small low stool to work in pairs on opposite sides of the bed.
4. Make a hole with the dibble in the center of each pot.
5. Place carefully the roots of the seedlings in the hole without twisting them and soil is push
towards the root with the dibble to make sure no air space is left around the root.

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6. Seedlings are placed at the same depth or slightly deeper than they were in the seedbed.
7. Firm the soil around the seedlings gently and smoothed with the fingers so that no depression
is formed around the stem.

7.5 Weeding
 A weed is a plant growing where it is not wanted.
 Should be removed in time as they compete with the seedlings for nutrients, water & light
which will suppress the seedlings.
 They also harbor insects or diseases.

Propagation of weeds: -
Can be propagated either by seeds or by underground stems and rhizomes, the latter being
more difficult to eradicate.
Carryout weeding when the soil is just moist, and not too wet or dry.
Weed dissemination:
Weeds or rhizomes enter a nursery with
 Irrigation water
 The soils brought for filling pots,
 Compost & manure or by wind,

Weed Prevention techniques

 Establishing hedge around the nursery or compartment will prevent weed infestation by wind.
 Filtering irrigation water passing through weed infested areas in open canals using a fine
wire screen before distribution.
 Potting soil and compost may be sterilized to kill all weeds.
 Rhizome infested compartments must be repeatedly worked to remove all rhizomes before
nursery beds are laid out.
 Water beds and containers for some days before sowing of the tree seeds so as to facilitate
the germination of a weed seeds and to eradicate them.
 Adjacent grasslands should be regularly cut.

7.5.1 Weed Elimination techniques

Weeds can be eliminated manually by hand; mechanically or chemically.
1. Hand weeding
 Should be limited to plant containers or germination beds were the weeds cannot be reached
by tools with out disturbing or damaging the seedlings.
 weeding hoes, cultivators etc. may be used for weeding of plants in widely spaced traditional
beds,
2. Mechanical weeding
Done by motor cultivators, tillers, & rotary hoes attached to a tractor is limited to large level
nurseries producing bare rooted plant stocks.

3. Chemical weed control

 Done by weed killing chemicals called herbicides.
 Widely used in agriculture and land clearing during planting.
 Should be restricted to large nurseries raising mainly conifer seedlings &
 To nurseries where labour is expensive or not available.
 Chemical can have a harmful effect on broad-leaved tree species.

Non-selective herbicides are toxic to all kinds of plants and they are used for weed control on
paths, along fence line & around buildings.

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 Selective herbicides destroy certain species selectively but cause little or no injury to others.
Herbicides like 2.4.D and 2.4.5.T kill broad-leaved weeds but not grass and conifers.
 Chemicals like formaldehyde, methyl bromide used to sterilize bed soils to kill weed seeds
effectively.
 Obey the directions given by the manufacturers in applying chemicals so as to prevent
damage of seedlings & the user.

7.6 Root Pruning

RP: - involves cutting of the taproot, in some cases also of lateral roots, to encourage the
development of a fibrous compact root system.
Benefits of RP
 Gives the seedlings the best possible start in the plantation site b/s of a well developed fibrous
root system.
 Helps to control depth of root penetration & makes lifting of seedlings easier and less
harmful.
 Helps the seedlings to have a balanced root-shoot ratio.
 Helps the seedling to have an adequate root collar diameter (because of the slow down of the
top growth)
Un-pruned roots will create problem at the time of lifting and planting, as a large part of the root
system is cut off during lifting & the seedlings will suffer from a serious shock during planting.

7.6.1 Methods of root Pruning

 Can be done in several ways: -
1) Pruning with knife or secateurs
 Most common method with potted seedlings.
 Each pot is lifted up & the protruding roots are snipped off.
 Consume time as a single person can only prune 500 seedlings a day.
 It is good to leave some 30cm of the storage bed with out pots at one end, so that pruned pot
can easily be lifted to the other side as the work proceeds.
2) Root wrenching /Shocking/: - pots are only lifted off the ground to snip or pull roots which
has grown in to the ground.
 Much faster than knife pruning and the operation can be combined with weeding or
cultivation.
Not sufficient to use it alone hence, roots should be cut with knife or secateur every 4-6 weeks
between root wrenching.
2. Pruning with piano wire

 Piano wire about 2m long with wooden handles at both ends is passed under the reverting board
frame.
 Applied to potted seedlings, which are kept in raised beds framed with reverting boards, and
 To bare rooted seedlings in Swaziland beds.
 A 16, 18, 20 or 22 gauge (22 is the thinnest) used.
Frequency of root pruning: -
Frequency of root pruning depends on: -
 The growth rate of seedlings,
 Species and environmental condition of the nursery.
 Weekly pruning is recommended for fast growing seedlings(ex eucalyptus)
 With pines and cypress, the in interval between prunings is about 2 weeks.

7.6.2 Care of seedlings at pruning

Best to do root pruning on a dull, cloudy or during the cool hours of the day.

20
 A clean cut with a sharp blade favor proper healing of the pruned roots.
Immediately before and after root pruning the container bed should be watered thoroughly to
soften.
Some Spps like Eucalyptus & other need to be put under shade for couple of days to prevent
wilting after pruning.

7.7 Shifting: - is arranging seedlings according to their size or their height growth to improve the
growing condition and to give seedlings equal chance of using sun light for photosynthesis.

7.8 Quality Control /Grading/

The quality of nursery stock depends greatly on the way it is graded, packaged, transported & and
stored.

Grading involves eliminating inferior seedlings or batches of stocks to improve stock quality in
satisfying the management objectives at planting sites.

We look for quality seedlings to

– Maximize performance at planting sites.
– Some times compensate inadequate site preparation
– Avoids the need for replanting b/s of planting failures
Quality seedlings are those which:
o Have balanced root-shoot ratio
o Have dense fibrous, compact root system
o Have better growth of root collar diameter
o Seedlings with the right size & able to establish quickly in the field
o Have good and healthy appearance

 Use the best plants on the most difficult, inaccessible sites, & lower quality plants may be used
on more favorable sites or where replacement planting is not costly.

7.9 Lifting and culling:

Culling is rejecting of all poor quality seedlings that are not satisfying the requirements.
Important in quality control.
Only seedlings rejected on the basis of size can be retained in the nursery for latter check.
Plants rejected in the second culling because of insufficient quality (defects) will be destroyed.
Culling is done in connection with lifting of seedlings for transport to the planting site.

7.10 Hardening off

In a nursery, seedlings are kept under favorable conditions (are growing under nearly ideal
conditions with good moisture and nutrient conditions) hence are, very vigorous but often
succulent, not likely to be able to with stand the often harsh conditions in the field after planting.
Planting is always a shock for seedlings, but this will be less if seedlings are sturdy, semi-woody
and prepared to face the adverse conditions in the field (especially lack of water, exposure to full
sunlight and cutoff fertilizer application)
As a result seedlings in the nursery are commonly exposed to harsher environmental conditions
so as to survive well under field conditions
This common nursery practice of gradually imposing harsher conditions to the stocks starting a
few weeks before planting is called hardening off.
In hardening off

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4 - 6 weeks before planting, watering is reduced progressively down about 3/4 – 1/2 of the
normal quantity.
Water is applied less frequently

Intensity of hardening off

Depends on planting conditions & if planting areas are dry, it is some times advisable to reduce
watering to the point where seedlings are almost wilting.
Apply normal watering regime some days (about one week) before planting. Immediately before
planting plants are watered thoroughly.
Hardened seedlings have firm lignified, sturdy, well develop crown with many fine, fibrous
lateral roots.
The root/shoot ratio is well balanced.

8. Fertilization of Nursery Soil

 Necessary to replace the lost nutrients (with bare root seedlings).
 However, soil fertility is only one of a number of factors influencing stock quality.
 Fertile nursery soil does not compensate for poor practice.

8.1 Plant Nutrient and Deficiency Symptoms

8.1.1 Deficiency symptoms

Plant nutrients are chemical elements that are essential for life process in the plant organism like
photosynthesis, cell division, flowering, fruiting etc

Inadequate mineral nutrition’s usually results in reduced seedling growth before any
characteristic deficiency symptoms become evident.

Symptoms are rather similar for deficiencies of different nutrients hence, determining the
particular nutrient causing the deficiency is seldom possible without supporting evidence (e.g.
tissue analysis)
Nutrient deficiency will result in stunted seedlings with discolored leaves
(Symptoms should not be mistaken for diseases).
According to the quantity required by plants the chemical elements can be grouped in to
 Primary /macro/ nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium)
 Secondary nutrients (Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfur) and
 Micronutrients or trace elements (iron, copper, zinc etc.).

The following symptoms may hint at nutrient deficiencies.

Nitrogen deficiency: -
Forms part of the chlorophyll of protein and nucleic acid.
Has a strong influence on vegetative growth.

Nitrogen deficiency symptoms

Plants become dwarfed and stunted with leaves of light green or yellowish (with out darker
veins).
Too much available N in the soil delays the maturing and hardening of the tissues.

Phosphorus deficiency:-

22
Needed for Flowering and fruiting, no Seeds development without this element. Encourages root
growth & increases the general resistance of the plant against diseases.

Deficiency symptoms:-
Results in gray-green to bluish-green spots and blotches on the leaves of broad-leaved species.
The needless conifer remains short and is of red-violet colour.

Potassium deficiency: -
K regulates the water content of the plant tissues & increases the resistance against drought.
Deficiency of potassium results in dry-looking scorched seedlings, pine needles start drying from
the tip.

Calcium deficiency: - important for the moderation of acidic soil reaction.

Results acidic condition which intern makes many nutrients except iron and manganese
unavailable to plants.
Too much calcium results in an alkaline reaction (Also unfavorable, because it will cause a
shortage of phosphorous and many trace elements.

Magnesium deficiency: - Mg is a central component of chlorophyll.

Mg deficiencies symptoms are yellow spots all over the leaves along the veins. Coniferous
species turn yellowish from the tips.

Iron deficiency: - Promotes respiration and the formation of chlorophyll.

Iron deficiency leads to yellow leaves and needless with ribs and veins remaining green.
Similar with the deficiency symptoms for Mg.

The following measures may be applied to control nutrient deficiencies

1. The pH of the soil has to be checked.
Either very alkaline or acid soil prevents nutrient availability hence should be corrected.
2. If the soil reaction is accurate, one has to find out which element is needed most urgently in
case of deficiency symptoms (soil analysis).

9. Mycorrhiza
Is a symbiotic association of non-pathogenic fungi and the roots of forest trees.
In conifer species, the fungus forms a mantle over the absorbing rootlets.
The fungus draws carbohydrates from the tree (serves as primary energy source) while the tree is
provided with water and essential minerals, which are not ordinarily available to the tree.
Conifers don’t grow without such fungi hence, in nurseries where pine species are to be raised,
the soil mixture used for plant containers should be inoculated with Mycorrhizal soil.

Mycorrhizal soil can be obtained from established pine plantations.

A fine network of fungus threads /hyphae/ explores and extracts nutrients from a volume of soil
far beyond the bounds of the roots capability.

Avoid introduction of harmful organisms along with the beneficial fungi.

Keep Mycorrhizal soil moist and pack it in plastic bags in case of long distance transport (should
not exceed two weeks).

10. Nursery Planning, Work Organization, Recording,

23
Production Calendar
Nursery work is one of the forestry activities requiring particularly careful planning. It has a fixed
deadline - the best time for planting.
To make sure all operations are carried out on time, the following are needed:
o A production calendar showing when the nursery operations have to be carried out for the
species to be produced.
o A schedule for the supply of materials, tools and equipment.
o The right kind and numbers of workers organized in a suitable way.
o Nursery records on total production, timing, Labour, and other impute used.

10.1 Nursery Records and Costs

Apply proper recording for well management of the nursery.

Take inventory on seed stock, consumable material like plant containers, fertilizer, pesticides, etc.
Take records of the number and quality of seedlings of each tree species before dispatching.

Seed sources /provenance/, seed sown in kg for each species.

Indicate the time of sowing of the different species, transplanting & treatment applied in the
individual compartments and germination.
Keep records of time and labour used for different nursery operations daily as well as labour
efficiency, e.g. no. of pots produced per man-day.
A record about water consumption and the irrigation practices should also be taken.
 All these information’s are essential for continued successful nursery operations and will give
the basic data for cost calculation.

Plant development record

To make sure all information are collected so as to enable new personnel to benefit from the
experience already acquired, the following points should be asked and indicated

 How long it takes for a species grow to the right planting size?
 How much seed is needed to produce the required number of plants?
 How long the seed of a species takes to germinates all at the same time or over a longer
period? Needed to plan labour requirements.
 Which species need additional fertilizer, more or less watering and shading, special
precautions against pests or diseases?

Date of planting - No. of days from germination to pricking out

- No. of days for growing from pricking - out to planting
- No. of days from sowing to germination = sowing date
Calculation of sowing date.
Assumed planting date 1 June - 12 July
Best date 15 June
No. of days required -from germination to pricking out = 15
No. of days required -from pricking out to planting size =150
No. of days required from sowing to germination = 15
Total = 180 days
15 June – 180days = Nov. 14
To be planted 15 June, to be sown 14 Dec.

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11 Protection against Pest, Insects and Diseases.
11.1 Insects and pests management

Usually the larval stage of an insect life cycle is harmful.

Most feeding on leaves, shoots, roots and boring in stem takes place at this stage.

11.2 Damage from animals and birds

Grazing animals (domestic & wild) can be managed largely by exclusion or eradication.
Exclusion is done by either by - erecting a strong fence around the boundary or
- having forest guards always on site.
Birds, mice, and rats may cause damage by eating seeds and digging around seedlings.
Control is, trap shooting, or poisoning might be used to eliminate such pests.
Birds eat seed and peck shoots, but the presence of people in and around nurseries is a deterrent
and extensive damage is rare.

11.3 Diseases
Fungi, bacteria, or viruses may cause Diseases. However,
Most of diseases in a nursery are produced by fungi, where as bacteria and viruses normally do
not create problems.
The most common disease in a nursery is Damping-off, caused by more than thirty different
fungi.

11.3.1 Damping-off: - is mostly a nursery disease, which may either affect

 Germinating seeds or young seedlings.
 Caused by a number of soil borne fungi (such as fusarium pythium, Rhizoctonia etc.).
 Many broad-leaved species are susceptible to this disease.
Damping-off can be classified in to two categories

1. Post emergence damping-off:

Decays occur in the root and stem.
Tissue of the root collar turn dark in colour causing seedlings to fall over with their leaves still
green and die.
Is the common type of damping-off and regarded as the only type of damping-off by some
authorities.

2. Pre-emergence damping-off:
Caused by fungi, which live in the soil that attack seeds immediately after germination.
Destroy the emerging radical (10root).
Usually difficult to identify as failure of seedlings to emerge can be attributed to other reasons
such as quality of seeds.
Causes troublesome with pine seedlings though susceptibility varies among spps.
The seedlings die from rotting of tissue near the root collar, which cause the typical symptom of
seedling topping over.
Over-moist conditions are conductive to the disease hence,
 Over watering,
 Too heavy shading
 Poor ventilation
 High humidity
 Cloudy weather
 Damp soil surface & heavy clay soils

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 High level of nitrogen
 dense stands of seedlings which reduce evaporation
 Alkaline conditions (pH>6) & warm weather increases its spread.

The risk is high when sowing is done during rains.

It is essential to observe some preventive measure to avoid damping-off. Damping-off may be
controlled by a proper watering and mulching regime and or by controlling pH.

Control of Damping-off
Measures to be taken to control Damping-off
 Delay seed sowing until soil temperature is high enough to promote rapid germination.
 Sow stratified seeds for quicker germination.
 Cover seed with non-compacting material.
 Maintain soil pH to neutral
 Use area prone to damping-off for transplant or resistant seedling species.

11.3.2 Other common infections

Powdery mildew: - leaves and shoots are covered with a white, powdery mycelium. The infected
leaves become brown and dry.
Downy mildew: - Starts with pale, yellow, chlorotic spots on the upper surface of the leaves,
which later become grayish to dark brown. Simultaneously a downy grayish-blackish mildew
mycelium develops on the corresponding area on the lower surface.
Grey mould: - on the leaves appear soft, rotten, patches with gray masse of spores.
Dieback: - the shoots and branches of seedlings begin to shrivel and dry up from the tip
downward.
Leaf blight, leaf rot: - General rapid browning of leaves and branches.

The same prevention measures as for damping off may be taken to avoid the described diseases.
They can be controlled chemically by copper fungicides or organic fungicides like captan and
difolatan.

Symptoms for disturbed functions of the plant organism are:

Etiolation: - small-pallid green leaves, slender elongated stem caused by shading.
Wilting: - caused by temporary shortage of soil moisture. Leaves and shoots become flabby and
droop.

12.1.1 Record keeping in the nursery

With the aim to ensure the complete stand history of certain plantation; it is indispensable to note
all operations for raising seedlings. More over for good nursery management recording all the
work done, the progress made is very essential. This includes daily operation, labor requirement,
cost etc. A careful registration will also help to establish the most appropriate production date for
each species. Which are: -
- Quantity of seeds needed
-Dates of seeding transplanting, planting.
-Types of seedlings: potted; bare rooted, stumps, and cuttings
-Ideal size of seedlings for plantation
-Production specification such as shading intensity, watering, fertilizing & so on.
- Preparation of a nursery calendar and others.
I) Nursery registration form: the recording is done on individual nursery bed basis.

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Exemplary registration form for the follow up of all activities of a certain species.
1. Species ---------------
2. Provenance: -----------
3. Data of seed collection -----
4. Reception data of seeds -----
5. Storing conditions ----------
6. Method of seedlings production.
7. Area seeded ----- m2
8. Quantity seed per m2 ----- kg
9. Area seeded ----- m2
10. Chemical treatment (of seeds; germination media) ------
11. Type of propagation bed/ container -----
12. Protective measures taken----
13. Registration no, of seed bed: ----
14. Responsible person -----
15. Expected number of seedlings per m2 and in total ----
16. Seedling description of planting -----
17. Destination of seedlings---
18. Transportation specification (date, seedlings shipped, seedlings eliminated, destination, seed
bed no.
II. Nursery diary: all the operations and observations of the day should be mentioned in this book
as detail as possible.
Example;
Date Work done Remark
2/1/2000 2 people prepared beds
III. Nursery calendar: here we record all the activities to be done and when they are to be done.

Activity S O N D J F M A M J J A
Ordering of
seeds
Sowing
Iv. Nursery delivery Record: this shows how and where the seedlings were distributed. An e.g. is
shown below.

Date Species Number Bed No Receiving

Station
20/10/1999 E.globulus 30000 A2 Shashemene
22/11/1999 A. albida 20000 B3 Wosha PA

12.1.2 Workers and Work Organization

An adequate number of reliable workers are crucial for successful nursery production. Some
factors have to be considered before the number of workers can be estimated. Factors like: -
- Are permanent or temporary workers to be used?
- Should they be male and/or female?
- Is the work paid on a time - or on a piece-rate basis?
- How can favorable working conditions be created that improve workers motivation and
productivity?

Number of Workers Required

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The size of the work force required depends on many factors
- The number of seedlings to be raised
- The length of the production time
- Method used (containerized or bare-rooted)
- The type of irrigation used (watering cans, sprinklers, and channels)
- The length of workday
- Climate
- Species
- Supervision
Examples related to workers attendance book, workers and work organization are given below.
V. Attendance Book: daily attendance of laborers is important.

Name/date 1 2 ---------- 30
Abebe P S L
Bekele A P O

Where: P = Present, A = absent, S = sick, H= holiday O = off Duty

VI. Workers and work organization
►It is recommended to employ permanent workers for the following activities: Sowing.
Transplanting, Grading, Foreman, Watchman.
►For pot filling, preparation of shading and mats temporary workers can be employed.

12.1.3 Nursery cost and financial plan

Establishment Cost Items and Prices Estimates

The different items are:
■Costs Associated with tools and Equipment
Table showing costs Of Tools and equipment
No Items Unit Quality Unit price Total price
1 Wheel Barrow No 109 190 20710.00
2 Pick Axe “ 83 20.00 1660.00
3 Spade “ 121025 15.00 1875.00
4 Hoe “ 125 18.00 1836.00
5 Rake 12 Finger “ 130 15.00 1875.00
6 Machete “ 88 21.00 2730.00
7 Shovel “ 32 18.00 2340.00
8 3-finger “ 20 21.00 1848.00
9 Axe (3kg. china made) “ 270 25.00 800.00
10 Axe (4kg. Mark) “ 170 38.00 765.00
11 Watering Can - plastic “ 15.00 5950.00
12 Root pruning Scissors “ 2550.00
13 Training Saw “
14 Hedge scissors “
15 Training Saw “
16 Bow Saw “
17 Bow Saw blade “
18 Measuring Tape 50cm “
19 Measuring Tape 30cm “
20 Measuring Tape 1om “

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21 Measuring Taps 5m “
22 Bucket - plastic “
23 Plant tray “
24 Sickle “
25 Line levelers “
26 Mesh wire M2
27 Pliers No
28 Table balance “
29 Digging Hoe (Gesso) “
30 Meraja “
31 Crow Bar “
32 Mattock “
33 Double cut File “
34 Single cut File No
35 Nylon String M
36 Pipe 2/4 inch No
37 Rubber Hose 100m Roll
38 Corrugate iron sheet K.G
39 Barbed wire K.G
40 U - nail Qt
41 Nail 8 cm Kg
42 Cement Qt
43 Deformed Bar 8 = Kg
44 Flying Sheet M
45 Concrete Hollow Block No
46 Stone for Building Lump sun
47 Doors No
48 Windows No
49 Red Ash Truckload
50 Table No
51 Office shelf “
52 2m bench “
53 Chair “
TOTAL COST

o Costs associated with Fencing

o Cost Associated with site Alignment
o Building cost
o Running cost items and prices Estimates

Costs given here for the production of 500,000 potted seedlings a year. Allowing for 20% loss
during the growing season. One has to start with, 500,000 + (5000,000 seedlings * 20%) pots.
The pot size used is 5 cm in diameter and 15 cm in length. Bed size is 1m*20m.

Cost of polyethylene Tubes and seed.

One kg of polyethylene tube can produce 800 tubes.

Total seedlings to be raised 600.000 which requires

600,000 / 800tubes per kg. = 750 kg polyethylene

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One kg of polyethylene is Birr 20
Therefore, Cost of polyethylene = 750kg * Birr 20/kg = Birr 15,000
Cost of medium mixture

Assuming a 5 cm diameter and 15 cm long pots, the volume of soil mixture needed is 295 cubic
cm. Therefore, 600,000 pots require 177 cubic m of soil
As the proportion of soil mixture is 3:1:1:1 basic soil: forest soil: manure: sand, the requirement
for materials will be:
Basic soil 88.5 cubic m
Manure 29.5 Cubic m
Sand 29.5 cubic m
Forest soil 29.5 cubic m

The Basic soil comes from inside or near the nursery, therefore needs only digging and transport
cost. Assume one person can prepare 1 cubic meter of soil
88.5 cum* 1cum/pd = 85.5 pd
Assume one person can transport 3 cubic meter of soil
88.5 cm/m3 m per pd = 29.5 pd
The manure, forest soil, and sand had to come from a distance of 10 km away and have to be
prepared before transport. Assume that the cost bear by the project is loading/unloading cost of the
materials and fuel for a truck. The 88.5 cubic m of materials may require 88,5 pd for preparation
and 33 pd for loading them on to trucks. Labour cost is then 88.5 + 33 = 121.5pd =

Bed preparation
Assuming that one 20m*1m bed accommodates 6,000 pots, 100 beds with a total area of 2000
square meters are required to house 600000 pots.
1 person day=200 square meter
2000 m2 = 10 Pd
Cost of bed preparation is 10 Pd* Birr 3.5/PD=birr35

Sieving Mixture
One person can sieve 1.5 m3 of soil material
177 m3/1.5 m3 per Pd=118 Pd required.
Cost of sieving=118pd*Birr 3.5 per PD=Birr 413

Mixing Soil components

One person can mix 4m3/day.
177m3/4 m3/day=42 Pd
Cost of mixing soil components=42 Pd*Birr 3.5=147
Pot filling
One person can fill 350 tubes with soil mixture/day
600000 tubes/350 tubes/pd=1714.3 Pd
Cost of filling=1714.3*Birr 3.5per Pd=Birr6000

Transporting pots to beds

One person can handle the placement of 2000 pots in to transplant beds a day.
600000 pots/2000 pots per Pd=300 Pd
Cost of handling=300pd*Birr3.5 per pd. Birr 1050

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Sowing
One person can sow 2000 pots in one day
600000 pots/2000 pots per Pd =X Pd
Cost of sowing=X pd*Birr3.50per day = Birr Y
Watering
One person can water 80 m2 of area in one day.
2000 m2/80m2per Pd = 25 Pd
25 Pd per day*150 days = 3750pd
Cost of watering=3750pd*Birr 3.50/pd = Birr13125
Shading Material
One person can prepare 40 m2 of shade material in one day
2000 m2 of shade/40 m2 per day = 50 Pd
Cost of shade preparation = 50 Pd*Birr3.5per PD = Birr 175
Transplanting
One person can transplant 700 seedlings a day.
600000 seedlings/700 seedlings per Pd = X Pd
Cost of transplanting = x Pd *Birr 3.5=Birr Y
Weeding
One person can weed 40m2 of bed area per day
2000m2 /40 m2 per Pd=50 Pd as weeding has to be done once a month, 5*50 Pd=250 Pd
Cost of weeding=250 Pd *Birr 3.50per pdBirr875
Root pruning
One person can prune 1000 pots in one day.
600000 pots/1000 pots per Pd=600pd
As pruning has to be done at least 3 times, 3*600 Pd=1800 Pd
Cost of root pruning=1800*Birr3.50=Birr Y
The total cost of raising seedlings is the sum of all the costs, which is Birr =_____.
Note: The above figures are not standard work norms but are meant to give you an idea.

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