CHAPTER 1 & 2 - SKILLS

WHAT IS A SKILL
Defined as the ability to do something well, in sporting endeavours the focus is on motor skills, e.g. a
tennis serve, volleyball spike or a hockey push. Motor skills are defined as a voluntary goal-directed
activity that we learn through practice & experience. Motor skills require movement of the body or
limbs to achieve the goal.

TYPE OF MOVEMENT
Movement precision is classified as:
Gross motor skills
Gross motor skills involve the recruitment of large muscle groups, with less emphasis on precision
such as running or swimming.
Fine motor skills
Fine motor skills involve the recruitment of smaller muscles associated with movements requiring
precision, such as bouncing the ball before serving in tennis, throwing a dart with precise finger &
hand movements.

Type of movement:
Discrete
Discrete motor skills have a beginning & an end, such as kicking a ball or a netball pass.
Serial
Sometimes several discrete skills are performed in a sequence e.g. a gymnastics floor routine.
Continuous
Continuous motor skills have no definite beginning or end point, e.g. walking & running. Sometimes
beginning & end points are assigned, e.g. a 100-metre race, but the motor skill is continuous in
nature.

PREDICTABILITY OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Closed motor skill
Closed motor skills is when the performer has great control over the performance environment e.g.
weather, playing surface & opposition. e.g. Indoor routine diving, where the diver determines the
routine they will perform & when the dive will commence, & isn’t affected by weather.
Open motor skills
An open motor skill is performed in a less predictable environment, with the open environment
constantly changing the performer has limited or any control e.g. a surfer

FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENT SKILLS

Fundamental movement skills are skills that provide the basis to develop sport specific motion skills.
Most skills are advanced versions of basic skills e.g. Throwing a cricket ball (advanced form of
overhand throw.) These skills should be introduced to children at a young age. Kids who don't master
these skills at a young age are less likely to participate in structured sport later in life.
Fundamental skills: Stability skills involving balance & control of body
Locomotor skills: enabling us to move through space e.g. walking & running
Manipulative skills: involving control of an object e.g. throwing, catching

PART AND WHOLE PRACTICE

Motor skills can be broken down into segments, a tennis serve is an example of this.

STAGES OF LEARNING
Stages:
Cognitive Stage -
● Beginner, focus is on trying to perform skill, performance is inconsistent, stiff/unrelated
● Unsure how to correct errors - yet to develop error detection/correction ability
● Lacks confidence
● Generally see rapid improvement
● Practice techniques/skills in a more 'closed' environment
Associative Stage -
● Beginning to refine technique/movement
● Makes fewer errors
● Attention demands on skill decrease, allows performers to focus on external stimuli
(opponents)
Autonomous Stage -
● Expert (elite)
● Skill largely automatic, performer no longer consciously thinking about skill & focus can be
directed elsewhere
● Tactics/strategy
● Predicting play (anticipation)
● Can detect own error & correct
● Performance variables are very small
● Performer can be at different stages of learning for differing elements/skills in the same
sport.

QUALITATIVE MOVEMENT ANALYSIS

Used to assess human movement & improve in some way which will lead to increased performance
Qualitative movement analysis can be analysed for many purposes including:
● Diagnosis of strengths and weaknesses of players or teams
● To obtain a final result or rank in competition
● For talent identification or team selection
● Predicting future performance results
● Generally involves words rather than numbers (or data)
Examples - coach providing verbal feedback, "more leg & arm 'drive through' in upward phase
of sprint cycle"

Qualitative movement analysis has four main principles:

Preparation
Coaches need an observation strategy, based on knowledge of the game and characteristics of
skills specific to the sport. Educators utilize technology for observation and analysis.
 Characteristics of a skilled performance include:
● Performs consistently at a high level
● Coordinated
● Balanced
● Flexible
● Fit
● Efficient (time, energy and technique)
● Good anticipation
● Sound metal approach

Observation
Observations can be performed live/or recorded.
Several factors can influence your ability to observe including:
● Accumulation of experience
● Knowledge of the game and skills required
● Academic training
● Technical training
Variables that can be observed both before or during the game:
● Global dynamics of a team
● Whether the team is completing set plays according to the plan
● Opponent's pattern of play
● Behaviour of opposing coach
● Situational variables
Several factors influence our capacity to observe and analyse players during a game including:
● Psycho-emotional aspects
● Expectations
● Referee errors

Evaluation
Evaluation is the third stage of movement analysis. This generally refers to a judgement of
quality, and a determination of the amount of something. When evaluating human
performance, they must first decide what the problem is; what is causing it; and how can it be
addressed. This can be measured objectively (measures such as scores and time) or
subjectively (based on perception of observation or opinion)

Error Correction
The final task is error correction made by coaches after the observed data. Weaknesses are
identified and strategies are then developed using either direct or constraint-based coaching
Intervention is taken by one or both of the following:
● Adaption of training exercises in practice
● Visual strategies (digital footage, clips)
● Meetings
● Written reports to provide feedback on video's part
CONSTRAINTS
Any factor that influences an individual's ability to learn & perform a skill movement at any time.
Individual - Body size (height/weight), fitness, perceptual skill (anticipation, reaction), mental
confidence
Environmental - Physical & social, physical environment (access, facilities, location), weather, team
mates/ family, access to coaching
Task constraint - Rules of game/sport, available resources/equipment, knowledge/instruction about
skill/sport

Direct Coaching
● More of an ‘old-school’ style of coaching, generally involving less thinking/decisions from the
learner
● Coach decides when tasks are going to be completed, how long will be spent on each task
and in what order (e.g. doing 50 tennis serves in a row)
● Best suited to performers in the cognitive stage

Constraint-Based Coaching
● Learners are more independent/adaptive & are able to make decisions
● Coaches guide training, rather than running it
● Practices often highly variable with many different tasks being performed
● Constraints often modified (e.g. rule changing of the game like half-court tennis) increasing
learning of skill
● Best suited to performers in the associative or autonomous stage

SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS
Influence skill development at all stages of learning
● Family
● Peers
● Community
● Gender
● Socio-economic status
● Cultural beliefs & traditions

PRACTICE STRATEGIES
● Part practice - Breaking skills into smaller sections and practicing individually
● Whole practice - Practicing the entire skill, as an entire skill
Practice Distribution - Refers to the schedule of training
● Distributed - Involves shorter but more frequent training while more time is also allocated to
rest between tasks during sessions
● Massed - Involves less frequent training sessions that last for a longer period of time. Rest
intervals are shorter than distributed practice
Practice Variability - What is actually trained during the session
 ● Blocked - Blocked practice involves practising the same skill continuously without changing
task. Each skill is practiced in a block isolated from other activities. This is great for beginners
trying to understand and reproduce the movement action
● Random - Random practice is the varied sequencing of different motor skills in the same
session. This is suitable for performers in the associative or autonomous stage

FEEDBACK
Any sort of information that an individual gathers or receives about their performance on a specific
task
Augmented (external): feedback can greatly enhance a performer's internal feedback system. If the
feedback occurs during the activity, it is called concurrent feedback, however if it occurs after the
activity it is terminal feedback.
Intrinsic (internal): feedback is when the performer's use their own senses to assess performance
such as visual, auditory, touch, proprioception (movement).
Knowledge of results: refers to the specific feedback about the outcome of the task.
Knowledge of performance: refers to the characteristics of performing a task. These results are
generally delivered after the task has been completed.

Validity: Ensuring that a test actually measures what it sets out to assess.
Reliability: Ensuring that tests produce reliable results that are consistent and repeatable.

Feedback can serve 3 purposes:

● Fixing errors as a result of either 'knowledge of results/knowledge of performance'
● Motivation through feedback that shows progress
● Reinforcement through positive feedback

CHAPTER 3 - BIOMECHANICS
Biomechanics - Human Movement

● FORCE
Force is defined as a push or pull.
Forces affect objects in two ways:
1. Changes the shape of the object (stretching, squashing or twisting)
2. Moves the object (starts moving from rest, speeds up or slows down, changes direction)
Force = mass x acceleration
● TYPES OF FORCE
gravitational forces (weight) and frictional forces including drag forces in air and water.
FRICTION
Friction occurs between two surfaces when they come into contact with each other opposing
the motion of the object.
WEIGHT
Mass: A measure of the amount of matter an object is made up of with the unit of mass being
kilograms
 Weight: Refers to the force that is exerted on the body by gravity and because weight is a
force, the unit used is newtons
● INERTIA
Tendency for an object to resist any change to its state of motion.
Moment of inertia = angular motion
● MOMENTUM
● Momentum is the ‘amount of motion’ that a moving object has, or quantity of motion
possessed by a body
● An object that is not moving would have zero momentum as it has no velocity
Momentum = mass x velocity
Conservation of momentum: Total momentum of the system before the collision is equal to
the total momentum after the collision.
Summation of momentum: When the main objective of sport is to hit, kick or throw an object
or ball as far as possible, it is important that the object is released or struck at maximum
velocity generated in a sequential manner

6 principles of Summation of momentum:

- The stronger and larger muscles of the thighs and trunk are moved first followed by the
smaller and faster muscles
- Sequentially accelerate each body part so that optimum momentum passes from one body
part to the next
- Each body part should be stable so that the next body part accelerates around a stable base
to transfer momentum
- Use as many body parts as possible, so force can be applied over the maximum possible
time.
- Follow through is important to prevent deceleration of the last segment and safe dissipation
of force.
- Ensure all forces are directed towards the target.
● IMPULSE
Impulse is equal to the change in movement of an object. To change the momentum of an
object, force must be applied over a period of time. This can be calculated by: Impulse = force x
time

NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION

Newton's first law: This law states 'a body will remain at rest or in a continued motion in a
straight line unless acted upon by an external force.' e.g. a soccer ball won't move from the
position it has been placed in until a player applies force (a kick)
Newton's second law: Newton's second law states 'a force applied to an object will produce a
change in motion (acceleration) in the direction of the applied force that is directly
proportional to the size of the force.'
Newton's third law: The third law states 'for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.'
 NEWTON'S LAWS OF ANGULAR MOTION
Angular motion has the same principles as linear motion; however having a slightly different
spin ;))))
First law of angular motion:
The angular momentum of a body remains constant unless acted upon by an external torque
Second law of angular motion:
A torque applied to an object will produce change in angular motion in direction of the applied
torque that is directly proportional to the size of the torque and inversely proportional to the
moment of inertia of the object
Third law of angular motion:
For every torque there is an equal and opposite torque

Conservation of angular momentum

Angular momentum is conserved when the body is in flight. If the total angular momentum of
a body is conserved, and the mass of the body cannot be changed, then there must be a
trade-off between the angular velocity and the moment of inertia.

CHAPTER 4 - BIOMECHANICS
LINEAR MOTION
Linear - Involves movement where all body parts move in the same direction at the same speed.
Describing this motion can be done by looking at distance, displacement, speed, velocity and
acceleration of the body which can be either measured or calculated.

General Motion - General motion incorporates a combination of linear and angular motion.

Motion can be:

Rectilinear (Straight) - Downhill skiers going straight
Curvilinear (Curved) - A ball thrown into the air at an angle
Angular - Movement around a central axis (Rotation) such as a gymnast going around a bar

LINEAR DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance - measures the path travelled from start to finish e.g. a netballer weaves, dodges and
sprints forward covering 15 metres in total, so the distance travelled is 15 metres.

Displacement - defined as a change of position from the initial position to the final position e.g. A
runner on an athletics track running 400 metres would cover 400 metres distance but displacement
is 0, because start and finish points are the same.
LINEAR SPEED AND VELOCITY
Speed - Time taken to travel a given distance e.g. 60 km/h in a car
Speed = Distance / Time

Velocity - The time taken for an object to change distance which could be a change in speed, a
change in direction, or both e.g. a tennis ball is hit at 30 m/s and is returned over the net at the same
speed but has changed velocity due to its change in direction.
Velocity = Displacement / Time

The units for speed and velocity are m/s.

LINEAR ACCELERATION
Acceleration - a change in velocity in a given period of time which can be a positive or negative figure
2
(speeding up or slowing down). This is measured in m/s .

Acceleration = Velocity / Time

Acceleration and deceleration are both important in sport e.g. a 10,000 metre runner who can
accelerate in the last 1000 m has a clear advantage to pass the leader. Decelerating into turns whilst
mountain biking helps riders stay balanced.

ANGULAR MOTION
Involves the rotation around a central axis/fixed point e.g. when we run, the thigh rotates around the
hip axis, the lower leg rotates around the knee axis & the foot rotates around the ankle axis causing
linear motion of the body
Angular motion = moment of inertia

Axis of rotation can be:

Real - Performing a rotation on a high bar
Imaginary - The centre of gravity
Internal - Joints of the body
External - The centre of gravity

TORQUE
A rotational force that makes an object rotate. If the force applied to an object isn't directly through
the centre of gravity, it will then rotate or spin.
Torque = force x lever arm

ANGULAR DISTANCE & DISPLACEMENT

Angular distance - Measured in degrees which measures the amount of degrees an object passes
through from start to finish e.g. an object that rotates twice has travelled 720 degrees
Angular displacement - Also measured in degrees and measures the amount of degrees the object
moves from the starting point e.g. an object that rotates twice has displacement of 0 degrees

ANGULAR SPEED AND VELOCITY

Angular Speed - Angular speed is a measure of how quickly angular distance is covered e.g. if it took
4 seconds to complete two rotations then the angular speed is 180 degrees per second.

Angular speed = angular distance / time taken to complete motion

Angular Velocity - Angular velocity is a measure of how quickly the object has moved from its
starting point and in what direction it has moved (clockwise or anticlockwise) e.g. the above scenario
has the displacement of 0 degrees per second. Both angular speed and velocity are measured in
degrees per second.

The relationship between linear and angular velocity is given by:

Linear velocity = radius of rotation x angular velocity

ANGULAR ACCELERATION
Angular acceleration is a measure of the rate of change of angular velocity, or how quickly It can be
positive (speeding up) or negative (slowing down)

PROJECTILE MOTION
An object/body launched into air & only affected by the forces of gravity & air resistance is called a
projectile. Projectile motion looks at factors affecting flight path of projectile. Examples of projectiles
include balls, shuttlecocks, arrows and javelins all acting as projectiles when thrown, kicked, shot or
hit.

VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL COMPONENTS

Vertical Component - Any projectile in air is acted upon by gravity, therefore has an acceleration of
9.81 m/s towards the ground
Horizontal Component - How far the ball has travelled before hitting the ground (or wherever the
target is) affected by air resistance

Factors affecting projectile motion:

Angle of release - Angle of projectile is made when released. The optimal angle for horizontal release
is at 45 degrees (when height of release is same as landing height).
There are 3 differently shaped flight paths:
● Purely vertical where the body goes straight up and comes straight back down again
● Parabolic where the angle of projectile is between 0 and 90
● Half a parabola where the object projected at 0 degrees, or perfectly horizontal will follow
this path
Speed of release - Speed at which a projectile is launched into the air. Greater speed of release =
greater horizontal/vertical distance

Height of release - Height from which projectile is launched

Height of release 0 = optimal angle = 45 degrees
Height higher than landing height = optimal angle = less than 45 degrees
Height lower than landing height = optimal angle = greater than 45 degrees

CHAPTER 5 - BIOMECHANICS
EQUILIBRIUM
An object is in equilibrium when there are no unbalanced forces/torques acting on it
Types of equilibrium:
Static - For an object to be in static equilibrium it has to be motionless
Dynamic - For an object to be in dynamic equilibrium, velocity must be constant

STABILITY AND BALANCE

Equilibrium, stability and balance are all closely related. Stability is the resistance to the disruption of
equilibrium, and balance is the ability to control equilibrium. An increase in stability makes it more
difficult to unbalance, while decreased stability makes it easier to unbalance an object

FACTORS AFFECTING STABILITY

● Base of support
● Centre of gravity
● Body mass
● Friction between the body and surface or surfaces contacted

Base of support
Larger base of support = greater stability of an object

Centre of gravity
The body's centre of gravity is the point around which its weight is balanced regardless of body
position. Generally the centre of gravity is around the belly button

Line of gravity
Imagine the line of gravity as a line that runs from above you,
through your centre of gravity and then hits the ground.
`If this line falls within your base of support, then you will have
an increased level of stability, and vice versa.

LEVERS
A lever is a simple machine consisting of a rigid bar that can be made to rotate about an axis to exert
a force on another object. The human body is an example of levers
Components of levers
Levers always consist of:
● An axis
● An effort force
● A resistance force

TYPES OF LEVERS
1st class levers - Have the axis located in between the effort force and resistance force termed
"Stability lever"
2nd class levers - Have the resistance force between the effort force and the axis considered lever of
strength
3rd class levers - Have the effort force located between the resistance force and the axis considered
lever of speed

MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE
● If the fulcrum is in the middle, neither the motive or resistive force have an advantage,
because both are the same length
● Mechanical advantage greater than 1 = force required to move weight is less than effort to
move resistance
● Mechanical advantage less than 1 = greater force is required to overcome resistance
although there is increased range of motion and angular speed

CHAPTER 6 - ENERGY SYSTEMS

ATP
The energy source for all muscular movements. ATP is split when a phosphate group is removed from
a molecule, causing the release of energy required for muscular contractions to occur

ATP CYCLE
For exercise to continue, ATP must be resynthesised by chemical energy breaking down using the
body's available fuels for this process to occur. The contribution of the 3 energy systems is
determined by the intensity and duration of the exercise

ATP = ADP + Pi

FUEL SOURCES
Chemical Fuel:
Creatine Phosphate
● Chemical fuel containing a high-energy phosphate bond for rapid release of energy
● Limited storage of PC within the muscle
Food Fuels:
Carbohydrates
● Sugars and starches - bread, pasta, fruit, vegetables
● The body's preferred source of fuel under exercise conditions
Fats
 ● Fats are a concentrated fuel source in dairy products, oils, nuts, meat
● Preferred fuel source at rest, and during prolonged submaximal exercise
Protein
● Protein is found in meat, fish, eggs, legumes and grains
● Used for muscle growth and repair
● Minimal contribution to energy production during exercise

Food Fuels Recommended Digested Storage Yield (ATP Oxygen

daily intake % to per cost
molecule) (L/mole)

Carbohydrates 55-60 Glucose Glycogen - 38 3.5

muscles and liver

Fats 25-30 Free Fatty Triglycerides - 441 5.5

Acids adipose tissue

Protein 10-15 Amino Excess is N/A 8.0

Acids converted to and
stored as fat

GLYCAEMIC INDEX
The glycaemic index (GI) is a ranking of carbohydrates scaling from 0-100 according to how high they
raise the blood sugar levels after eating

Low GI vs High GI

Classification Ranking Rate of absorption Effect on blood glucose levels

Low GI Less than 55 Slowly digested and Gradual rise in blood sugar levels provides
absorbed on-going energy for endurance events

High GI More than Rapidly digested and Significant fluctuations in blood sugar
70 absorbed levels, useful in a dietary recovery strategy

LOW GI FOOD
Food example GI Ranking

Long Grain Rice, boiled 5 mins 41

Mixed grain bread 34
All Bran Breakfast Cereal 30
Wheat Pasta 34
Sweet potato, boiled 42

HIGH GI FOOD
Food example GI Ranking
Jasmine rice, white long grain, cooked in rice cooker 109
White Turkish bread 87
Cornflakes 92
Rice pasta 92
Potato, white without skin 98
Gatorade 78

APPLICATION OF GLYCAEMIC INDEX

Situation Dietary strategy Benefit

Pre-event Low GI Prolong use of glycogen stores and reduced likelihood of

meals carbohydrates rebound hypoglycemia (deficiency in glucose)

During High GI Rapid digestion providing energy available quicker

exercise carbohydrates

Post-exercise High GI Promotes muscle glycogen resynthesis in recovery

carbohydrates

THE CROSSOVER CONCEPT

A model explaining the balance of carbs and fat usage during exercise. The crossover point is the
intensity in which energy from carbs overpowers energy from fats. Further increase results in greater
carb use and decreased fat oxidation

CARBOHYDRATE AND FAT USAGE IN PROLONGED EXERCISE

During prolonged activities, the body uses a mixture of carbohydrates and fats. Aerobic training leads
to an increased ability to oxidise fats, shifting the cross-over point to a higher intensity.
Benefits:
● Ability to produce energy via fats
● Glycogen sparing (improving using fats while keeping glycogen fuels until a higher intensity)

ENERGY SYSTEMS:

ATP-PC SYSTEM
Produced by breaking down Phosphocreatine. Energy is then produced at an explosive rate due to
the simple anaerobic chemical reaction

SUMMARY OF ATP-PC:
● The ATP-PC system is anaerobic and requires no oxygen
● The system provides the most rapid source of ATP for energy because of its simple chemical
reaction
● ATP-PC is limited by the amount of PC stored in the muscle & the more intense the activity,
the more quickly PC is used to produce ATP
● Stored PC lasts for about 10 sec at max intensity, with large muscles storing slightly more (12
to 14 sec), after 5 secs the anaerobic glycolysis system becomes the main producer of ATP
 ● Once PC is depleted, it can only be replenished if there is enough energy in the body. This
occurs only in the aerobic pathway or during recover
● When PC is depleted at the muscle, ATP must be resynthesised from another substance,
typically glycogen (stored in muscles & liver), using the anaerobic glycolysis system

ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS
The anaerobic glycolysis system produces energy by partially breaking down glucose without oxygen.
Glycogen - Glucose - Pyruvic Acid - Lactic Acid

SUMMARY OF ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS:

● Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid with the by-product being H+ ions causing muscle pH
to fall inhibiting glycolysis. Hydrogen forms with pyruvate to form lactate which is then
converted to glycogen for energy
● The system supplies ATP at a slower rate as there are more complicated chemical reactions
● Like the ATP-PC, anaerobic glycolysis supplies energy from the start of the intense exercise.
Peak power is reached between 5 - 15 sec, & the system continues to contribute ATP until
fatigue (2-3 mins)
● The system provides twice as much energy for ATP resynthesis as the ATP-PC system. It
increases its ATP contribution if performance intensity exceeds the lactate inflection point.
During maximal exercise, the rate of glycolysis may increase to 100x rate at rest
● Energy is provided for longer during submaximal activities, when PC is depleted. Lactic acid
accumulation also tends to be slower. This provides a 'stop-gap' until enough oxygen is
transported to working muscles for the aerobic system to become the main energy system

AEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS
Refers to the energy provided by the complete breakdown of glucose with oxygen required

SUMMARY OF AEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS:

● The aerobic system provides energy by breaking down glycogen (during exercise), or free
fatty acids (during rest), or amino acids (as last-resort energy source) to supply ATP
● The aerobic system is the slowest in contributing ATP resynthesis due to more complex
chemical reactions
● The system provides 30-50x as much ATP as the other energy systems combined
● It preferably breaks down carbs rather than fats to release energy
● The aerobic system does not release toxic or fatiguing by-products
● It can contribute significant amounts of energy during high-intensity activities (1-2 mins)
● The aerobic system is activated during the start of intense exercise. Peak power from this
system is usually reached between 1 & 2 mins and will continue to be the major ATP
contributor as the anaerobic glycolysis system decreases contribution

Energy Advantages Disadvantages

System
ATP-PC Simple, anaerobic energy pathway provided Limited intramuscular fuel store,
System at an explosive rate for max intensity effort very limited amounts of energy
produced, short duration of
muscular effort

Anaerobic Anaerobic energy providing energy at a fast Relatively small amounts of energy
Glycolysis rate, allows for high intensity effort, provides produced by-product of H+ ions
energy in large amounts than ATP-PC lead to fatigue

Aerobic Provides an "endless" amount of energy with Delay in aerobic responses at the
Glycolysis sustained long duration effort and produces start of exercise, slow rate of
non-toxic by-products, ability to oxidise lactic energy production, submaximal
acid intensity only allowed for
muscular effort

LACTATE INFLECTION POINT (LIP)

The intensity at which lactate production exceeds lactate removal, so that no accumulation of H+
ions occurs & lactate levels remain relatively stable. Beyond this, lactic acid is produced faster than it
can be oxidised and fatigue occurs. Oxygen is the only thing able to fight the accumulation of
hydrogen/lactate.

OXYGEN DEFICIT
When beginning exercise, there is a period of time when the oxygen demand from the body exceeds
oxygen supply. This is called oxygen deficit. This occurs as the body’s cardiovascular and respiratory
systems cannot act quickly enough & during this time ATP must be produced from the anaerobic
systems (ATP-PC/Anaerobic Glycolysis)

STEADY STATE
Steady state occurs when oxygen supply is equal to oxygen demand. During steady state, heart rate
will
remain constant, as sufficient oxygen is being circulated to the muscles.

IDRY OF EVERY SYSTEM

ATP-PC System (ATP–CP System)

- Intensity: Very high intensity (>95% max HR).

- Duration: Short duration, dominant for 1–5 seconds, with peak output at 2–4 seconds.
- Rate of ATP Production: Very fast.
- Yield (Amount of ATP): Low, less than 1 ATP per molecule of creatine phosphate.
- By-Products: ADP and inorganic phosphates (Pi).
- Example Activities: Sprinting, jumping, throwing.
- Recovery: Passive recovery is required to replenish creatine phosphate stores.
- Fatigue Limiting Factor: Depletion of creatine phosphate stores .
Anaerobic Glycolysis System

- Intensity: High intensity (80–95% max HR).

- Duration: Dominant from 10–60 seconds, peak power is typically reached between 5–15 seconds.
- Rate of ATP Production: Fast.
- Yield (Amount of ATP): Low to medium, approximately 2 ATP per molecule of glucose.
- By-Products: Lactic acid (lactate and hydrogen ions).
- Example Activities: 400m run, 200m swim, repeated high-intensity efforts in games.
- Fatigue Limiting Factor: Accumulation of lactic acid and hydrogen ions, leading to muscle acidosis
and fatigue .

Aerobic System

- Intensity: Submaximal intensities (<80% max HR).

- Duration: Predominant after 30–60 seconds, and continues to be the major energy contributor for
activities lasting more than several minutes.
- Rate of ATP Production: Slow.
- Yield (Amount of Oxygen): High, 36–38 ATP per molecule of glucose.
- By-Products: Carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and heat.
- Example Activities: Long-distance running, cycling, swimming.
- Fatigue Limiting Factor: Depletion of glycogen stores and the body’s ability to utilise fats as a fuel
source over extended periods.
- Adaptations: Increased capillarization, mitochondrial density, and oxidative enzyme activity

UNDERSTANDING YIELD

- ATP-PC System:
- Yield: Low
- ATP Produced: 1 ATP per molecule of creatine phosphate
- Use: Short bursts of high-intensity activity

- Anaerobic Glycolysis System:

- Yield: Moderate
- ATP Produced: 2 ATP per molecule of glucose
- Use: Short to medium-duration high-intensity efforts

- Aerobic System:
- Yield: High
- ATP Produced: 36–38 ATP per molecule of glucose
- Use: Long-duration, lower-intensity activities
UNDERSTANDING PASSIVE AND ACTIVE RECOVERY

Passive Recovery:

- Definition: Involves minimal physical activity or complete rest to allow the body to recover.
- Purpose: Helps replenish energy stores, such as ATP and creatine phosphate, and allows
the body to recover without additional stress.
- When to Use:
- ATP-PC System Recovery: Best for short, high-intensity activities that primarily use the
ATP-PC system, such as sprints or heavy lifts.
- Between High-Intensity Sets: Allows for maximum recovery of creatine phosphate
stores, which are crucial for explosive movements.
- Example: Sitting or lying down between sets of heavy weightlifting or sprint intervals.

Active Recovery:

- Definition: Involves low-intensity exercise that keeps the body moving and the heart rate
slightly elevated.
- Purpose: Helps clear metabolic by-products like lactic acid, maintains blood flow, and
reduces muscle stiffness.
When to Use:
- Anaerobic Glycolysis System Recovery: Ideal for activities where lactic acid
accumulation is significant, such as middle-distance running or high-intensity intervals.
- Cool-Down Periods: Helps gradually bring the heart rate down and promote circulation.
- Example: Light jogging, walking, or low-intensity cycling after a high-intensity workout or
between intervals.

Summary of When to Use Each Recovery Type:

- Passive Recovery:
- Best For: High-intensity, short-duration activities.
- Why: Quickly replenishes ATP and creatine phosphate stores.
- Examples: Resting between sprints, heavy lifts, or high jump attempts.

- Active Recovery:
- Best For: Moderate to high-intensity, longer-duration activities.
- Why: Aids in the removal of lactic acid and reduces muscle stiffness.
- Examples: Light jogging after a 400m run, walking between sets of high-intensity intervals.

Visualizing the Difference:

- Passive Recovery:
- Think of it as complete rest, allowing energy stores to rebuild without further exertion.
- Active Recovery:
 - Think of it as a gentle movement that keeps the blood flowing and helps clear out waste
products.

Practical Tips:

- After High-Intensity Sprints: Use passive recovery to quickly replenish ATP-PC stores.
- After Long-Distance Runs: Use active recovery to help clear lactic acid and prevent
stiffness.

UNDERSTANDING FIRING RATE VS MOTOR UNIT RECRUITMENT

Firing Rate of Motor Units

- Definition: The frequency at which motor neurons send electrical impulses to muscle
fibers.
- Impact: Determines how quickly a muscle can generate force.

Motor Unit Recruitment

- Definition: The process of activating more motor units to increase muscle force.
- Impact: Determines the total amount of force a muscle can produce.

Summary of Differences:

- Firing Rate: Frequency of signals; affects rate of force production.

- Recruitment: Number of motor units activated; affects amount of force production.

CHAPTER 7 - ACUTE RESPONSES

ACUTE RESPONSES TO EXERCISE
A short term / immediate physiological change to help meet the energy demands of exercise

RESPIRATORY ACUTE RESPONSES

Generally aims to increase the total amount of oxygen entering the lungs

VENTILATION (INCREASE)
Ventilation = Tidal Volume x Respiratory Rate
At rest we breath 4-15 L, but during exercise the demand for oxygen becomes greater. Ventilation is
increased by tidal volume & or respiratory rate, meaning more oxygen is able to enter the lungs,
where it can be diffused and transported via the blood to the working muscles.

PULMONARY DIFFUSION (INCREASE)

Pulmonary = Lungs
Diffusion of gas always occurs between an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure. During
exercise, the alveoli and muscles tissue increase in surface area allowing greater amounts of oxygen
to reach the working muscles, while carbon dioxide can move out

TIDAL VOLUME (INCREASE)

The amount of air inhaled in a single breath. TV increases during exercise to allow more oxygen to
enter the lungs and reach the working muscles

RESPIRATORY RATE (INCREASE)

Number of breaths taken per minute. RR increases during exercise allowing more oxygen to enter the
lungs to reach working muscles

OXYGEN CONSUMPTION
The amount of oxygen taken up and used by the body

OXYGEN DEFICIT
During the start of exercise, there is a period of time in which oxygen demand from the body exceeds
oxygen supply

CARDIOVASCULAR ACUTE RESPONSES

This system compromises of the heart, blood, & blood vessels which work together to maintain
function. During exercise more oxygen needs to move to the working muscles while carbon dioxide
needs to be removed quicker

CARDIAC OUTPUT (INCREASE)

The product of Stroke Volume, which is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart per beat, and
heart rate. Q increases with exercise allowing greater amounts of oxygenated blood to be ejected to
the working muscles

ARTERIOLE-VENULE OXYGEN (A-VO2) DIFFERENCE (INCREASE)

During exercise, working muscles extract greater amounts of oxygen from the blood, increasing the
a-vO2 difference which is the difference in concentration of oxygen in the arterioles (transporting
blood to muscle) compared to the venules (transporting blood away from muscles)

- Definition: The difference in oxygen content between arterial blood (oxygen-rich) and venous blood
(oxygen-depleted).
- Significance: Reflects the amount of oxygen extracted by tissues from the blood during its
circulation; a key indicator of tissue oxygen utilisation.
- Implications: An increased A-VO2 difference during exercise indicates that muscles are extracting
more oxygen, which is beneficial for aerobic fitness and muscle efficiency.

VENOUS RETURN (INCREASE)

- Definition: The flow of blood back to the heart from the body.
- Significance: Critical for maintaining cardiac output (the amount of blood the heart pumps through
the circulatory system in a minute).
- Mechanisms:
 - Muscle Pump: Contraction of muscles, especially in the lower limbs, helps push blood back to the
heart.
- Respiratory Pump: Breathing movements, particularly during deep breaths, increase the pressure
gradient in the thoracic cavity, assisting blood flow back to the heart.
- Vasoconstriction: Narrowing of veins, driven by autonomic nervous system signals, increases
venous return by reducing venous capacitance.

Understanding both of these physiological concepts is crucial for grasping how the body delivers and
uses oxygen during activities and how it maintains effective blood circulation.

The rate of blood back to the heart. It's important that any increase in cardiac output is matched by
venous return. Venous return is increased by vasoconstriction of the veins, the muscle pump forcing
blood towards the heart & the respiratory pump allowing change in pressure occurring during
breathing.

VO2 MAX
The amount of oxygen that an individual can take in, transport and utilise

BLOOD VOLUME (DECREASE)

During exercise, blood volume decreases as the plasma in our blood is being used as sweat

BLOOD PRESSURE (INCREASE)

During exercise, cardiac output results in an increase in blood pressure. There is an increase in
systolic blood pressure in the arteries after blood has been pumped out of the heart. Diastolic blood
pressure, returning from the heart doesn’t generally change a significant amount

SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (SBP) (INCREASE)

- Measures arterial pressure during heart contraction.
- Indicates heart's pumping efficiency and arterial health.
- Ideally less than 120 mm Hg.

DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE (DBP) (NO CHANGE)

- Measures arterial pressure when the heart rests between beats.
- Reflects arterial resistance and overall cardiovascular health.
- Ideally less than 80 mm Hg.

Both SBP and DBP are essential for assessing cardiovascular health and detecting potential
hypertension. Regular monitoring can help manage and mitigate heart disease risks.

HEART RATE (INCREASE)

Number of times the heart beats per minute. Heart beat increases during exercise to circulate
oxygenated blood around the body quicker

STROKE VOLUME (INCREASE)

The amount of blood leaving the left ventricle of the heart per beat. Increases during exercise.
BLOOD DISTRIBUTION
During PA, blood is directed from the body towards working muscles resulting in more oxygen being
delivered

MUSCULAR ACUTE RESPONSES

When exercise starts, changes within the muscular system occur, these responses have impacts on
exercise

RECRUITMENT AND ACTIVATION OF MUSCLE FIBRES (INCREASE)

During exercise, the force in a working muscle is increased which the brain does by either increasing
number of motor units recruited or increasing the frequency of messages sent to activate the motor
unit.

ENERGY SUBSTRATES (DECREASE)

ATP is the source of energy for muscular contractions. As these substrates are being used faster than
they can be resynthesised there will be a decrease in energy substrate levels within the muscles

PRODUCTION OF BY-PRODUCTS (INCREASE)

If PA intensity is of a high standard and a lot of energy is being produced anaerobically, then
by-products such as hydrogen accumulation cause the muscles to feel fatigued

BODY TEMPERATURE (INCREASE)

Heat is the by-product of the process of converting chemical energy to movement, which increases
with more exercise

INCREASED VO2 MAX

Volume of oxygen that can be taken up, transported and used by the body increases

CHAPTER 8 - FATIGUE
DEFINITION
Muscle fatigue is defined as exercise-induced reduction in the ability of muscle to produce
force or power. Factors include exercise duration & intensity, types of muscular contraction,
physical fitness, diet & environmental conditions.

ONSET & RATE OF DEVELOPMENT

Dependent on:
● Intensity of duration of activity
● Type of activity undertaken - intermittent or continuous
● Muscle fibre type being used - fast or slow twitch
● Type of muscle contractions - Isoinertial/isometric/isokinetic
● Environmental conditions
● Training status, nutritional state & mental state of individual
 LIMITING FACTORS
Fatigue occurs at:
● The Central Nervous System (brain, spinal cord) which occurs when muscular function is
decreased due to CNS impairment
● Peripheral fatigue occurs at the muscle site within motor units (motor neurons & muscle
fibres) when disrupted because of internal muscles processes

LEVEL OF FATIGUE

Level of Causes, signs & symptoms

fatigue

Local ○ Experienced in a muscle group or localised group of muscles

○ Occurs if the same muscle group is called upon repeatedly
during training or performance without sufficient recovery
○ Muscles experience feeling of heaviness, tingling sensations
or cramping
○ Experience in a muscle group or localised group of muscles
○ E.g. completing 8 bench presses at 80% of rep max, in
biceps/triceps after a game of squash or badminton

General ○ Occurs after completing a full training session or competitive

game/physical activity
○ Insufficient recovery
○ All muscles experience 'weakness'
○ Often accompanied by psychological (mental) fatigue
○ E.g. Completing a circuit session or 'full game' of hockey,
netball or football

Chronic ○ Breakdown of the immune system

○ Occurs caused by overtraining, poorly designed training
program, inappropriate recovery strategies &/or excessive
competition demands or schedules
○ Increased susceptibility to illness/infections
○ Persistent muscle soreness
○ Reduced motivation levels
○ Diagnosed as chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) or glandular
fever
 ACCUMULATION OF METABOLIC BY-PRODUCTS - ANAEROBIC SYSTEM
During rapid breakdown of ATP-PC, ADP & Pi accumulate within the working muscles.
Increased levels reduce force & slow relaxation in muscles

LACTIC ACID
Lactic acid is an important & useful energy source used to enhance performance continuously
being produced & removed, even during rest. Lactate production increases with exercise, until
which it accumulates just above LIP, usually triggered above 85% HR. Anaerobic Glycolysis has
the by-product of H+ ions, making the muscles more acidic interfering with operation.

THE LACTATE SHUTTLE MODEL

● Exercise begins, glycogen is broken down & pyruvate is formed
● When insufficient oxygen occurs, pyruvate, lactate & H+ are produced
● Lactate & H+ enter muscle tissue & is then transported to the blood
● Muscle cells & tissue receiving lactate either break it down or use it to create glycogen
● Glycogen remains in muscle cells until more energy/ATP is produced

FATIGUE & THE AEROBIC SYSTEM

The aerobic system is used in activities requiring less than 85% max HR & fatiguing factors that
occur during activities longer than 20-30 mins include:
● Increased core temperature
● Increased rate of dehydration
● Redistribution of blood to assist cooling
● Decreased plasma levels
● Elevated blood pressure
● Electrolyte imbalance
● Decreased 'firing' of the CNS
Stores of glycogen are limited and deplete after about 90-120 mins of submaximal exercise.
After depletion, increased reliance on fats (greater oxygen cost) resulting in slower muscular
contractions

CORE TEMP
● An increase in exercise elevates the core temperature.
● Our bodies tend to lose heat via evaporation, with sweat produced to cool the body.
● Losing 2-3% of body weight through sweating will result in impaired thermoregulation,
aerobic capacity, muscle endurance & neuromuscular coordination.
● If more than 6% is lost via sweating, the person may lose consciousness & core temperature
may rise to up to 40°

SWEAT
● Increased sweat rates from exercise decreases blood plasma volume.
● To counteract this, the body increases the HR and Cardiac Output to maintain blood supply
to working muscles.
● Vasodilation occurs when core temperature increases within capillaries beneath the skin
dilating to release excess heat.
● Blood flow to working muscles is reduced via vasoconstriction, and essential fuel supply and
waste removal are also restricted resulting in fatigue.

NEUROMUSCULAR FACTORS
DECREASED CNS FIRING
● The recovery for this is passive recovery
● When the brain detects fatigue, it sends weaker signals to muscles in an effort to reduce
intensity and slow down work rate.
● This means less electrical stimulation of the muscles resulting in less forceful & frequent
muscles contractions.
● Impaired sodium-potassium pump can restrict muscular function
● Potassium wants to get out of cells while sodium wants to get into cells. When the
movement of potassium is blocked, both muscle & nerve activity can be affected

LOSS OF ELECTROLYTES
Electrolytes are salts controlling cell stability & that also carry electrical charges needed for
muscular contractions caused by nerve impulses.

Major electrolytes & their roles (I DON'T THINK YOU NEED TO KNOW THIS)
● Sodium & chloride - Sodium is a positive ion in the body's fluid found mostly outside cells.
Chloride is a negative ion & works close with sodium regulation body-water balance &
electrical impulses in the cell membrane
● Potassium - The main electrolyte in the body's cells is stored in muscles fibers with glycogen
that helps transport glucose to muscle cells. Sodium & chloride control fluid & electrolyte
balance & conduct nerve impulses. When glycogen breaks down, muscles cells are depleted
of potassium
● Calcium - Assists contraction & relaxation of muscles, nerve conduction, hormone secretion,
enzymatic reactions & blood coagulation (clotting). Calcium is central to synthesis &
breakdown of muscle & liver glycogen
● Magnesium - Present in every cell & forms 300+ enzymes involved in nerve impulse
transmission, muscle contraction & ATP production. Magnesium helps muscles relax & delays
fatigue

DELAYED ONSET MUSCLE SORENESS (DOMS)

A normal response to unaccustomed exercise/heavy eccentric work normally felt 24-48 hours
after. DOMS occurs as the result of microscopic muscle tears during eccentric
contractions/unfamiliar actions. The body healing the injury leads to muscle growth
It can be prevented by:
● Warming up before exercise & cooling down afterwards
● Staying hydrated (allows your kidneys to eliminate damaged muscle protein)
● Using a foam roller as part of your cool-down
● Performing an active recovery

RECOVERY
● Aims to reduce body to pre-exercise conditions (homeostasis) & reverse effects of fatigue.
 ● Recovery strategies help adapt to exercise loads & prepare the performer for subsequent
training/competition.
● Insufficient recovery delays the removal of fatiguing factors as well as dangerous areas of
overtraining associated with overuse injuries.

ACTIVE RECOVERY (COOL-DOWN)

● A lighter intensity aerobic recovery using similar muscle groups & actions used during
training efforts for anaerobic glycolysis & aerobic energy systems e.g. riding a spin bike,
swimming, massage, stretching
● Speeds up recovery faster
● Helps maintain higher oxygen levels than a person sitting/lying down, speeding up removal
of lactate that would impede recovery
● Active recovery is 2x faster removing metabolic by-products
● Should complete low intensity activity for 5-10 mins
● Creates a 'muscle pump' pressing on blood vessels increasing the rate of oxygen supply &
waste removal
● Prevents venous pooling common during a passive recovery when large amounts of blood
are supplied to working muscles & 'pool' around muscles for longer periods

PASSIVE RECOVERY
● Involves the athlete being motionless after an exercise, such as sleep
● A good night's sleep enables the athlete to experience recovery from physical, neurological &
psychological stressors
● Excess sleep slows down CNS resulting in the athlete feeling sluggish

PHOSPHOCREATINE
● PC is restored by a passive recovery that needs to be at either total rest or exercise at an
intensity where PC isn't required.
● PC comes from amino acids (liver) or dietary creatine (red meats, fish, supplements)
● 70% of PC is restored in first 30 secs during oxygen deficit & up to 10 mins to restore to
pre-exercise levels
● Accumulation of H+ ions will slow PC restoration

NUTRITIONAL RECOVERY
● Involves consuming certain foods to aid in recovery before/during/after activity
● Carb loading 4-5 days before ensures there is enough for activity

Training Situation Daily carb intake g/kg of body weight

Daily refueling for training programs less 5-7

than 60-90 of low intensity

Daily refueling for training programs 7-10

greater than 90-120 mins per day
Daily refueling for extreme programs of 10-12+
6-8 hours per day

Carb loading for ultra-endurance events 7-10

BLOOD & MUSCLE GLYCOGEN

● Muscle glycogen is the main fuel used during mod-high intensity exercise
● The body uses glucose at a rate of 1 gram per minute during mod exercise (60% HR) &
slightly higher during high intensity exercise (85% HR)
● Carbs should be consumed during exercise longer than 1 hour
● High GI foods should be consumed within the first 30-60 mins of recovery ensuring rapid &
complete restoration within 24 hours. Delaying intake delays restoration
● Within 1 hour 55% restored in next 5 hours
● 1-2 hours 100% restored within 24-48 hours
● 5+ hours restored up to 5 days
● Insulin allows greater uptake of glucose from blood to muscles (insulin lasts 30-45 mins)

CARB & PROTEIN INTAKE PRE- & POST-TRAINING

● Foods containing protein should be consumed 45 to 60 minutes before exercise allowing for
digestion/absorption
● Only a small amount of protein is needed to increase muscle protein synthesis

A carb/protein snack provides nutrients optimizing post-exercise muscle protein balance.

Examples include:
● Sports protein bar
● Liquid meal supplement
● Cereal & milk
● Cheese/Tuna sandwich

REHYDRATION
● Post-exercise should reverse any fluid loss from training/competition/performance
● It should include water for hydration, carbs for glycogen stores & electrolytes to speed
rehydration
● Athletes should drink 1.5 liters of fluid for each kilo of body weight lost which helps to
increase performance, maintenance of constant core temp & recovery
● Should be consumed during the first 2 hours post-exercise

METABOLIC BY-PRODUCTS
● Large amounts of H+ ions accumulate when the LIP is exceeded which corresponds to
exercise intensities around 85% of max HR although aerobic conditioning can shift it up to
90% max HR
 OTHER BY-PRODUCTS
When PC splits, ADP & Pi are formed to create more ATP. If ADP begins to accumulate a passive
recovery would see quicker removal of accumulated ADP rather than an active recovery

OXYGEN DEFICIT
● Where oxygen demand exceeds oxygen supply
● Typically athletes experience this at the beginning of PA (where there is a rapid increase in
intensity)
● During this time the body has to rely on anaerobic energy systems to supply ATP

STEADY STATE
● When oxygen demand equals oxygen supply
● VO2 max is the highest point where you can maintain steady state any higher & the athlete is
working anaerobically
● As a result of increased oxygen cost transferring from carbs to fats, less oxygen is available
for working muscles. This explains why athletes usually 'slow down' or 'hit the wall.'

OXYGEN DEBT OR EPOC

● When oxygen supply is higher than oxygen demand occurring at the completion of exercise
(typically during recovery)
● EPOC describes the oxygen being consumed during recovery (end of a running race, you
don’t go back to breathing normally) & assists in the removal of metabolic by-products
● Exhausting high intensity exercise results in a larger oxygen debt than exercise at a lower
intensity

INTERPLAY (VERY IMPORTANT)

● All of the 3 energy systems work together to provide/resynthesize ATP - Golden Rule
However only 1 energy system is the predominant provider of energy which is
influenced/impacted by duration & intensity of activity & fuels available
CHAPTER 9 - FITNESS COMPONENTS
HEALTH - Associated with efficient function of the body's essential systems

AEROBIC POWER - Ability of the heart & lungs to deliver sufficient oxygen for ATP to be
produced aerobically
Factors affecting aerobic power:
● Concentration of oxidative enzymes
● Size/number of mitochondria
● Blood volume
● Cardiac output (SV x HR)
● Blood flow to working muscles
● Age/Gender
Increased levels are associated with:
● Stronger & efficient heart
● Healthy blood vessels (arteries, veins & capillaries)
● Blood having adequate haemoglobin levels (transporting oxygen)

BODY COMPOSITION - Fat-free mass (muscles, bones & organs) & fat-mass which
includes essential fat (heart, lungs, CNS, kidneys, muscles, liver, intestines) & non-essential
fat found in adipose tissue.
Factors affecting body composition:
● Age - As age increases so does the likelihood of higher body fat content & reduced muscle
mass
● Gender - Males generally have higher levels of muscle mass
● Genetics - Similar body composition to parents
● Diet & PA levels - Energy output should be greater than energy input to avoid increase in
body fat

FLEXIBILITY - Capacity of a joint to move through its full range of motion, reflecting the
ability of muscles & connective tissue to stretch allowing reduced likelihood of injury to joints
Types of flexibility:
● Static flexibility - Referring to a joint's range of motion while stationary
● Dynamic flexibility - Resistance to motion in a joint
Factors affecting flexibility:
● Joint structure - Determined by the type of joint
● Soft-tissue structures - What surround joints such as muscles, tendons, ligaments & skin
● Muscle temperature - Increasing temperature increases elasticity of muscles
● Age - Children are usually more flexible than adults. But puberty leads to rapid growth
causing bones to grow at a faster rate than muscles reducing flexibility
● Gender - Females tend to be more flexible due to skeletal differences & hormonal influences
MUSCULAR STRENGTH - The maximal force generated by a muscle/muscle group in 1
maximal effort specific to the muscle group, type of muscle action, speed of contraction, joint
angle, size/shape & muscle fibre composition
Types of muscle action:
● Isometric muscle action - Muscle actions are static meaning no change in muscle length. The
function is to 'fix' or stabilise the joints and limbs involved in the action (to keep them from
moving)
e.g. Gripping a bat

● Isoinertial muscle action - When a whole muscle action produces movement of the skeleton
by shortening/lengthening the muscle, tension is developed
e.g. Lifting phase of bicep curl
Dynamic actions:
Concentric - Produces tension while shortening
Eccentric - Produces tension while lengthening

● Isokinetic muscle action - Tension developed in the muscle is maximal throughout whole
range of motion & velocity of lengthening/shortening muscle is constant.
Factors affecting muscle strength:
● Muscle size, fibre arrangement & type - Max force is relative to greater cross-sectional area
which equals greater strength. Unipennate, Bipennate & multipennate are all designed for
strong, forceful contraction, while fibres arranged in fusiform are designed for speed of
contraction

● Length-tension relationship - Amount of force developed in a muscle depends on length of

fibre relative to its optimal length (sarcomere) allowing max overlap of thick (myosin) & thin
(actin) filaments

● Speed of muscle action - Lighter the load, the faster the action. Greater amounts of force
developed in the muscle equals slower speed of action. Maximal action velocity occurs when
there is no load to move, while zero velocity occurs when load is too great

● Age/Gender - Strength increases from childhood all the way into adulthood. After puberty
men have higher absolute strength than girls due to increased levels of testosterone involved
in the process of muscle growth, but decreases through ageing

MUSCULAR ENDURANCE (LOCAL) - The ability of a muscle/muscle group to perform

repeated contractions over an extended period of time. Referred to as Local Muscular
Endurance (LME)
Factors affecting muscular endurance:
● Fatigue - A muscle with high levels of endurance has reduced levels of fatigue. Causes of
muscle fatigue include fuel depletion, thermoregulation & metabolic by-products.
Slow-twitch are more fatigue resistant than fast-twitch, & are efficient at producing ATP
aerobically
 ● Fibre type - Fast-twitch fibres are suited to high-intensity, anaerobic activities, whereas
slow-twitch fibres are suited for extended periods of exercise/activity & recruited for
low-intensity activities

● Gender - Generally males have greater VO2 max and muscular strength resulting in increased
endurance
Importance of muscular endurance:
● Increases ability to resist fatigue during extended periods of time
● Many sports rely on repeated muscle movements with the same local muscles groups
● Ability to continue to move & execute skills near an optimal level of performance

SKILL - Forms the basis of successful sporting performance

ANAEROBIC CAPACITY - Ability to produce ATP without oxygen (ATP-PC & anaerobic
glycolysis).
● Anaerobic capacity - The total amount of work done by anaerobic systems
● Anaerobic power - How quickly the work (ATP) can be produced
Factors affecting anaerobic capacity:
● Age - Peak anaerobic capacity occurs 25-30 years & decreases with age
● Gender - Males generally have higher anaerobic capacity due to greater muscle mass, fuels &
enzymes
● Fibre type - A greater % of fast-twitch fibres increases anaerobic capacity
● Lactate tolerance - The more metabolic by-products tolerated, the greater the anaerobic
capacity

MUSCULAR POWER - The ability to exert a force rapidly, over a short period of time closely
related to strength & speed with the predominant system being ATP-PC
Factors affecting muscular power:
● Speed of contraction - Peak power in the muscle increases with increasing velocities of
movement
● Gender - Males generally have greater muscle mass & strength, so they have greater
muscular power
● Age - Muscular power peaks around 25-30 & decreases through ageing
● Fibre type - Fast-twitch fibres are capable of greater strength output, & therefore greater
power
● Muscular strength - Increase in muscular strength increases max force production
● Motor unit recruitment - A greater frequency & speed of motor unit stimulation will increase
power

SPEED - Ability to move your body/body part from point A to point B in the shortest possible
time
Factors affecting speed:
● Anaerobic power - Greater anaerobic power provides ATP faster
● Muscle arrangement - Fusiform patterns (biceps) are designed for greater speed of
contraction
 ● Motor unit recruitment - A greater frequency & speed of motor unit stimulation will increase
power
● Lactate tolerance - The more metabolic by-products that can be tolerated, the greater the
speed endurance possible
● Age - Peak speed increases at 25-30 and decreases with ageing
● Gender - Males generally have higher anaerobic capacity due to greater muscle mass, fuels,
& enzymes, & therefore greater speed
● Fibre type - A greater % of fast-twitch fibres will increase speed

AGILITY - Ability to change direction of movement with speed & balance

Factors affecting agility:
● Speed of contraction - Greater speed of contraction results in greater agility
● Gender - Males generally have greater muscle mass & speed, so they have greater agility
● Age - Agility peaks around 25-30 & decreases through ageing
● Fibre type - Fast-twitch fibres are capable of greater speed output, & therefore greater agility
● Centre of gravity - A lower centre of gravity provides greater balance & hence greater agility
● Flexibility - Greater flexibility results in greater speed, therefore increasing agility

COORDINATION - To create a sequence of movements with precision & accuracy

Factors affecting coordination:
● Poor vision/hearing - Impaired senses will affect coordination
● Stage of development - An individual in the autonomous stage of learning will have greater
coordination
● Cognitive limitations - Cognitive limitations could associate with lower levels of coordination

BALANCE - Maintaining balance where the body adapts to external forces acting on the
body (gravity, friction & moving objects)
● Static Balance - Balance is maintained while the body is stationary
● Dynamic Balance - Maintaining equilibrium while moving
Changes to equilibrium can occur in 3 ways:
● By changing the location
● By changing the environment that supports the body
● By changing the position of one or more body parts
Factors affecting balance:
● Centre of gravity - Greater balance is achieved when the centre of gravity is lower
● Base of support - An increase in the size of the base of support will increase balance
● Line of gravity - Ensuring the line of gravity is over the base of support
● Body mass - Increasing the mass of an object will increase balance
● Ear issues - The brain controls balance using feedback received from the inner ear

REACTION TIME - The time it takes for the body to react to external stimulus, formulate a
response & create necessary muscular movement
Factors affecting reaction time:
● Age - Reaction time peaks around 19-30 and gets slower through ageing
● Number of responses - If only one possible response, reaction time is fastest
● Environmental cues - Minimal distractions result in fastest reaction times
 ● Anticipating cue occurring - If the cue is predictable & anticipated, reaction time is reduced
● Warning signs - Any warning of upcoming cue will reduce reaction time

CHAPTER 10 - ACTIVITY ANALYSIS

ACTIVITY ANALYSIS
To gather sport specific physiological data through a record of performance via viewing/recording of
an individual

1. Select a sport or PA for the basis of your training program

2. Once you've selected your sport/activity, a detailed activity analysis of the sport must be
undertaken
3. Data must then be analysed in order to identify fitness components, energy systems, muscle
groups & types of contractions required by performers within the sport/activity

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

DIRECT OBSERVATION:
Coaches position themselves close to the playing area to communicate with their group.
Typical information:
● Skill frequencies
● Players' movement patterns (the type of movements being made)
● Use of playing area & most utilised parts of the field
● Playing intensities & ability to sustain high-intensity efforts
● Key actions & associated muscles & fitness components called on
● Repeated actions & set team plays for both teams
DIRECT OBSERVATION & RECORDING
● Athletes are observed while data is then recorded on data sheets so quantitative data can be
reviewed post performance resulting in more specific & effective feedback
DIGITAL RECORDING:
● Includes the use of digital video cameras, tablets, mobile apps, HR monitoring, GPS & aerial
sports analysis technology. This data is practical & accessible & can be recorded, viewed &
replayed back as often as needed
MOBILE APPS:
● Allow convenience & portability as well as accessibility & affordability
SPORTING TECHNOLOGY:
● Wearables such as fitness trackers, smart watches, GPS & mobile apps allow coaches to track
performance & download & utilise data to analyse, manage & improve individual & team
performance
AERIAL TECHNOLOGY:
● Allows an elevated vantage point of an individual & team performance
● Skycams & Spider Cams are suspended by cables anchored to the roof able to view each
performer through different angles
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Direct Observation ○ Immediate changes can be made ○ Decisions are
to game progression subjective/opinion-based (reduced
○ Player fatigue is easily viewed & with experience)
counteracted by bench recovery ○ No way of showing how players
○ Players can rotate positions on performed
field to increase player efficiency ○ Doesn't provide reference for
comparing future performances
○ Viewers need to rely on memory,
which can be limiting
○ Pace of game can be too fast to take
in everything
○ Difficult to view multiple players at
once
○ Large fields increase distance over
which observations need to be
made
Direct Observation ○ Viewers can discuss performance ○ Training for viewers is required
& Recording with players more objectively before accurate recording
○ Data can be stored & referred to ○ Difficult to both record & view at
in future the same time
○ Player performance profiles are ○ Extremely labour-intensive
easy to establish ○ Guessing may be needed when
vision is obstructed

Digital Recording ○ Data readily downloadable & can ○ Can be expensive

be processed by computers ○ Tech expertise is needed to operate
allowing player summaries to be equipment
created ○ Labour-intensive
○ Data can easily be accessed &
saved to replay any time
○ Data can be manipulated &
transmitted easily
HR Monitoring ○ Relatively cheap ○ Waterproof models are expensive
○ Generally unobtrusive & doesn't ○ There may be interference from
interfere with performance nearby digital transmitters
○ Creates accurate collection of ○ May be delays in real-time signals
playing intensities ○ Data may need to be downloaded
after an event is finished, if the
receiver is not close
GPS ○ Combines movement patterns ○ Number of monitors may be limited,
with intensities so not everyone will be monitored
○ Identifies players who are ○ With no reference to other players,
fatiguing & players efforts who limited contextual information can
are dropping in intensity result
○ Doesn't require a laboratory ○ May be uncomfortable to wear
Filming, Aerial ○ Every player is visible the whole ○ Expensive set up requires many
Sports game operators to use many
○ Picture-in-picture allows player cameras/recorders
monitoring when off the ball ○ Can be intrusive in sport
enabling tactical decision to be ○ Restricted to certain settings (e.g.
observed stadiums)
○ Movements can be further
analysed by
professionals/computer
programs to compare with most
effective/efficient
techniques/skill execution
○ Increases spectators
understanding & following of the
game
○ Allows field referees to call for
third umpire decisions

ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT PATTERNS

Movement patterns charts track movement & magnitude of movement (intensity) around the
field/court. It's possible to map or plot athletes manually but is far easier/accurate using GPS/RFID
Data may reveal:
● Distance travelled/time spent in different speed zones
● Average distance travelled in each speed zone
● Number of efforts completed in each speed zone
● Hot spots on field where repeated movements are completed
● Contrasting movement patterns at different stages of match/race or season
Assumptions data analysts can make:
● Dominant energy system
● Important fitness components
● Intensity data & work-to-rest ratios
● Patterns of play

ANALYSIS OF SKILL FREQUENCIES

Coaches can use data about the frequency & effectiveness of skills to improve technical & tactical
performances & improve contribution of important fitness components
Data may reveal:
● Frequency of common skills executed in match
● Effectiveness of common skills executed in match
Assumptions data analysts can make:
● Important fitness components utilized
● Major muscle groups utilized
● Major muscle movements utilized
● Specific fitness tests assess fitness components
● Specific training methods to incorporate in programs
 ● Specific training activities within training program

ANALYSIS OF WORK-TO-REST RATIOS & PLAYING INTENSITY

Meaningful data on playing intensity can be collected by observation, supplemented with statistical
recording while also combining work-to-rest ratio information
Data may reveal:
● Overall time spent working in different intensity zones
● Overall work : rest ratio
● Average length of work periods
● Average length of rest periods
● Length of work periods at certain intensities
Assumptions data analysts can make:
● Important fitness components utilized
● Contributions of different energy systems throughout event
● Specific fitness tests to assess fitness components
● Specific training methods to incorporate in programs
● Specific training activities within training program

GPS
One of the best ways to assess playing intensities assessing how fast a player moves (hence intensity)
but also where on the field they are moving

ANALYSIS OF HR
HR can typically be used to estimate energy expenditure & therefore intensity when performing PA
collected in a variety of ways such as taking own pulse or external HR monitors & apps
Data may reveal:
● Players intensity
● Estimated energy expenditure
Assumptions data analysts can make:
● Relevant energy systems are being developed
● Relevant fitness systems are being developed

CHAPTER 11 - ASSESSMENT OF FITNESS

PRE-FITNESS ASSESSMENT CONDITIONS

Fitness testing provides opportunities for people to increase
understanding & appreciation of supportive environments
& diversity in training
Activities should encourage participants to:
● Accept levels of performance are unique to
individuals
 ● Understand commitments to developing Athlete/Client
health-related fitness is affected by motivation, ~
sociocultural factors & environment Sport
● Recognise barriers & enablers experienced by ~
individuals/groups who wish to participate in Informed consent - Health
health-related fitness screening, medical history, training
● Recognize patients with disabilities may require history, age/gender,
testing to optimise their ability to reach goals ~
The most common settings for fitness testing include: Needs/Game analysis - Identify
● Schools demands of sport (skill
● Sporting clubs frequencies, movement patterns,
● Elite athletes/teams work-to-rest data)
Following factors considered before commencing fitness ~
testing include: Identify critical fitness components
● Safety of those involved (PAR-Q) ~
● Financial tests involved in the test Pre-testing - 2 battery tests per
● Whether testing should be maximal or submaximal fitness component (tests must be
(health concerns) reliable, valid & accurate)
● Access to equipment & facilities
● Whether fitness testing is necessary
● Planning & scheduling

PURPOSE OF FITNESS ASSESSMENT

Purposes of fitness assessment include physiological,
psychological & sociocultural perspectives
Purpose of fitness assessments include:
● Determining strengths & weaknesses - A training
program is designed from a performer profile
● Establishing a baseline - To compare future test
results with a benchmark (pre- & post- testing)
● Mental toughness - VO2 max test or phosphate
recovery test require the performer to mentally
push through without stopping/slowing
● Motivation - Goal setting could be established to
aim for in the next test
● Determining team positions - Suitable team
Accuracy vs Practicality
positions could be determined based on fitness test
The more accurate the
results
recording methods, the less
● Predict potential - Fitness assessment can predict
practical for large groups
potential of future performers
The more practical the
● Assess cardiovascular risk - Assess potential
recording method, the less
cardiovascular risk through body composition
accurate the information is
testing
recorded
● Selection criteria - Selection criteria for
employment (police fitness testing)
HEALTH SCREENING
It's important to consider your current health status before
undertaking fitness testing by completing a pre-exercise
screening questionnaires (PAR-Q) which helps determine
your readiness

INFORMED CONSENT
Designed to help minimise the risk of harm to the
performer by ensuring they are aware of all risks associated
before beginning the test

FITNESS ASSESSMENT PROTOCOLS

Protocols are rules associated with fitness testing
Generic testing protocols that apply to testing include:
● Validity - Ensuring the test measures what it's set
out to measure. Aerobic power can be measured by
VO2 max test or a 20m shuttle test. A 50-m sprint
test would not be a valid test of aerobic power

● Reliability - Tests performed should produce

consistent results.
Reliability can be increased by:
● Same order of testing
● Same equipment, clothing & footwear used
● Conducting test at same time of day
● Same warm-ups should be conducted
● Similar environmental conditions
● Similar nutrition & hydration levels
● Performer is well rested
● Performer's health status is unchanged

● Accuracy - Ensuring results are absolutely valid &

comparable to future testing. Lab & direct testing
results in more accurate data due to equipment

LABORATORY & FIELD TESTING

● Laboratory testing is usually reserved for elite
performers, where accuracy is important. The cost
of facilities & equipment & maintenance are high
prohibiting use from anyone other than elite
performers
● Field testing is still very functional & accurate
provided protocols are followed. The advantage of
this is that several people can be tested at once
MAXIMAL & SUBMAXIMAL TESTING
● Maximal tests are performed as close as possible to
exhaustion such as VO2 max test, Wingate
anaerobic test or 20m shuttle run
● Submaximal tests are those that are not performed
to exhaustion such as PWC170 performed on a
bicycle ergometer till the performer reaches 170
BPM

DIRECT & INDIRECT TESTING

● Direct testing measures the function of a fitness
component such as a VO2 max test directly
measuring a person's aerobic power
● Indirect fitness assessment is based on the use of
predictive measures & equations linked to estimate
fitness levels such as the Cooper's 12-minute run,
while also a max test if done to exhaustion,
indirectly predicts a person's VO2 max & their
aerobic power

SELECTING FITNESS TESTS

● It is possible to individually assess one fitness
component (flexibility test after surgery) but in
most cases a coach/performer will build a fitness
profile with a bunch of tests known as a fitness test
battery
Selecting tests, following points need to be
considered:
● Specificity - When assessing various fitness
components, it's important to keep testing specific
to requirements established in a game
● Result comparison - There are 2 ways results can be
compared, normative tests & criterion-based tests

● Normative tests: 'Norms' represents the

distribution of results for a particular reference
group (e.g. age or gender) based on percentiles.
Individuals can then compare their results with
normative data

● Criterion-based tests: Provides a result that can be

compared to levels of fitness that are deemed
appropriate for health promotion
FITNESS TESTS FOR THE COMPONENTS OF
FITNESS
Tests chosen are:
● Easy to administer
● Require minimal equipment
● Norms are generally available for rating
performance

AEROBIC POWER TESTS

20m SHUTTLE RUN TEST
The 20m shuttle run or beep test is the dominant field test
in Au to predict aerobic power
Advantages:
● Correlation with VO2 max test is very high
● Time between beeps decreases increasing speed
therefore intensity eliminating need for pace
● As test increases in intensity, it allows someone
who is aerobically unfit to discontinue early
allowing recovery for other activities
● Whole teams can perform the test at one time;
space is only limiting factor
● Cost-effective compared to VO2 max test in lab
Disadvantages:
● While extremely accurate, still only a prediction
● Some overseas soccer clubs prefer to use Yo-yo test
as resembles their sport

COOPERS 12MIN RUN

field test involving running as far as possible in 12 mins
usually performed on a 400m track. The further you can
run, the higher your level of aerobic power.
Advantages:
● Cost effective
Disadvantages:
● Performer must hold highest intensity for full 12
mins to ensure reliability of test as it is difficult

ANAEROBIC CAPACITY TESTS

Designed in 2 different ways:
● With rest periods - Designed to provide a recovery
period in between repetitions & therefore measure
the body's ability to restore PC
● Without rest periods - Tests designed to measure
the ability of the 2 anaerobic systems to supply
energy for a given period of time
PHOSPHATE RECOVERY TEST
Challenges the ability of the body to replenish high-energy
phosphates in between each repetition of the test, required
in sports such as AFL, rugby, netball, hockey, basketball, etc.
Equipment needed includes 10 cones numbered, with
additional ones for start & finish, stopwatches & scorecards.
The process is repeated 8 times

300m SHUTTLE RUN TEST

Designed to easily administer a test for field sports relying
heavily on a large anaerobic contribution. Equipment
includes a flat 20m surface, tape measure, marking cones &
recording sheet. The performer must run between 2 lines
15 repetitions in the fastest possible time

MUSCULAR STRENGTH TESTS

The main difference between muscular tests is the muscle
groups utilized specific to the test

HANDGRIP DYNAMOMETER STRENGTH TEST

Subject should stand upright with arms at their side &
squeeze as hard as possible without moving arm with
usually 3 trials for each hand with 1 min rests between.
Table of norms indicates results

7-STAGE ABDOMINAL STRENGTH TEST

To assess abdominal strength by using 2.5 kg & 5 kg
weights. Subject must lie on their back, feet flat on the
ground and will go through levels 1-7 passing by performing
1 full sit up without the feet leaving the floor. Table of
norms indicates results

LOCAL MUSCULAR ENDURANCE

Similar to muscular strength except major difference being
muscle group utilized

MAXIMAL PUSH-UPS IN 60 SECONDS

Push-up test will assess upper-body muscular strength &
endurance for each push-up. Subject must lower
themselves until they are a fist away from the ground (1
rep). Table of norms indicates results

PULL-UPS
A pull-up bar is needed. Subject must position feet together
and pull up until chin clears the bar, repeat until unable to
continue. Table of norms indicates results

STATIC FLEXIBILITY TESTS

SIT & REACH TEST
Equipment needed is a ruler & a sit-&-reach box. Subject
must sit with legs fully extended & gradually reach as far as
possible & hold for 2 secs. Table of norms indicates results

GROIN FLEXIBILITY TEST

Using a ruler, subject must sit down and with knees bent
and soles of your feet touching, pull your ankles as close to
your body as possible. Measure distance from heels to
groin. Refer to ratings for groin flex test

BODY COMPOSITION TESTS

Proportion of body weight derived from fat compared to
the proportion of weight derived from lean tissue

BODY MASS INDEX (BMI)

A practical formula used to assess weight relative to height
to determine whether an individual is within a healthy
weight range. The formula is weight (kg) divided by height
(m), squared. Refer to BMI classification. Doesn't take in
body composition or gender differences

WAIST CIRCUMFERENCE
Carrying fat around your abdomen is a health risk. 7 testing
sites on the body are used to calculate total skinfold
measurement. The tester pinches the skin, while skinfold
callipers are applied to measure raised skin. 2
measurements are usually taken for reliability on the right
side of the body. Refer to ratings on table

MUSCULAR POWER TESTS

The major difference between various muscular power tests
are both the muscle groups utilised, as well as the muscular
movements utilised. These are the main considerations
when selecting the most specific test for an athlete

VERTICAL JUMP TEST

Chalk & measuring board are required. Subject must stand
sideways to the wall with an arm extended & without
elevating shoulder must squat & jump as high as possible,
distance from starting mark & jump mark must then be
measured. 3 trials are allowed. Refer to rating chart

STANDING LONG JUMP TEST

Equipment needed is a tape measure. Subject must stand
behind a line, feet slightly apart. A 2 foot take-off is required
& the distance is measured from take-off line to the back of
the closer foot on landing. Refer to rating chart

SPEED TESTS
Speed can refer to either whole-body speed or part-body
speed. Testing is usually focused on whole-body speed &
involves timing how long it takes to cover a set distance
such as 10, 20, 35, 40 & 50m. Hand-held stopwatches could
be unreliable, so elite athletes will use electronic timing
gates

35m & 50m SPRINT TESTS

Equipment needed includes measuring tape, stopwatch &
cones. Subject must include a single max sprint over a set
distance. A thorough warm-up should be completed
beforehand. Refer to tables

AGILITY TESTS
ILLINOIS AGILITY TEST
Equipment needed includes 4 chairs, a stopwatch & cones
to mark out course. Subject on the word 'go' must jump up
& from a lie down & run through the course touching the
end lines with their foot. Refer to norms on table

SEMO AGILITY TEST

Measures the general agility of the body in manoeuvring
forwards, backwards & sideways. Equipment includes 4
cones & a stopwatch. At the signal go, sidestep from A to B,
then run backwards from B to D then sprint forwards from
D to A then run backwards from A to C, sprint from C to B &
finally sidestep from B to finish at A. 2 trials are allowed.
Refer to table of norms
CHAPTER 12 - TRAINING PRINCIPLES
TRAINING PROGRAM PRINCIPLES
In order to maximise fitness improvements, training principles must be applied to training programs
to guarantee improvements are achieved efficiently:
● Specificity - Energy systems, muscle groups, skills & fitness components targeted/included
into program
● Frequency - Number of training sessions per week
● Intensity - How hard the training sessions are
● Time - Length of each training session or training program
● Type - Type of training session/training program
● Progression (overload) - Gradual adjustments to training load as physical adaptations occur
● Individuality - What are the demands for each athlete
● Diminishing returns - As the athlete gets fitter they experience smaller fitness gains
● Variety - Provided the principle of specificity is not ignored, variety should be added to the
program
● Maintenance - Fitness benefits can be maintained with a reduction in training frequency (e.g.
3-2 per week), but not intensity
● Overtraining - When the athlete can't recover from continual stress resulting in 'overtraining'
● Detraining - We lose fitness quicker than we gain It (4-8 weeks)
● Unloading - Reduce fatigue before competition to allow the athlete to perform at their peak

FREQUENCY
Generally, the more frequent an athlete trains & the longer the training program, the greater the
fitness benefits. However rest & recovery are important & must be built into the training program.

● To improve a specific component, training must occur 3 times a week

● Athletes relying heavily on anaerobic fitness components should train 3 times per week
combining different training methods & this can increase up to 5 times
● Elite endurance athletes train up to 6-7 times per week & even twice a day (due to less
catabolic effect & recovery runs in program)

INTENSITY
Refers to the level of exertion applied during the work phase of a training session (how hard each
training session is).
Intensity can be measured via:
● % of max HR - HR monitoring
● % of VO2 max - Laboratory calculation
● Rate of perceived exertion - Performer self-evaluation
● Accelerometers - Provide movement speed equating to intensity
● GPS tracking

A formula to calculate max HR is:

Max HR (bpm) = 208 - 0.7 x age

RATE OF PERCEIVED EXERTION (RPE)

There is a lag associated with HR monitoring, delaying the HR. For short duration (under 60s) &
high-intensity training, RPE may be more accurate & may assist with early detection of overtraining.

TRAINING ZONES
It's essential to train at the correct intensity in order to maximise chronic adaptations.

Training Zone % max HR % VO2 max RPE

Recovery <70 <50 0-2
Aerobic/continuous 70-85 55-75 3-6
At LIP 85-90* 75-80* 7
Anaerobic 85-95 75-95 8-9
*LIP can increase via aerobic training adaptations & elite endurance athletes can have LIP occurring
around 90% of their max HR

TIME
This can refer to either:
● Length of training program (e.g. 12 months)
● Length of actual training session (e.g. minimum of 20 mins to obtain aerobic adaptations)
● Length of bout of exercise during training session (e.g. length of work phase in an interval
training program)
● Minimum time training program needs to be performed before chronic adaptations are
evident (assuming other training principles are met)

PERIODISATION
Periodisation means organising training into manageable blocks/periods of time, with a structural
approach to training resulting in the greatest potential for improvement. These programs ensure the
performer is at their prime for competition. Coaches overlay phases such as pre-season, competition
& off-season.

TYPE
Type refers to the training methods (e.g. aerobic training methods, anaerobic training methods or
flexibility training)

PROGRESSION
Refers to the gradual increase of stress placed on the body to bring about adaptations/improved
performance
● By applying a progressive overload, it prevents a plateau of training adaptations and allows
continued adaptations
● If overload isn’t challenging enough, minimal stress will result in minimal/no adaptations
 ● Overloading above 10% will result in overtraining

Variables that can be changed when applying overload include:

● Increase intensity
● Increased # of repetitions
● Increased # of sets
● Increased weight
● Increased time of work
● Increased # of sessions
● Decreased rest between exercises
● Decrease time of recovery

*Generally only 1 variable should be changed at a time

UNLOADING/TAPERING
The purpose is to reduce & remove residual fatigue allowing the participant to perform at their peak
without any lingering physiological/psychological fatigue

SPECIFICITY
Ensures the training program design replicates demands of the activity
For optimal fitness benefits it must be specific to:
● Energy system usage - Should be identified for each activity/position within activity. If
dominant energy system is aerobic, training methods (continuous, fartlek, long-interval) are
ideal. If anaerobic systems are dominant (short-interval, medium-interval, plyometrics) are
ideal

● Fitness components - Training program should work on fitness components dominant

● Major muscle groups - Muscle groups must be identified to ensure they are focused on in
training. Balanced training of muscle groups must be maintained, & muscles with core
strength should be included in any training program as they are integral to most sporting
activities

● Skill frequency - The most common skills must be identified to replicate into a training
program to enhance skills, teamwork, strategies & physiological development

INDIVIDUALITY
Individuals tend to respond in different ways to a similar training stimulus.
Reasons include:
● Genetic predisposition - Including fibre-type make up (a person with a high % of slow-twitch
fibres would respond more favourably to an aerobic based program than someone with a
high % of fast-twitch fibres)
● Initial fitness levels/training status - Performers with little training may need to commence
with a reduced volume of training
● Preparedness - A performer returning from an injury may find returning to a previous
training causes excessive fatigue
 ● Adaptive response - Different people will have different adaptive responses to exercise

DIMINISHING RETURNS
An untrained individual will show greater initial improvements but upon getting close to their
potential, rate of improvement slows down

VARIETY
Varying a program helps to re-energize a performer becoming bored, & enhance improvement
through using different training stimulus (e.g. barbell press changed to a dumbbell press)

MAINTENANCE
Fitness gains can be maintained by training 2x per week ensuring:
● Desired performance levels or fitness components achieved, are retained
● Detraining is avoided

OVERTRAINING
A well-constructed training program challenges the athlete by applying appropriate overload.
Problems occur when the performer doesn't recover from continual stress over a long period of time,
resulting in overtraining.
Symptoms of overtraining:
● Persistent heavy, stiff & sore muscles
● Persistent fatigue
● Decrease in performance & ability to maintain training regime
● Increased irritability

MONITORING FOR OVERTRAINING

Maintaining a diary recording your mood, resting HR, sleep & overall physiological state can help
identify signs of overtraining

DETRAINING
Often referred to as reversibility. Detraining is the termination of training/training method with the
corresponding & rapid return to pre-training levels

CHAPTER 13 - FITNESS TRAINING METHODS

METHODS OF TRAINING
The goal of any training program is to develop sporting potential from a physiological
perspective

CONTINUOUS TRAINING
Also known as long slow distance (LSD), continuous training involves performing an activity
such as jogging, cycling, rowing & swimming at a submaximal intensity between 70-85%
max HR for at least 20 mins.
 Training principles can be applied by:
● Frequency: 3-5x per week
● Intensity: 65-85% max HR
● Duration: Minimum 20 mins over 6-12 weeks
● Specificity: Beneficial for endurance athletes, long distance swimmers & cyclists
● Progression (overload):
● Increasing the running time
● Increasing the distance
● Increasing the intensity
● Changing terrain (e.g. up hills/on sand)
● Reducing the time taken to run a particular distance

FARTLEK TRAINING
Fartlek combines continuous training with random bursts of speed at regular stages
throughout the activity which enables both aerobic & anaerobic energy systems to be
trained. Usually there is no resting period, but lower intensity work.

Training principles can be applied by:

● Frequency: 3-5x per week
● Intensity: 65-85% max HR
● Duration: Minimum 20 mins per session over a period of 6-12 weeks
● Specificity: Running, cycling or swimming
● Progression (overload):
● Increase frequency of intense bursts
● Increase duration of intense bursts
● Increase distance covered
● Reduce time to cover the same distance
● Vary terrain to include more hills

INTERVAL TRAINING
Alternates higher-intensity work periods with rest/reduced intensity (all energy
systems can be trained using this method)

Training principles can be applied by:

● Frequency: 3-5x per week (depending on the interval length)
● Intensity: 75-100% max HR
● Duration: minimum 20 mins per session over 6-12 weeks
● Specificity: muscle groups used in sport/fitness testing as well as targeting fitness
components
● Progression:
● Increasing work distance
● Increasing work time
 ● Increasing reps
● Decreasing recovery time

Type:

SHORT INTERVAL:
● Involves training at an intensity where the ATP-PC system is dominant
● Work period is under 10 secs with 85-100% max HR
● Work-to-rest ratio should be 1:5 and shouldn't be reduced
● Passive recovery
● Primarily develops speed & muscular power

MEDIUM INTERVAL:
● Designed to improve the anaerobic glycolysis system
● Work period is usually 15 to 60 secs at 85% max HR
● Work-to-rest ratio of 1:2 or 1:3
● Primarily develops anaerobic capacity, muscular power & speed

LONG INTERVAL:
● Primarily trains aerobic power & muscular endurance
● Training alternates higher-intensity work with rest/reduced intensity
● Work periods generally 1 min or longer
● Work-to-rest ratio of 1:1 or greater (2:1, 3:1)

HIGH INTENSITY INTERVAL TRAINING (HIIT):

● Aerobic training with periods of short, high intensity work followed by lower intensity
recovery
● Work-to-rest ratio of 2:1
● Work periods generally 20 mins or more

RESISTANCE/WEIGHT TRAINING
Exercising muscles against a resistance (e.g. bench press, dumbbells).

Training principles can be applied by:

● Frequency: 3-4x per week
● Intensity: Dependent on component being trained
● Duration: 6-8 weeks
● Specificity: Use relevant muscle groups, mimics actions of the sport/fitness testing
● Progression:
● Increasing weight
● Increasing sets
● Increasing reps
● Increasing training sessions
● Decreasing recovery time

BENEFITS OF WEIGHT TRAINING

● Increases force production (strength)
● Promotes weight loss & balance
● Prevents osteoporosis
● Improves psychological well being
● Improves dynamic stability
● Forms foundation for development of speed, power & agility

PLYOMETRIC TRAINING
A form of resistance training/strength training used to develop muscular power. Involves a
rapid eccentric contraction of the muscles followed by a rapid concentric contraction (e.g.
hand clap push-ups, hopping, skipping)

Training principles can be applied by:

● Frequency: No more than 3x per week
● Intensity: Maximal
● Duration: 6-8 weeks
● Specificity: Jumping events/sports that including a lot of jumping
● Progression:
● Increasing height
● Increasing length/depth of jumps

TRAINING CONSIDERATIONS
● This training method places a grain strain on the body
● Recommended to wear non-slip shoes on a cushioned floor
● 48 hours recovery is vital before another session
 CIRCUIT TRAINING
A sequenced performance of exercises at different activity stations

Training principles can be applied by:

● Frequency: 3-5x per week
● Intensity: Dependent on energy systems being trained
● Duration: Minimum 20 mins over a period of 6-12 weeks
● Specificity: Include exercises using relevant muscle groups & skill movement/elements from
the sport
● Progression:
● Increasing number of stations
● Increasing number of reps
● Increasing time at each station
● Decreasing recovery time between stations

BENEFITS OF CIRCUIT TRAINING

● Offer variety
● Several fitness components can be targeted in one training methods
● Specificity can be maintained
● Can accommodate large groups of people
● Minimal equipment is required

TYPES OF CIRCUIT TRAINING

● Fixed - Time circuit
● Performer completes as many reps as possible within allocated time

● Fixed - Load circuit

● Number of reps at each station is predetermined, performer moves station to station
completing the designated sequence

● Individual Load
● Number of stations & reps is designed specifically for the individual

FLEXIBILITY TRAINING
Many sports require a large range of motion required to perform the actions required.
Flexibility training is an important part of an athletes training program.

Training principles can be applied by:

● Frequency: 3-5x per week
● Intensity: 65-85% max HR
● Duration: Minimum 10 secs holding stretch (static)
● Specificity: Stretch relevant muscle groups
● Progression:
 ● Increasing range of motion around the joint

BENEFITS OF FLEXIBILITY TRAINING

● Improve sporting performance
● Reduced risk of injuries
● Improves posture
● Reduced impact of DOMS
● Releases stress & tension

Types of flexibility training:

STATIC STRETCHING:
● Simplest & safest form of stretching
● Involves stretching to a position holding for 10 secs
● Ideally part of a cool-down activity

DYNAMIC STRETCHING:
● Joint is moved through its range of motion with controlled momentum
● Performed during a warm-up

BALLISTIC STRETCHING:
● Where the joint is moved through its range of motion with force
● Has a high risk of injury

PROPRIOCEPTIVE NEUROMUSCULAR FACILITATION (PNF) STRETCHING

● Most effective method of improving flexibility
● Involves repeating isometric contractions of the muscle, relaxing the muscle & then
stretching again slightly further

CHAPTER 14 - TRAINING DESIGN

INTRODUCTION
Factors considered before starting physical training include:
● Objectives of the program
● Physiological demands of the activity being trained for
● Physiological strengths and weaknesses of the individual
● The training resources and facilities available
● How to gauge progress so as to identify appropriate modifications needed to be made
PLANNING A TRAINING PROGRAM
The goal of any training program is to improve a person's physiological capacity & facilitating chronic
adaptations needed to meet specific demands of an activity
3 steps to designing a training program:
● Activity analysis:
Energy systems, fitness components & muscle groups
● Fitness testing:
Assess fitness levels by performing fitness tests that are reliable & valid
● Selecting appropriate training methods:
Determining which training methods you will employ
● E.g. a mid-court player in netball requires high levels of aerobic power & anaerobic capacity,
so fartlek & short-interval training may be employed

COMPONENTS OF AN EXERCISE TRAINING SESSION

Appropriate sequencing should be followed for every exercise training session. The more prepared
your body is, the less likely you are to be injured.

The 3 basic components of an exercise:

WARM-UP
Benefits:
● Increases muscle temperature
● Increases core body temperature
● Increases respiratory rate
● Decreases viscosity of joint fluids
● Increases elasticity of muscles
● Increases HR & blood flow to working muscles

Stage 1
Start with 5-10 mins of slow activity at a low intensity with general aerobic exercise (walking,
low-intensity jog or bike activity)
Stage 2
Movement-based activities replicating actions in the main training session should gradually increase
in intensity. Flexibility (e.g. dynamic stretching) should be incorporated into every warm-up. E.g.
basketball player passing, dribbling & shooting

THE CONDITIONING PHASE

Following the warm-up, this is the main part of your training session where you specifically target
identified areas of weakness/maintain physiological requirements of your sport

Training volume & training intensity

Training volume - Recorded in time (e.g. mins per session/hours per week or distance covered)
Training intensity - How hard the individual is training.
Can be measured in:
● HR
 ● Oxygen consumption
● Weight lifted
● Blood lactate concentration levels
● Rate of perceived exertion

THE COOL-DOWN
Includes performing an active recovery (same locomotion patterns) & is vital in helping return the
body to pre-exercise levels & reversing effects of fatigue (removing waste products). It also helps
reduce the effects of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).

Benefits:
● Removal of metabolic by-products
● Maintains elevated oxygen levels to muscles
● Reduction in muscle stiffness
● Reduction in DOMS
● Gradual reduction in HR
● Prevention of venous pooling
● Improved flexibility to muscles
● Helps relax the athlete

STRETCHING
A cool-down presents the best time to perform stretching exercises (static/PNF stretching). This
allows a reduction in the effects of DOMS & allows gains in joint flexibility
Benefits of forms of stretching:
Resistance bands -
● Can be used for a comprehensive, full body stretch challenging virtually every major muscle
group
● Is easy to use alone
● Adds variety to your program
● Is cost-effective
Foam rollers -
● Increases blood flow
● Maximises effectiveness of stretching
● Eliminates painful trigger points in soft tissues
● Accelerates removal of waste products after exercise
● Increases oxygen to muscles

PERIODISATION
Systematic planning of physical training aiming to reach an optimal level of performance at the most
important times of the year, while helping to prevent overtraining

STRATEGIES TO RECORD & MONITOR TRAINING DATA

A training record is an important monitoring/reflective tool, & entries in a training log enables us to
reflect on participation in training sessions enabling ongoing evaluation & critique of individual
sessions & the program overall.
RECORDING METHODS
Methods can include training diaries, digital activity trackers, mobile apps & wearable devices.
Information generally includes physiological work undertaken, distance run, weight lifted, reps & sets
completed.
Recording keeping allows you to:
● Monitor general performance & training load
● Avoid overtraining/injury
● Evaluate & adjust training loads
● Review microcycles & macrocycles
● Stay motivated
● Improve goal setting
● Provide feedback to coaches

Benefits of digital activity trackers, apps & wearable devices:

● Provides objective data
● Information is easily stored & shared
● They provide reminders
● Allows athlete to connect with fellow users (social support) & coaches

Examples of training data:

Physiological data:
● Energy levels
● HR responses
● Muscle soreness
● Sleep patterns
Psychological data:
● Emotional variables
● Readiness to train
● Motivational variables
● Goal setting
Sociological data:
● Weather conditions
● Training time & day
● Type of training session
● Venue of training

TRAINING PROGRAM EVALUATION

Monitoring each session through recording methods allows reflection & modifications made
instantly. Once the training program & post-fitness testing are completed, an individual can evaluate
& critique the overall effectiveness of the program. Redesigning/modification is then possible.
CHAPTER 15 - CHRONIC ADAPTATIONS

● CHRONIC ADAPTATIONS

The body's long term physiological changes of the cardiovascular, respiratory & muscular
systems occurring in response to demands placed on the body through consistent training.

○ Adaptations can be structural or functional

○ Structural change = Increased size of left ventricle >> Functional change = Increased
blood volume in left ventricle
○ Effects of training are specific to the type of training (aerobic/anaerobic) & system in
which the physiological change is occurring

AEROBIC ADAPTATIONS
Adaptations resulting from aerobic training improve the aerobic energy system
providing energy to working muscles & removing waste products
Best developed through:
○ Continuous training
○ Circuit training
○ Long interval training
○ Fartlek training
● Factors affecting adaptations:
○ Training status (fit/unfit)
○ Intensity
○ Age
○ Gender
○ Genetics

LIP - Allows athlete to work at a higher intensity for longer, yet not suffering fatigue due to
build-up of H+ ions

RESPIRATORY ADAPTATIONS
Changes at the respiratory level leads to increased levels of oxygen we are able to
intake for delivery & consumption
 STRUCTURAL

○ Increased lung ventilation (max) - Increased due to tidal volume & respiratory rate.
Means more oxygen is breathed in per min
○ Greater alveolar-capillary surface area - Greater lung volume allows an increase in
alveolar-capillary surface area. Surface area between the alveoli air sacs & blood
vessels leads to more sites available for pulmonary diffusion
● FUNCTIONAL

○ Decreased respiratory rate (submaximal & max) - An increase in tidal volume means
more is breathed in therefore less breaths are needed so RR decreases
○ Increased pulmonary diffusion - Allows for a greater amount of oxygen extracted
because of increases in both the number of capillaries surrounding the alveoli,
alveoli size & lung volume

CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS
Changes at the cardiovascular level leads to an increase in the levels of oxygen we
are able to transport

● STRUCTURAL

○ Increased left ventricle size - Greater volume of blood ejected with each heartbeat
allowing more oxygen to working muscles (increased SV & Q)
○ Increased capillarisation of heart muscles - Capillary density & blood flow to heart
increase as a result of cardiac hypertrophy. Increased supply of blood & oxygen
allows heart to become stronger/efficient
○ Increased blood plasma, blood cell count & haemoglobin - Increase due to blood
volume increasing. Haemoglobin is responsible for transporting oxygen therefore
increased oxygen carrying capacity. Blood volume can increase up to 25%
● FUNCTIONAL

○ Increased stroke volume - More blood being able to be circulated around the body &
therefore more O2 available to working muscles
○ Decreased HR (rest & submaximal) - Increase in SV allows decrease in heart as a
result of greater efficiency
○ Increased cardiac output (maximal) - More blood can be circulated around the body
meaning greater supply of O2. A chronic adaptation to training is a decrease in HR
meaning there is no overall change to Q during rest & sub-max
○ Increased blood flow - More blood can fill & then be ejected out of the ventricles
allowing a greater volume of blood ejected with each heartbeat
 MUSCULAR CHANGES
Changes at the muscular level allow benefits such as enhanced oxygen
uptake & consumption, through to the metabolic process associated with
aerobic energy production

● STRUCTURAL

○ Muscular hypertrophy (size) - Slow twitch fibre size increases at rest, submaximal &
max allowing body to work longer aerobically
○ Increased size, number & density of mitochondria - Mitochondria increases in size
allowing for greater ability to produce ATP aerobically allowing less reliance on
anaerobic system with associated hydrogen ions
○ Increase in myoglobin content - Improved ability to extract & deliver oxygen
increases the amount of oxygen delivered to muscles
○ Increased fuel stores (glycogen & triglycerides) - Increased muscular storage of fuels
along with oxidative enzymes required to metabolise fuels allows body to be more
efficient in ATP production as less effort converting & transporting fuel
● FUNCTIONAL

○ Increased oxidation (glucose & fats) - Increase in capacity of muscle to oxidise fuels
allowing athlete to rely less on glycogen thereby 'sparing' glycogen stores
○ Increase a-vO2 difference - Measure of oxygen difference between arterial & venous
blood. A-VO2 increases due to myoglobin stores & the increased number & size of
mitochondria within muscles. Means more oxygen is extracted

A-VO2 diff

○ Difference in oxygen content of the blood between arterial & venous blood
○ Amount of oxygen extracted from the muscles

ANAEROBIC ADAPTATIONS
Anaerobic training focuses on the development of ATP-PC & anaerobic glycolysis
energy systems leading to improvement in the muscular system & some changes
occurring in the cardiovascular system

Best developed through:

○ Short interval training
○ Plyometric training
○ Circuit training
○ Resistance training
Factors affecting adaptations:
○ Training status (fit/unfit)
 ○ Intensity
○ Age
○ Gender
○ Genetics

MUSCULAR CHANGES
Changes at the muscular level includes benefits including increased anaerobic
capacity, muscular strength, speed & power
● STRUCTURAL
○ Increased ATP, PC & glycogen stores - Results in faster breakdown of fuels for the
anaerobic glycolysis system to use
○ Increased glycolytic enzymes - Results in faster breakdown of glycogen for the
anaerobic glycolysis system to use
○ Increased ATPase - Enzyme helping to facilitate breakdown of ATP to ADP allows for a
more rapid release of energy
○ Muscular hypertrophy (size) - As a result fast twitch fibres increase in size allowing
greater forces to be produced & greater amount of stored ATP & PC
● FUNCTIONAL
○ Increased glycolytic capacity - The rate at which glycogen can be broken into lactate
is increased
○ Increased tolerance to metabolic by-products
○ Increased lactate tolerance - Due to increase in glycogen & glycolytic enzymes
allowing athletes to work at higher intensities

RESISTANCE TRAINING

NEUROLOGICAL

○ Increased motor-unit recruitment - Greater number of motor units mean a greater

force can be developed
● Structural

○ Increased size of connective tissue - Allows stronger attachment to the bone &
greater forces to be produced during muscle contractions. Lessens risk of injury
● Functional

○ Increased speed & force of contraction - Due to greater recruitment of fast twitch
fibres
HYPERTROPHY
○ Increased number & size of myofibrils - Increase the cross-sectional area of the
muscle
 ○ Increased contractile proteins - Increase the contractile capacity of the muscle as
well as the overall size of the muscle fibre
○ Increased size/strength of connective tissue (tendons & ligaments) - Connective
tissue thickens allowing improved structure. Tendon thickness allows for greater
attachment assisting in force production

CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES
Results in hypertrophy of the heart with an increase in the size of the heart muscle

● STRUCTURAL

○ Increased thickness of the left ventricle wall

● FUNCTIONAL

○ More forceful contraction of the heart

○ More forceful ejection of blood from the heart

CHAPTER 16 - PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERFORMANCE

TRAINING YOUR BRAIN

Successful performance in most sports require 4 major mental qualities:
● Concentration - Ability to maintain focus
● Confidence - Belief in one's abilities
● Control - Ability to maintain emotional control regardless of distraction
● Commitment - Ability to continue working towards agreed goals

PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TRAINING (PST)

Every PST program matches a participant's individual needs focusing on 1 or more principles dealing
mainly with cognitive-behaviour aspects of sports psychology. Psychological factors can impact an
athlete both mentally (motivation, focus) & physically (tight muscles, increased HR, feeling tired)
Program common stages:
● The education phase:
A short (1-2 hr) that involves assessing the level of mental skills typically involving discussion
on how skills such as arousal regulation & imagery are used by elite athletes to maximise
performance levels

● The acquisition phase:

Involves more sessions than the education phase & focuses on psychological skills to be learnt
& tailored to the individual (e.g. replacing negative statements with positive ones). The next
 step involves being taught how to use these positive individualised techniques in a competitive
setting

● Practice phase:
It is best if these psychological skills become automatic via overlearning, with the athlete
making the skills an integral part of their practice to replicate in real games. During this phase a
diary is vital to record frequency & perceived effectiveness of these skills to provide feedback
for future improvements
PST can be used to:
● Help build confidence
● Enhance motivation
● Manage stress & anxiety (maintaining optimal arousal)
● Use imagery & visualisation
● Focus concentration & attention

MOTIVATIONAL TECHNIQUES
Motivation is a complex area as many factors influence a person's motivation at any given time

PLAYER MOTIVATION
Extrinsic motivating factors
● Prize money
● Certificates
● Chocolates
● Progress charts/trophies
Intrinsic motivating factors
● Being satisfied with one's performance
● Enjoying the competition
Motivated performers tend to:
● Attend practice/training sessions being punctual
● Successfully complete assigned tasks
● Encourage team mates & be involved in club activities outside training environment
● Regularly meet expected targets during training/competition
● Outwardly show motivated behaviour
● Perform at their best without rewards

FORMS OF MOTIVATION & REINFORCEMENT

Tips for scheduling reinforcements effectively:
● Appropriate behaviour should be awarded
● Reward successful steps towards achieving desired response
● Provide specific & motivational feedback to inspire continued/greater effort
● Use verbal feedback (e.g.'well done')

Positive motivation - Provides positive reinforcement after the individual has displayed the desired
behaviour (e.g. badges, jellybeans, performance information or positive feedback such as 'that's
terrific')
Negative motivation - Imposed after undesirable behaviour such as an incorrect move during
training, disapproving comments or rebukes (e.g. making the athlete perform push-ups or star jumps
as punishment
*The same reinforcer/method shouldn't be used continually (variation is needed)

GOAL SETTING
Another example of a motivational technique. Athletes are more committed when they have a goal.
Improves performance by:
● Focusing attention on important elements of the skills being performed
● Activating & organising an athlete's efforts
● Encouraging perseverance
● Promoting the development of new learning strategies
● Refining movements & set plays
3 types of sporting goals:
● Outcome goals - The end result (e.g. finishing in the top 5 of triathlon)
● Performance goals - Past & present performances compared (e.g. Improving a PB by 0.10 s in
100m)
● Process goals - Physical movement & game strategy actions to execute (e.g. a team set-play
offence in basketball)

'SMARTER' GOALS
● Specific - Goals must be specific & clear to focus attention
● Measurable - Assessed against a standard or previous performance
● Accepted - All parties (coaches/players) involved in setting goals should accept them
● Realistic - Goals need to be challenging, yet achievable
● Time Phased - Specific dates should be set for completion of goals
● Exciting - Goals should challenge, excite & inspire the athlete
● Recorded - Written down & recorded for future reference & as a source of motivation

BUILDING CONFIDENCE
Another motivational technique is building confidence in an individual which allows positive
emotions, focus under pressure & will remain on task for long periods of time & work to achieve
goals

IMPROVING CONFIDENCE
Athletes use the following strategies to improve confidence levels:
● Act & think positively
● Positive self-talk
● Use of mental imagery (picture success)
● Focus on the next segment of play
● Focus on their performance
● Focus on small milestones
● Be well trained - body conditioning, skills, tactics

SLEEP & PERFORMANCE

Sleep & rest is vitally important both physiologically & psychologically
 Sleep debt is associated with:
● Decreased ability to metabolise glucose, essential for ATP production
● Increased level of stress hormones such as cortisol
● Decreased activity of human growth hormone (tissue repair) leading to injury
● Decreased aerobic endurance
● Increased perceived exertion
● Increased feeling of tiredness
● Increased moodiness
● Reduced brain function & ability to make decisions
Sleeping habits should involve:
● Conducive sleeping arrangement - Comfortable bed
● Avoiding screen time - Hormonal responses to content & light emissions
● Avoiding stimulants - Caffeine & alcohol
● Avoid large meals - Allow 4 hrs between meal & sleep

ACHIEVING OPTIMAL AROUSAL

Defined as the degree of activation that an individual experiences when faced with a sporting
situation. It is a continuous sequence ranging from drowsiness/sleep to a psyched-up hyperactive
state
Arousal level characteristics:
● Under-aroused: Feelings of boredom/tiredness, muscles feel heavy & lethargic, decreased
enthusiasm
● Optimal aroused: Athlete 'in the zone', joyful experience, Athlete performs in the moment
● Over-aroused: Feelings of tension, anxious, High excitement, tense muscles
Factors causing an athlete to feel anxious or stressed:
● Not feeling prepared due to inadequate prep/training
● Teammates not performing well
● Team conflict
● Opponents behaving poorly

Sport competition anxiety test

Measure an athlete's tendency to experience anxiety during a comp. Based on 10 questions with a 3
point scale scored between 10 (low competitive anxiety) to 30 (high competitive anxiety)
Arousal Reduction Arousal Promotion
 ● Progressive muscle relaxation ● Elevated breathing rate
Focuses on the difference between tension & Helps reduce tension the same way
relaxation by tensing & relaxing (5-10s) major breathing control reduces tension. Activates
muscles from head to toe for 20-30 mins daily. the CNS increasing state of awareness &
This helps decrease mental tension helps shut out distractions

● Meditation ● Act energetically

Involves exercising an individual's attention When an athlete feels tired, acting energetic
allowing the cognitive processes (e.g. decision increases arousal levels
making) to rest. Reduces physical stress placed on
the body. Concentration is very important ● Positive self-talk
Using emotive words (tough, aggressive) or listening
● Controlled breathing to upbeat music increases arousal levels
Helps to relax & refocus while preparing for the
next action or part of a match

● Biofeedback
A technique used to modify automatic body functions
during training. Electronic instruments provide athletes
with a range of feedback (HR, muscle tension & skin
temp) allowing athletes to become more attuned to their
physiological functions & control them more effectively

MENTAL IMAGERY
Energising mental imagery involves visualising something uplifting (e.g. a swimmer visualising himself
moving through water like a seal). For max effect simulation & imagery should be used together

DEVELOP EFFECTIVE ROUTINES

Having a routine allows you to focus on key factors preventing potential distractions (e.g. the crowd)
entering your mind. Mental imagery involves the individual performing skills before actually doing
them
Imagery improves performance by:
● Improving neural pathways between the brain & muscles enhancing muscle activity
● Providing a mental template of rehearsed sequences that can be used as is or adapted to suit
variations in performance environments
● Enabling athletes to practice & prepare for events
● Decreased anxiety
● Increased motivation
SIMULATION
Similar to imagery, it aims to train the brain to cope with circumstances that occur during a
game/comp. However simulation is carried out by making the physical training environment as
possible to the game setting (e.g. training in front of spectators, umpiring a competition)

CONCENTRATION
1. Focusing on relevant environmental cues - Known as selective attention enables players to
block out irrelevant cues (spectators, noise)
2. Maintaining attention focus over time - Involves maintaining focus over extended periods of
time & not allowing concentration lapses to occur
3. Having awareness of the situation - Ability to size up the game situation, opponents & other
environmental factors bringing about the most appropriate response (e.g. Athletes doing the
right thing during pressure-packed conditions)

Attention in sport is described as:

● Width - How narrow or broad the attention is
● Direction - Either internal or external focus
This model brings 4 possible types of attention:
● Broad internal focus - Used to focus on thoughts & feelings (e.g. a fast bowler preparing to
run in to the wicket)
● Broad external focus - To focus outwards on an opponent's actions (e.g. watching an
opponent trying to make a fast break in a cycling race)
● Narrow internal focus - To focus on thoughts & mentally rehearse upcoming movements (e.g.
a springboard diver)
● Narrow external focus - Used to focus on very few external cues (e.g. a footballer focusing on
the ball while waiting to take an unopposed chest mark)

CHOKING
Can cause concentration to falter. This occurs when athletes sense a build-up of pressure/a lot
dependent on the outcome of the next phase of play resulting in focus of attention to internal &
narrow
Physical changes:
● Increased muscle tension
● Increased breathing rate
● Racing heart rate
Leading to performance impairment:
● Timing & coordination breakdown
● Muscle tightness & fatigue
● Rushing
● Inability to attend to task-relevant cues