PSIR

Political Science & International

Relations Optional
PAPER 1 PART B
COMPLETE FOOTNOTES

Shashank Tyagi
Faculty PSIR Optional, StudyiqIAS
Ex. Consultant, Office of Minister
Social Welfare, GNCTD
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Political Strategies of India’s Freedom Struggle

Gandhian movements
Key ideas ● Used satyagraha as a mass movement.
● He applied Gramsci's war of position and war of maneuver.
● Gandhi integrated divided sections of society like men and women,
workers and capitalists, upper caste and lower caste, Hindus and
Muslims.
● He employed the S-T-S strategy for negotiating citizens' rights with the
British.
CDM (1930-31): ● Protesting against the Simon Commission.
Causes ● Economic hardship during the Great Depression.

Demands ● Abolition of salt tax.

● Total prohibition on liquor.
● Release of political prisoners.
● Abolition of CID.
Key Participants ● Sarojini Naidu - Led the Dharasana Salt Works protest.
● C. Rajagopalachari - Active in Tamil Nadu.
● V.O. Chidambaram Pillai - Involved in Andhra Pradesh, among others.
Characteristics ● Spontaneous and leaderless due to INC leaders' arrests before the
launch.
● Masses became their own leaders.
● Parallel governments in Ballia and Tamluk, among others.
● Not supported by Hindu Mahasabha, Muslim League, communists, or
princely states.
● No communal riots.
● Gandhi allowed force for self-defense.
● It was the final struggle of his life.
Reactions ● Ambedkar called it a misadventure.
● Roy accused Gandhi of strengthening fascist forces.
● Francis Hutchins criticized QIM but recognized the need for violence
in mass struggle.
Conclusion Gandhi, the "mahatma," led India to independence through the Quit India
Movement.

Revolutionary Movements

Key ideas ● Advocated violence to terrorize the British.

● Individual acts of heroism, loot, and assassination of officials using
arms and ammunition.
● Aimed to inspire youth for the independence movement.
● Influenced by Anandmath and Bandijivan, Russian and Irish
revolutions.
● Played crucial role during passive periods of Congress-led activities.
● Notable figures: Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindrakumar Ghosh, Lala
Hardayal, Shyamji Krishna Varma, V.D. Savarkar, and more.
● Kakori dacoity, Delhi conspiracy case, Chittagong armoury raid were
significant events.
● Believed in self-sacrifice for the country's good and liberating women.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

1
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Drawbacks of ● Limited appeal compared to Gandhian approach due to extreme

Revolutionary patriotism and violence.
Movements ● Exclusion of women and elderly who couldn't participate in such
extreme methods.
● Conflicted with India's cultural ethos.
● British used the violent acts as an excuse to respond with force.
Conclusion Bipin Chandra observed that they not only instilled pride but also
removed the fear of authority.

Role of women

Key ideas ● Sarla Devi Chaudhrani founded the Bharat Stree Mahamandal.
● Ramabai Ranade was associated with the Ladies Social Conference.
● Savitribai Phule played an important role in the freedom struggle.
● Laxmi Sehgal led the Rani Jhansi Regiment.
● In the 1857 revolt, Laxmi Bai and Begum Hazrat Mahal emerged as
prominent figures.
● Annie Besant was associated with the Women's Association.
● Sarojini Naidu led the Salt March at Dharsana Salt Works.
● Sucheta Kriplani and Aruna Asif Ali played significant roles during the
Quit India Movement.
● Madam Bhikaji Cama was the first woman to hoist the Indian flag at
the International Socialist Conference in Stuttgart, Germany.
● Kalpana Dutta and Pritilata Waddedar were part of the Chittagong
Armoury Raid led by Surya Sen.
● According to Partha Chatterjee's book "Nation and its Fragments,"
the woman question was not a primary concern for the nationalists.
● The nationalist paradigm overshadowed the issue of women during
the freedom struggle.
● Nationalist leaders avoided criticizing Indian traditions to mobilize the
masses against the British.
● Tilak's view was that social reforms should come from within society
and not be imposed, reflecting a status quoist attitude towards
women.
● Bipin Chandra termed the Indian national movement as inclusive,
involving all classes and sections, including peasants and workers.
● The most exploited class faced challenges like land tenancy systems,
industrial revolution's impact on handicrafts, and caste-based
discrimination.
● Peasant movements such as the Sanyasi Rebellion, Indigo Rebellion,
Deccan Agricultural Riot, Pabna Revolt, and communist-led Telangana
and Tebhaga movements emerged in response to these hardships.
Subaltern Perspective ● According to subaltern historians like Ranajit Guha, Gandhi sought
reconciliation between oppressors and the oppressed.
● Gandhi prioritized national unity over class concerns, making the
national movement multiclass.
● Irfan Habib and Gyan Pandey assert that nationalist historians
wrongly credit Gandhi for leading peasant movements, which were
independent efforts.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

2
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Peasant movements played a crucial role in pressuring the British,

leading to significant legislations like the Bengal Tenancy Act (1885)
and Deccan Agricultural Relief Act (1879).
● Despite challenges, Indian peasants' struggle contributed significantly
to shaping the course of history.

Role of Trade Unions

Key ideas ● In India, trade unions have often been subordinate to political parties,
with agenda-setting power lying with the latter.
● Modern workers emerged in the 19th century with the development
of railways, postal, and telegraph services.
● Leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and Gandhi showed interest in addressing
workers' hardships.
● Gandhi's first hunger strike was during the Ahmedabad mill strike.
● Trade unions like the Bombay Mill Hands Association (founded by NM
Lokhande), Ahmedabad Mill Association (founded by Gandhi), and
AITUC (founded by NM Joshi) played significant roles in representing
workers' interests.

Worker Movements

Key ideas ● Early worker movements were sporadic and disorganized, rendering
them largely ineffective.
● Leaders like SS Bengalee, NM Lokhande, and Sasipada Banerjee
played pivotal roles in consolidating trade unions for workers' rights
and child labor issues.
● Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association gained prominence, inspired
by the Russian Revolution and the establishment of ILO.
● Trade Unions Act (1926) and Trade Disputes Act (1929) provided
rights and privileges to registered unions, fostering the growth of
trade unionism.
● Bombay Industrial Disputes Act (1938) mandated compulsory
recognition of unions by employers, giving a significant boost to trade
unionism.
● After WW1, trade unions gained momentum, with leaders like Tilak
and Chaman Lal founding AITUC.
Conclusion Workers’ movements during British rule stands as a prime example of
class struggle as espoused by Marx and Gramsci.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

3
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Perspectives on Indian National Movement

Radical Humanist Perspective

Key ideas ● The Indian Independence Movement faced criticism from MN Roy's
Radical Humanism as stated in his book "New Humanism - A
manifesto."
● MN Roy's Radical Humanism rejected traditional assumptions,
focusing on human needs and conditions.
● Roy held critical views on Congress and Gandhi's roles in the INM.
● He referred to Gandhi as a "weak and watery man" and formed the
"Radical Democratic Party" after leaving Congress.
● Radical Humanists supported Indian cooperation with the British to
defeat German fascism during World War II.
● They criticized the Quit India Movement, viewing it as Congress'
neglect of national defense.
● Radical Humanists believed the INM fell short of providing true
freedom to Indians.
● Roy faced criticism for his unpatriotic stand against Congress and
Gandhi.
● Socialist Ram Manohar Lohia echoed Roy's view on the INM and its
outcomes.

Liberal perspective

Key ideas ● This perspective represents the hegemonic school of the Indian
Independence Movement (INM).
● They view the nation as a political entity and reject cultural
nationalism.
● Cultural nationalism is considered suitable for small countries like
Israel, while large and diverse countries like India and the USA are
viewed as political nations, formed by the people's collective efforts.

Nationalist Perspective

Key ideas ● Early nationalists, like S. Banerjea, viewed India as a nation in the
making.
● They believed that Western education and ideas of liberty played a
significant role in shaping national consciousness.
● The formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) provided a
platform for self-expression and self-assertion.
● Early nationalists saw the masses as needing leadership from the
Western-educated middle class to mobilize them effectively.
● They had a moderate approach towards the British, viewing them as
agents of modernization and justice, limiting their demands.
● Early nationalist leaders, despite belonging to the middle class, were
devoted to the cause of the nation and acted as spokespersons for the
silent majority.
● They represented various classes, communities, and groups,
advocating national, secular, and progressive politics.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

4
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Early nationalists not only sought political reforms but also fought
against societal customs like sati, polygamy, and female infanticide,
as exemplified by figures like I.C. Vidyasagar and R.R. Mohan Roy.
● R.C. Majumdar observed that at the beginning of the 19th century,
there were Bengalis and Marathis but no common Indian identity. The
movements launched by the Congress helped forge a sense of Indian
unity.
● Dr. Tarachand's writings provide further insights into this liberal
perspective on nationalism during the Indian National Movement.
Criticism of ● Ranajit Guha criticized nationalist historians for presenting a one-
Nationalist Historians sided and blinkered history, focusing mainly on the spiritual biography
of Indian elites.
● Gyan Pandey pointed out that nationalist historians overlooked the
significance of mass struggles outside the Congress realm, particularly
movements involving tribal and peasant communities. These
movements played a crucial role in shaping the freedom struggle but
were often ignored or marginalized in the narrative presented by
nationalist historians.

Marxist/Socialist Perspective

Key ideas ● The Marxist/Socialist perspective forms the counter-hegemonic

school of the Indian National Movement (INM).
● Their analysis of the national movement is based on an understanding
of the role of economic factors and classes in shaping the nation and
the movement.
● Karl Marx recognized the insidious nature of British rule in India, but
also saw it as a blessing in disguise, arguing that the 1857 revolt was
a rebellion of feudal elements to protect their privileges rather than a
war of national independence.
● They reject nationalism as an instrument of the bourgeoisie and
advocate for proletarian internationalism.
● Marxist historians view the leaders of the movement as traditional
intellectuals, who assumed responsibility for specific classes through
ideological leadership.
● Peasant movements like Tebhaga, Telangana, and Kisan Sabha, and
workers' movements like the Ahmedabad mill strike are seen as
revolutionary movements in the truest sense.
● They founded the Congress Socialist Party but understood that
Congress must lead the movement under British rule, with the
socialists playing a supporting role to counter rightist forces from
within Congress (Dutt-Bradley thesis).
Scholars ● M.N. Roy: Criticized the nationalist struggle and believed nationalists
would join hands with imperialists. Critic of Gandhi's methods, seen
as against the interests of the proletariat. INC represented youthful
bourgeoisie's political ideology (India in Transition).
● S.A. Dange: Socialist leader who, along with Acharya Narendra Dev,
had his own perspective on the national movement.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

5
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

●
Jaiprakash Narayan: Initially critical of Gandhi, later became a
Gandhian, advocating for Sarvodaya and partyless democracy (Why
Socialism).
● Bipin Chandra: Viewed the INM as a bourgeoisie-led movement, but
later recognized successful practice of Gramscian perspectives on war
of position and war of maneuver (India's Struggle for Independence).
● Rajani Palme Dutt: Referred to Gandhi as a mascot of the bourgeoisie,
viewed the 1857 revolt as a rebellion of old conservative and feudal
forces.
● E.M.S. Namboodiripad: In his work "Gandhiyum Gandhisavum,"
described Gandhi's struggle as restricted and believed he was a tool
of the bourgeoisie.
Problems with this ● Dependency on USSR: Indian communists relied heavily on directions
Perspective from the Soviet Union, which hindered their understanding of India's
unique situation.
● Ambedkar's Critique: Ambedkar pointed out the weaknesses of the
communists and kept the Dalit cause separate from the broader cause
of the poor, as advocated by the communists.
● Sumit Sarkar's View: Sumit Sarkar argued that Gandhi was not simply
a bourgeois tool or a puppet in the hands of capitalists, challenging
the communist perspective on Gandhi's role in the national
movement.
Conclusion: marxist perspective fails to realise the important role of INC and Gandhi
to consolidate various sections of people to rise against the british and
liberate india from the clutches of colonialism.

Dalit Perspective

Key ideas ● Origin and Reaction: The Dalit perspective emerged in response to
the social hierarchy dominated by Brahmanical hegemony.
● Criticism of Congress: Dalit intelligentsia criticized the Congress for its
lack of commitment to sharing power with Dalits and doubted the
upper-caste leadership's dedication to achieving social equality.
● Indian Social Conference: Initially, Congress refrained from
addressing social reforms, leading to the formation of the Indian
Social Conference by MG Ranade, which focused on reformation
within the Indian system.
● Ambedkar's View: B.R. Ambedkar emphasized that any struggle for
freedom that did not address the abolition of internal oppression was
of no importance. He saw Brahmin rule as worse than British rule.
● Social Revolution: Ambedkar believed that social revolution to
achieve equality for Dalits was essential. Without such a revolution, a
change in political leadership from British rule to the Indian National
Congress would only strengthen the grip of upper castes over Dalits.
● Periyar's Critique: Periyar emphasized that as long as untouchability
existed, discussions of freedom and self-rule were meaningless.
● Primacy of Socio-Economic Movements: Dalit intelligentsia
prioritized socio-economic movements over the anti-colonial struggle
due to their experiences in an unjust society.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

6
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Ambedkar's Criticism: Ambedkar criticized Congress and Gandhi for

doing nothing to address untouchability, and he saw no future for
Dalits in India without the abolition of caste.
● Phule's Perspective: Jyotiba Phule compared British rule favorably to
the oppressive Peshwa rule and questioned how a nation divided into
numerous castes could be unified.
● Social Unity and Nationalism: Ambedkar stressed that without social
unity, India could not be a nation, and nationalism should be based
on social equality and justice.
● Democratic Socialism: Ambedkar advocated for democratic socialism
with the idea of one man, one vote, and one value, influenced by John
Dewey's American Fabian socialism.
● Beyond Freedom: Dalit leaders believed that the goal of the INM
should be more than just attaining freedom; it should lead to a society
without caste antagonism, which the movement did not achieve.
Conclusion Dalit perspective reveals nationalism's foundation in fraternity,
demanding an inclusive society free from inequalities, ensuring equal
rights for all. Redefines the essence of Indian National Movement.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

7
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Salient Features of the Indian Constitution

PREAMBLE
Introduction ● The Preamble is a brief summary of the Constitution, expressing its
ideals and goals.
● It is based on Nehru's objectives resolution presented in the
Constituent Assembly.
● The practice of writing a preamble was first seen in the US
Constitution.
● In the Kesavananda Bharati case, the Supreme Court affirmed the
Preamble's integral status within the Constitution.
● The Preamble reflects India's core ideas and philosophy, shaping the
entire constitution-making process.

Significance ● SC in Berubari Union case 1960 affirmed its importance, serving as a

key to the minds of the constitution makers and clarifying ambiguities.
● It declares the authority source as the people of India, reflecting the
concept of popular sovereignty of Rousseau.
● It defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, republic, and
democratic polity, indicating the nature of the Indian state.
● The Preamble specifies the constitution's objectives, including justice,
liberty, equality, and fraternity for the Indian people.
● The term 'Sovereign' emphasizes India's hard-earned independence
through the struggle for freedom.
● 'Socialist' represents the aim of socio-economic equality, while
'Secular' reflects the secular nature of Indian society.
● The term 'Republic' indicates an elected head, and 'Democratic'
strengthens the values of democracy in India.
● Justice in social, economic, and political spheres is secured through
the provisions of Fundamental Rights.
● The word 'Fraternity' in the Preamble emphasizes the unity and
integrity of the nation, complemented by fundamental duties and
single citizenship in the Constitution.
Conclusion N A Palkhivala aptly termed it the 'identity card of the Constitution,' while
K M Munshi likened it to the 'horoscope of our sovereign democratic
republic.'

Fundamental Rights (FR)

Key ideas ● Fundamental Rights (FR) are rooted in Harold Laski's notion of crucial
rights for genuine democracy.
● They serve as a check against state authoritarianism and foster the
development of a constitutional state.
● In India, FR are fundamental to democracy and act as a safeguard
against government excesses.
● FR can be compared to a landmine, deterring any attempts by the
government to trample upon them.
● The National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution
(NCRWC) proposed to extend Article 15 and 16 to protect against

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

8
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

discrimination based on factors like ethnic or social origin and political

opinion.
● NCRWC also suggested expanding Article 19 to explicitly include
freedom of press, the right to hold opinions, and other media-related
freedoms.
● Additionally, NCRWC recommended the addition of new rights such
as protection against torture, cruelty, and inhuman treatment, the
right to speedy justice, and the right to access safe drinking water,
prevent pollution, and promote sustainable development.

Fundamental Duties (FD)

Key ideas ● Fundamental Duties (FD) were introduced in 1976 based on the
Swaran Singh Committee's recommendation.
● Making FD enforceable was avoided to prevent resemblances to
totalitarian states.
● FD are criticized for their vague wording.
● Verma Committee and NCRWC suggest creating awareness and a
conducive environment for citizens to willingly observe duties with
pride.
● Mahatma Gandhi linked rights with embryonic duties in his Hind
Swaraj.
● SC clarified that FDs are not enforceable through court writs but hold
importance similar to fundamental rights.
● NCRWC recommends popularizing and strengthening FD.
● Proposed new FDs include the duty to vote, pay taxes, promote family
values and responsible parenthood, and ensure children's well-being.
● Industrial organizations should educate employees' children.
● “Ask not what the country can do for you, ask what you can do for
your country”. - JF Kennedy

Directive Principles of State Policy

● DPSP aims at social and economic justice, inspired by the Irish

Constitution and GOI Act, 1935.
● Considered the "Conscience of the Constitution" and novel features
by Granville Austin and B.R. Ambedkar, respectively.
● Criticized for possibly going against the federal nature, but SC allows
Article 356 application for non-compliance with DPSPs.
● DPSPs play a crucial role in achieving SDGs and implementing NITI
Aayog's recommendations.
● NCRWC recommends amending the heading of Part IV, adding a new
principle on population control, establishing an interfaith commission,
and creating a high-status review body.
● BR Ambedkar: Political freedom had no meaning unless it was
accompanied by social and economic freedom

Fundamental Rights vs ● Fundamental Rights (FR) aim at political democracy, while Directive
Directive Principles of Principles of State Policy (DPSP) aim at socio-economic democracy.
State Policy (DPSP)

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

9
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● FR emphasize individual rights, while DPSP focuses on community

rights, leading to a conflict between liberal and Asian values.
● India's welfare state concept combines capitalism and socialism,
leading to a "legitimation crisis" as per Habermas.
● Court cases like Champakam Dorairajan, Golaknath, and
Keshavananda Bharati addressed the conflict and established a
harmony between Part III and IV through the doctrine of basic
structure.
● The doctrine of harmonious construction emphasizes balance
between FR and DPSP, recognizing that both are essential for India's
social revolution.
Conclusion FR,DPSP and preamble constitute the conscience of the constitution-
Granvillle austin

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

10
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Principal Organs of the Union Government: Envisaged role and actual

working of the Executive, Legislature, and Supreme Court.

Governor
Introduction ● According to Paul R. Brass, the Constitution of India was born in an
atmosphere of fear and trepidation, with concerns about partition
and secessionist challenges.
● The primary challenge after independence was to integrate India into
a cohesive nation, given the lingering threats of partition and
secession.
● The establishment of the office of a governor aimed to play a
significant role in keeping the situation under control and preventing
any tendencies towards Balkanisation.
● The governor's role became crucial in maintaining unity within states
and preventing any secessionist trends.
● The governor's office was intended to act as a check against potential
threats to India's territorial integrity and sovereignty.
● The Sarkaria Commission emphasized the governor's role as a
linchpin of cooperative federalism, promoting collaboration between
the central government and the states.
● Cooperative federalism refers to a system where both the central
government and the states work together to address common issues
and promote the overall development of the country.
Issues ● Trust Deficit: The discretionary powers vested in the Governor (Article
163) have led to a trust deficit between the Union and State
governments.
● Soli Sorabjee, in his book, "The Governor: Sage or Saboteur,"
highlights how the arbitrary exercise of discretionary powers has
transformed cooperative federalism into bargaining federalism.
● Instances of Controversial Decisions: Examples from Karnataka, Goa,
Manipur, and Uttar Pradesh demonstrate instances where the
Governor's decisions were questioned, leading to political turmoil and
controversies.
● Maharashtra Case: In Maharashtra, the Governor's refusal to accept
the election date recommended by the State government resulted in
a situation where the Assembly could not elect the Speaker.
● Political Appointments: The Governor's appointment by the Centre
creates concerns that a Governor may not be acceptable in an
opposition-ruled state, especially if they possess powers to create
administrative obstacles.
Way ahead ● MM Punchhi Commission: The Governor should exercise
discretionary powers sparingly, avoiding any biased or arbitrary
decisions.
● NCRWC: The Governor's loyalty should be solely towards the
constitution and the well-being of the people of the state, ensuring
impartiality in decision-making.
● 2nd ARC: The Governor must act impartially and demonstrate a
strong sense of fair play in handling matters related to the state's
governance.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

11
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● 1st ARC, 1969: Consultation with the Chief Minister of the state
before the Governor's appointment can promote better
understanding and coordination between the two offices.
● Independent and Non-Partisan Approach: The Governor should act
above party politics, safeguarding the interests of all citizens and
upholding democratic principles.

Prime Minister (PM)

Key ideas ● He is the central figure in a parliamentary form of government, as

described by Harold Laski.
● He serves as the keystone of the Cabinet architecture and the pivot
around which the entire governmental machinery revolves.
● Article 74(1) of the Indian Constitution stipulates the formation of a
Council of Ministers (COM) with the Prime Minister as its head, whose
role is to aid and advise the President.
● Regarding the position of the Prime Minister, two models are often
discussed.
● The first is "primus inter pares," which means the PM is first among
equals, implying that while he is the head of the government, he is
still part of the collective decision-making body.
● The second model is "luna inter stellas minores," likening the PM to
the moon among the stars, suggesting a higher and dominant position
within the government.
Conclusion Overall, the Prime Minister plays a crucial role in the functioning of the
parliamentary system and holds significant authority and responsibility in
guiding the government's policies and decisions.

Speaker

Introduction The position of the Speaker holds significant importance in a

parliamentary democracy. While Members of Parliament represent their
individual constituencies, the Speaker represents the full authority of the
entire House.
Issues ● Politicization of the post: The Speaker's office has sometimes been
subject to political influences, which can compromise the neutrality
expected from the position.
● Page Committee in the UK: A partisan Speaker can be detrimental to
the functioning of parliamentary democracy, raising concerns about
its effectiveness.
● Anti-defection: There is no fixed time limit for the presiding officer to
decide on cases of defection, leading to delays and potential
manipulation.
● Suspension of opposition members: Instances of opposition
members being suspended from the House raise questions about
impartiality and fair treatment.
Way ahead ● Adopting the British model: Following the principle of "once a
speaker, always a speaker," the Speaker should be expected to remain
above party politics even after holding the office.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

12
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Emulating the USA: The Speaker's role could be limited to convening

meetings, without openly supporting any political party.
● Upholding GV Mavalankar's vision: Speakers should strive to
maintain impartiality and remain above party affiliations once
elected.

President

Introduction The President of India is the Head of State and first citizen, as defined in
Article 52 of the Constitution.
Presidential activism ● It is observed when the President acts on their discretion, often seen
during cohabitation when the President and Prime Minister are from
different parties.
● Judicial decisions like Shamsher Singh and Ram Jawaya confirm the
President's role as the constitutional head.
● Notable instances of activist Presidents include Rajendra Prasad's
stance on the Hindu Code Bill, GZ Singh's use of the pocket veto, KR
Narayan's refusal to impose Article 356, and APJ Abdul Kalam's
actions on the Office of Profit Bill.
● Recent ordinances, like farm laws and extending CBI, ED director
tenures, have raised concerns about executive accountability to
Parliament.
Ambedkar stressed the importance of dignitaries following constitutional
morality, suggesting that it does not sanction unrestricted presidential
activism.
Conclusion The President plays a vital role, like an emergency lamp, intervening when
needed to uphold the Constitution and maintain the functioning of India's
democracy.

Parliament

● Parliament, as the supreme legislative body of India, plays a crucial

Introduction role in its democratic system.
● However, there is a paradox as India's democracy deepens, but its
legislatures seem less relevant.
Decline of Parliament ● Devesh Kapur and PB Mehta's book, "Rethinking Public Institutions in
India," offers insights into the decline of Parliament.
● Plebianisation of Indian democracy is a contributing factor to the
diminished influence of legislatures.
● The flawed practice of question hour results in a mere 15% of listed
questions receiving oral answers due to frequent disruptions.
● The voting patterns of MPs are often unrecorded, limiting
transparency.
● Recent years have seen a decline in the number of sittings and
decreased productive time in Parliament.
● Coalition politics contributes to policy paralysis, hindering effective
decision-making.
● The lack of a responsible opposition normalizes disruptive behavior
instead of constructive engagement.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

13
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

●
The presence of MPs with accusations of heinous crimes, as reported
by ADR, indicates a need for electoral reforms.
● The politicization of the Speaker's post affects impartiality and the
functioning of the legislature.
● Globalization challenges the sovereignty of Parliament, impacting its
ability to act decisively.
● MPs' inadequate training and capacity building hinder their
effectiveness in Parliament.
● The Ethics in Governance report highlights the lack of parliamentary
ethics, raising concerns about ethical conduct.
● The declining quality of debates reduces the intellectual rigor in
legislative discussions.
● The overarching powers of the tenth schedule often lead to partisan
Speaker appointments, undermining impartiality and meaningful
dissent.
Reforms needed in As suggested by NCRWC, clearly defining and limiting the privileges of
Parliament legislators is essential.
● Implementing a Parliamentary ombudsman system would enhance
transparency and accountability.
● A tracking mechanism should be developed to make executive actions
on reports like CAG and PAC publicly available online.
● Setting minimum sitting days for Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha at 100
and 120 days respectively could improve legislative productivity.
● To address the concerns raised by VP Hamid Ansari, fostering
informed and constructive debates is crucial.
● Introducing a Pre-legislative Consulting Policy, as in 2014, can ensure
bills are placed in the public domain for 30 days before being
introduced in Parliament.
● Public consultations enhance participative and deliberative
democracy, treating citizens as partners rather than subjects.
Parliamentary ● Woodrow Wilson emphasized the significance of parliamentary
Committees committees, stating that they are where Congress is at work, in
contrast to its sessions which are more like exhibitions.
● The history of parliamentary committees in India dates back to the
Montague-Chelmsford reforms of 1919, which led to the creation of
committees like the PAC and Estimates Committee in 1921.
● However, as highlighted by Mehta and Devesh Kapur in their book,
"Rethinking Public Institutions in India," committees suffer from
various weaknesses seen in parliamentarians, such as lack of capacity,
short tenure, ministers' disregard for non-member advice, absence of
separate remuneration, and non-binding recommendations.
● Instances have been observed where presiding officers have refrained
from sending important bills for committee consideration to expedite
the legislative process.
● Criticisms have been raised by PB Mehta, who points out that the
Parliament has been reduced to a mere "notice board."
● The percentage of bills referred to committees has declined over the
years: 71% in the 15th Lok Sabha, 27% in the 16th Lok Sabha, and 11%
in the current one.
● Poor attendance of members and the limited duration of committees
add to the challenges faced by parliamentary committees in India.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

14
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Anti-defection

Introduction Anti-defection provisions were introduced in the Indian Constitution

through the 52nd Amendment Act in 1985, also known as the Tenth
Schedule. The 91st Amendment Act in 2003 made some modifications to
the provisions.
Provisions ● Disqualification of members: The Tenth Schedule lays down the
grounds for disqualification of members of Parliament and State
Legislatures if they voluntarily give up their party membership or defy
the party's whip.
● Independent and nominated members: Independent members and
nominated members are treated as a part of the political party or
group they support for the purposes of anti-defection.
● Following the whip: Members are bound to follow the instructions
issued by their political parties on voting matters, failing which they
may face disqualification.
● Anti-party activities: Engaging in any anti-party activities can lead to
disqualification of a member under the anti-defection law.
SC Judgements ● Kihoto Holohan case (1993): The Supreme Court held that the
Speaker's decision regarding disqualification is subject to judicial
review, considering the Speaker as a quasi-judicial authority.
● Ravi Nayak case: Even in the absence of a formal resignation, a
member can be deemed to have voluntarily given up party
membership based on their conduct.
Issues ● Silencing legislators: Anti-defection laws, which were meant to
prevent "horse-trading" of legislators, have sometimes been used to
silence genuine dissent within parties.
● Impact on parliamentary system: It has reduced the will of the
legislature to hold the executive accountable, affecting the essence of
a parliamentary system.
Way ahead ● Independent tribunal: SC has suggested an independent tribunal to
decide anti-defection cases, given the partisan nature of some
Speaker's decisions. The proceedings should be concluded within
three months.
● NCRWC recommendations: Debar defectors from holding any public
office for the remaining term, and treat votes cast by defectors to
topple a government as invalid.
● Dinesh Goswami Committee: Issues of disqualification to be decided
by the President/Governor on the advice of the Election Commission,
with whips limited to crucial matters.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

15
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

JUDICIARY
Introduction Lord Bryce emphasized that the performance of a government's judicial
system is a true test of its excellence.
Phases of Indian a. 1950-1967: Positivist reading of the constitution with a literal
judiciary interpretation (legal positivism).
b. 1967-1977: Judiciary became a challenger to executive overreach,
displaying judicial activism, especially post the Keshavananda Bharati
case.
Judiciary as an ● Prof. Upendra Baxi lauds the Indian judiciary for its role in doing
institution "chemotherapy of carcinogenic Indian politics."
Admirer: Prof. ● He believes that the Supreme Court has transformed from being the
Upendra Baxi Supreme Court of India to becoming the Supreme Court of Indians,
implying that it represents the interests and concerns of the entire
nation.
● According to Prof. Baxi, the Supreme Court is not merely limited to
settling disputes but is actively engaged in governance, taking on a
proactive role in shaping and guiding the course of the country.
Critic ● P.B. Mehta refers to the judiciary as a paradoxical institution, pointing
P.B. Mehta out that while it demands accountability from others, it appears to be
less accountable itself.
● He criticizes the judiciary's use of powers of contempt as "judicial
barbarism," implying that it resorts to harsh measures to silence
criticism or dissent against its decisions.
● According to Mehta, the judiciary exhibits a promise of uncertainty,
as its views and interpretations often change in subsequent
judgments, leading to unpredictability and lack of consistency.
● He expresses concern about the growing judicial sovereignty in India,
suggesting that the judiciary is increasingly assuming a dominant role
over other branches of the government.
Lavanya Rajamani of ● Lavanya Rajamani argues that the judiciary appears more enthusiastic
the Centre for Policy about endorsing the works of the executive, even in areas where it
Research lacks expertise, rather than focusing primarily on its own judicial
duties and responsibilities.

Judicial Activism

Introduction ● Judicial activism refers to the proactive role taken by the judiciary in
safeguarding citizens' rights and preserving the constitutional and
legal framework of the country.
● Article 36(4) includes the judiciary within the definition of the "state,"
and Article 37 places an obligation on the state to implement the
Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
Kalpana Kannabiran's ● Kalpana Kannabiran observes that India's judiciary is transitioning
View from a phase of "literal legalism" to an era of judicial activism.
● In this context, the court is increasingly perceived as a political
institution that can play a crucial role in resolving social
disagreements and addressing societal issues beyond mere
adherence to strict legal interpretations.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

16
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Methods of Judicial ● Judicial Review under Article 13: The judiciary can review and strike
Activism down laws that are found to be inconsistent with the provisions of the
Constitution.
● Basic Structure Doctrine: The Supreme Court, through the basic
structure doctrine, ensures that the essential features and framework
of the Constitution cannot be altered by constitutional amendments.
● Public Interest Litigation (PIL): PIL allows citizens to approach the
court on behalf of the public interest, even if they are not directly
affected, leading to the court's intervention in issues of public
importance.
● Article 32: Article 32 empowers the Supreme Court to issue writs for
the enforcement of fundamental rights.
● Article 142: Article 142 grants the Supreme Court the authority to
pass any order or decree necessary for securing complete justice.
Views on Judicial ● PB Mehta and Devesh Kapur argue in their book "Rethinking Public
Activism Institutions in India" that judicial activism has arisen due to the failure
of the executive and legislature in fulfilling their responsibilities,
leading to a void that the judiciary has filled as a political institution.
● Bhikhu Parekh describes India as a classic case of "judicial co-
governance," emphasizing the significant role the judiciary plays in
shaping and co-governing the country alongside the elected branches
of government.
Conventional School ● Lord Jowitt: He expressed the view that it is inappropriate for judges
Views on Judicial to make laws, as it goes against the traditional role of the judiciary as
Activism an interpreter of laws and not a lawmaker.
● Former Justice Bharucha: He argued that the judiciary lacks the
necessary resources and expertise to micromanage the vast
administrative machinery of the government, suggesting that judicial
overreach can lead to inefficiency and difficulties in governance.
● Markandey Katju: He advocated that judges should only interpret and
apply the law, and not engage in law-making. However, they must
speak out when there is a clear legal position but not create law when
there is none.
● Supreme Court: While quoting Montesquieu's "The Spirit of Laws,"
the court pointed out that judicial activism can violate the principle of
separation of powers by encroaching on the powers of the other two
organs of government (the executive and legislature). The judiciary
should exercise restraint and respect the boundaries of each branch's
authority.
Contemporary School ● Lord Reed: He believes that judicial interpretation is a creative
Views on Judicial process and that judges inevitably make law when they interpret and
Activism clarify legal principles.
● P.N. Bhagwati: He criticizes judicial activism as a way of avoiding
responsibilities, suggesting that the judiciary should not overstep its
role and instead leave policy making to the elected branches of
government.
● Former CJI RC Lahoti: He views judicial activism, especially when it
holds the executive accountable, as an example of judicial
statesmanship, where the judiciary takes a proactive role in
safeguarding citizens' rights and interests.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

17
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Examples of Judicial ● Liquor Ban on Highways: The Supreme Court's decision to ban the
Activism sale of liquor on highways aimed at reducing road accidents and
promoting road safety.
● Vishakha Guidelines: The court formulated guidelines to address
sexual harassment at the workplace, filling a legislative gap and
ensuring protection for working women.
● Lily Thomas Case: The court's judgment in this case declared that
Members of Parliament and Members of Legislative Assemblies
would lose their seats if convicted of certain offenses, which aimed to
uphold the integrity of elected representatives.
● Right to Food and Nutrition: The Supreme Court recognized the right
to food and nutrition as an inherent part of the fundamental right to
life under Article 21 of the Constitution.
● COVID-19 Response: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the judiciary
took proactive steps by directing the diversion of industrial oxygen for
medical use, seeking explanations from the government on vaccine
policy, and inquiring about schemes for orphaned children affected
by the pandemic. These actions sought to protect public health and
ensure government accountability.
Examples of Judicial ● Ordering Centre to Create a New Policy for Drought: In some cases,
Overreach the Supreme Court has directed the central government to formulate
specific policies or plans, which some critics argue exceed the
judiciary's domain.
● Allahabad HC Directing Lockdown in UP: When the judiciary issues
directives like imposing a lockdown, it may be seen as stepping into
the domain of the executive, leading to concerns about judicial
overreach.
● Ordering Government to Set Up a Bad Loans Panel: When the court
directs the establishment of committees or panels to address certain
issues, it may be perceived as crossing the line between judicial
review and legislative action.
● Reformation of BCCI: In the context of sports bodies like the Board of
Control for Cricket in India (BCCI), the Supreme Court's involvement
in appointing administrators and managing internal affairs has been
critiqued as judicial overreach.
Critics and Views on ● Nani Palkhivala: He emphasizes that the judiciary's role should be
Judicial Overreach that of an alarm clock, reminding other branches of government
about their constitutional duties, rather than taking on executive
functions.
● P.B. Mehta: He has referred to certain instances of judicial overreach
as examples of a "Weimar judiciary," where the judiciary encroaches
upon the executive's functions, akin to the judiciary in the Weimar
Republic of Germany.
● Lord Sumption: His remark highlights that the rule of law should not
be interpreted as requiring a legal solution for every societal problem,
suggesting that some issues are better addressed through non-legal
means.
● Doctrine of "Presumption of Constitutionality": Critics argue that the
judiciary should exercise restraint by presuming that the legislature,
being a deliberative organ, understands and addresses the needs of
the people, thus avoiding unnecessary interference.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

18
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Judicial reforms from ● Increase the number of judges to handle the growing caseload, aiming
niti SFNI@75 for 75,000 judges by 2024.
● Address the issue of undertrial prisoners, with 68% of prisoners being
undertrials or awaiting trial.
● Reduce the backlog of pending cases, which currently stands at
around 3 crore.
● Establish regional benches of the Supreme Court, as proposed by the
Vice President of India.
● Merge and rationalize tribunals to enhance their efficiency.
● Establish an Indian Courts and Tribunals Services and an All India
Judicial Service Examination to maintain high standards in the
judiciary.
● Provide continuous training to judges in line with international best
practices.
● Embrace technology to improve the functioning of courts.
● Implement recommendations from the Malimath Committee to
improve the criminal justice system.
● Address the challenges faced by the Collegium system, as mentioned
by Justice D. Y. Chandrachud.
● Ensure the Office of the Chief Justice of India comes under the
purview of the Right to Information Act.
● Work towards achieving the recommended ratio of 50 judges per 10
lakh population, given that currently, there are only 20 judges per 10
lakh.
● Prevent misuse of the Special Leave Petition under Article 136, which
allows appeals in the Supreme Court after the judgment of a lower
court.
NCRWC ● Increase the retirement age of judges in High Courts to 65 and in the
recommendations Supreme Court to 68.
● Restrict the power to punish for contempt of court to only the
Supreme Court and High Courts, removing such authority from other
courts.
● High Courts should create a plan for timely resolution of pending
cases, ensuring that no case remains pending for more than one year.
● Introduce the system of plea bargaining as part of the process of
decriminalization.
Conclusion ● In the words of JL Nehru ''Indian judiciary will not be a mere spectator
rather an active participant in India's social revolution.” Judicial
review is needed but should not turn to judicial overreach

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

19
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

"Basic Structure" doctrine

Chronology ● Champakam Dorairajan Case (1951): Parliament can amend
fundamental rights by constitutional amendment.
● Golaknath Case (1967): Fundamental rights are sacrosanct and
cannot be amended by Parliament.
● 24th and 25th Constitutional Amendments (1971): Limitation on
judicial review and primacy of Directive Principles over certain
fundamental rights.
● Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973): Introduced the "Basic Structure"
doctrine, limiting Parliament's amending power to protect essential
features of the Constitution from alteration.
Key points ● Doctrine of basic structure grants significant power to the judiciary,
surpassing American SC's authority to review constitutional
amendments.
● Judiciary assumes the role of a "super legislature" akin to the
constituent assembly through basic structure doctrine.
● Concerns raised about the doctrine acting as a potential "Damocles
sword" over the Indian Parliament.
● Zia Mody's book "10 Judgements that Changed India" highlights how
basic structure doctrine favors uncertain democracy over certain
authoritarianism.
● Satya Prakash, The Tribune's legal editor, views the doctrine as a
theological interpretation, emphasizing that people should have a
chance to decide on constitutional changes.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

20
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Grassroots Democracy
Introduction ● Grassroots democracy entails devolving decision-making authority to
the lowest organizational level.
● The idea finds inspiration in Gandhi's swaraj, Roy's radical democracy,
and DDU's Antyodaya.
● DPSP Article 40 emphasizes organizing village panchayats for local
governance.
Challenges ● The problem of 3Fs (Funds, Functions, and Functionaries).
● Panchayats often function as front offices for various government
programs rather than having true decision-making authority.
● Lack of synchronization between state finance commissions and
finance commissions hinders policy coordination and funding of
schemes.
● Community or khap panchayats running parallel to gram panchayats
create confusion in local governance.
● State politicians' reluctance to devolve powers to lower levels can
hinder the success of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).
● Village councils are sometimes seen as mere slogans to prevent
public discontent from getting organized.
● India is considered a good performer in political decentralization, but
it lags in fiscal and administrative decentralization.
● Substantive provisions of the 11th schedule, aimed at empowering
panchayats, are not fully implemented.
● PRI often functions under the control of state bureaucracy, leading
to delays and lack of autonomy.
● Ambiguity in the functional jurisdiction of panchayats limits their
effectiveness.
● The gram Sabha, in many states, has lost power and serves as a
rubber stamp for gram Panchayat decisions.
● Dependency on state governments for funds hampers the financial
independence of panchayats.
● Local governments suffer from a low equilibrium trap, as they lack
funds for capacity development.
● Societal factors, such as upper-caste resistance to accepting women
and dalits as sarpanches, create challenges in grassroots democracy.
Findings of the Mani ● Decentralization of corruption has occurred as a result of the
Shankar Aiyar functioning of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).
Committee ● The introduction of "Sarpanch Raj" has led to a nexus between local
bureaucrats and the Sarpanch, causing potential corruption.
● Instances of bogus Gram Sabha meetings have been reported, which
raises concerns about the effectiveness of the decision-making
process.
● The committee recommends that other states, similar to Kerala,
should establish a Panchayat Ombudsman to allow people to register
complaints against corrupt officials.
● The 11th Schedule, which contains the functions of PRIs, has been
criticized as being inadequately implemented or not fully utilized.
Achievements of Local ● Empowerment of Women: Political reservation for women in PRI
Governments (PRIs) in elections has increased female labor force participation and enhanced
India their decision-making power.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

21
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Increase in Female Candidates: Around 50% of the rise in female

candidates in higher-level elections can be attributed to panchayat-
level reservations.
● Decentralized Decision-Making: Gram Sabhas' authority to veto
projects, like the Niyamgiri case, showcases their power.
● Local Development: PRIs address community-specific needs,
delivering essential services efficiently.
● Social Inclusion: Local governments ensure representation of
marginalized groups, fostering social inclusion.
● Financial Inclusion: PRIs control finances, mobilizing resources for
local development.
● Strengthening Grassroots Democracy: PRI elections promote active
participation in the democratic process.
● Awareness and Capacity Building: Local governments raise
awareness and provide training to empower local leaders.
Recommendations ● Implementing the Principle of Subsidiarity: The concept of
democratic decentralization should be based on the principle of
subsidiarity, which means that decisions should be taken at the lowest
level of authority possible, closer to the people.
● State Panchayat Council under CM: Consider establishing a State
Panchayat Council under the Chief Minister's office to ensure
coordination and cooperation between state government and local
bodies.
● Empowering ECI: Give the Election Commission of India (ECI) the
authority to issue directions to State Election Commissions for
conducting free and fair elections to local bodies.
● CAG Audit of PRI: Empower the Comptroller and Auditor General
(CAG) to conduct audits of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) to ensure
transparency and accountability in the utilization of funds.
● Constitutionally Define Devolution of Powers: Define the scope of
devolution of powers to local bodies as institutions of self-
government through appropriate constitutional amendments.
● Setting up National Commission for Panchayati Raj: Establish a
National Commission for Panchayati Raj to oversee and guide the
functioning of local bodies across the country.
● Rotation of Reserved Seats: Introduce a rotation policy for reserved
seats in local bodies to incentivize good work and provide
opportunities for more individuals to participate in the democratic
process.
● Re-orient Lower Bureaucracy: Provide training and orientation to
lower bureaucracy to work in tandem with panchayats, promoting a
more positive outlook and cooperation towards local governance.
● Legislative Councils with Local Representation: Consider constituting
Legislative Councils in all states and provide representation to
panchayats and municipalities to ensure their voices are heard in the
legislative process.
● Share of GST to Local Governments: Allocate a share of Goods and
Services Tax (GST) revenue to local governments, providing them with
a stable and independent source of funding for development
activities.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

22
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Examples of women ● Himachal Pradesh, Kashlog District: Prevented illegal mining by

sarpanches making a Ambuja Cement.
positive impact ● Madhya Pradesh: Kantibai installed hand pumps and improved road
infrastructure.
● Women-led Panchayats Tackling Corruption: Women sarpanches
promoting transparency and accountability.
The 74th Amendment ● City administration has a historical background dating back to the
Act in India Indus Valley civilization.
● For instance, in Delhi, the Public Works Department (PWD) handles
road construction, while the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD) is
responsible for checking drains. Ineffective coordination causes
drains to get blocked during road repairs.
● Isher Judge Ahluwalia emphasizes that smart cities cannot exist
without smart municipalities.
● The Punchhi Commission recommended creating legislative councils
in all states to ensure better representation of local bodies.
● Cities often get neglected as rural areas have more significant
representation in the Lok Sabha.
● Municipal bonds can be utilized to raise finance for urban
development projects.
● Performance-based grants are essential for strengthening
municipalities.
● The increased use of Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) might lead to
reduced powers for municipalities.
● Power struggles between Municipal Commissioners and Mayors can
hinder effective governance.
Conclusion Local self governments have made Parliamentary democracy in our
country participative in the real sense. They have removed the
bottlenecks from the path of empowerment of the weaker sections of
society like the dalits, tribals and women.

Grassroots movements

Definition Grassroots movements are attempt to mobilise individuals to take some

action to influence an outcome, often political in nature
Background ● Imposition of Emergency - led to social struggles beyond party
politics.
● Liberalization - promoted citizen engagement and participatory
development.
● Neera Chandhoke's work - emphasized the significance of grassroots
movements as oppositional forces to elected representatives.
● Democratic decentralization - empowered local self-governance and
encouraged grassroots movements to advocate for people's interests.
D L Sheth ● Advocates for economically marginalized and socially excluded
sections of society.
● Addresses struggles related to government policies influenced by
foreign capital due to globalization.
Rajni Kothari ● Views grassroots movements as a manifestation of people's
disconnection from their representatives.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

23
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Expresses concern over the decline of political parties and

parliamentary engagement.
● Notes that political parties mainly focus on elections, lacking
consistent grassroots presence.
Smitu Kothari ● Attributes the rise of grassroots movements to the adverse impacts of
development.
● Observes that globalization has led to movements advocating peace,
human rights, anti-corruption measures, and addressing climate
change.
Ranjita Mohanty ● Grassroots movements have replaced the state's exclusionary
narrative with a counter-narrative of inclusion.
● Expanded non-party political spaces for social actions.
● Helped renegotiate people's relationship with the state.
● According to Ranjita Mohanty, the rapid development of the market
and the state left the community behind, creating a space filled by
civil society organizations and grassroots movements.
Pranab Bardhan ● States that the Indian state prioritizes the interests of the industrial
capitalist class and wealthy farmers, leading to conflicts with
disadvantaged groups.
● Drawing inspiration from Foucault, they argue that social power is no
longer concentrated solely in the state or economy; instead, it is
exercised and resisted at the societal level.
Conclusion ● The Grassroot movements reflect the people's rejection of
exclusionary developmental paradigms and their demand for active
participation. FCRA poses a threat to the autonomy of civil society
movements.
● Grassroot movements unite people around a common cause and
mobilize them to protect all living beings, both present and future
generations.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

24
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Statutory Institutions/Commissions

National commission for women

Value added PointsIn their book "Rethinking Public Institutions in India," PB Mehta and
Devesh Kapur highlight the persistent issues of political interference,
executive overreach, and the lack of accountability standards that have
been undermining India's institutional framework.
NCW formation and ● Formation of Committee on Status of Women in India in 1974.
key Points ● Recommendation of "Towards Equality" report for the establishment
of NCW.
● Establishment of the National Commission for Women (NCW) in 1992
under the NCW Act 1990.
● Constitutional provisions supporting gender equality: Articles 14, 15,
16, 21, Fundamental Duties, and Directive Principles of State Policy
(DPSP).
● Fundamental Duty to protect women's dignity and rights.
● DPSP Articles 39A and 39D emphasize equal pay for equal work and
maternity leave (Article 42).
● Reservation for women in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) and Urban
Local Bodies (ULB) to enhance their representation and
empowerment.
Issues ● Dependency on the Union government for funds and functionaries
leads to reluctance in criticizing the Union government.
● Focus on protection of women's rights rather than empowering them.
● Possibility of becoming a means to distribute political patronage.
● Internal struggle between member secretary and chairperson.
● Recommendations made by NCW are not mandatory, limiting their
impact.
● Criticisms of NCW's effectiveness: lack of transformational ideology,
not being proactive, and limited impact on policies and laws.
● Controversial statements made by NCW heads regarding rape and
gender issues.
● Recommendation to charge funds on the Consolidated Fund of India
to ensure NCW's independence.
● Critique of the radical feminist ideology that only women can
understand women's issues, which might not hold true in
contemporary times.
● Emphasizing the importance of women's progress to measure the
overall progress of a community, and NCW's potential role in
advocating for feminism and gender equality.

National commission for minorities

Key ideas ● Albert Camus emphasized that democracy should not be about the
rule of the majority but the protection of minority rights.
● The Indian Constitution recognizes two types of minorities based on
language and religion. Six communities are designated as minority
communities under the NCM Act 1992.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

25
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● The NCM follows the universal declaration of 1992, which emphasizes

the protection of the identity of minorities, including their national,
ethnic, linguistic, and religious identity.
● Lord Bhikhu Parekh praises the Indian Constitution for its
multicultural approach and equal rights for minorities, ensuring
equality before the law.
● Minorities are granted special rights under Article 25-28 and 29,30 of
the Constitution.
● The Sachar Committee report highlighted the educational disparities
and socio-economic challenges faced by Muslims in India, with a
significant drop in school attendance and low representation in higher
education and government services.
Way Ahead ● Grant Constitutional Status: Elevate NCM's status to enhance powers
and autonomy.
● Investigative Authority: Empower NCM with investigative
capabilities.
● Non-political Nominations: Ensure non-political appointments of
members.
● Inclusivity of All Minorities: Address concerns of all minority groups
equally.
● Holistic Development: Focus on inclusive policies for overall minority
development.
Conclusion Follow "Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas, Sabka Vishwas" for effective NCM
functioning.

NCST (National Commission for Scheduled Tribes)

Key ideas ● Established through the 89th Amendment Act with Article 338A.
● Constitutional provisions: Article 244 (fifth and sixth schedule areas),
Article 23, Article 29, Article 30, and Article 46, ensure protection of
tribal communities' rights.
● Reservation for Scheduled Tribes: 330 seats in State Assemblies, 334
seats in Lok Sabha, and 243 seats in Panchayats.
● Special provisions in states with significant tribal populations under
Articles 371A to 371H, allowing for customary laws in specific
practices.
● Nehru's proposal of Tribal Panchsheel emphasized the right approach
towards tribal people.
● SC/ST Act of 1989 plays a crucial role in protecting the rights of
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes against atrocities.
Issues ● Non-performance: NCST has not delivered any report to parliament
in the last four years, indicating a lack of productivity and output.
● Low Frequency of Meetings: The Commission held only four meetings
in the entire year of 2021-2022, raising concerns about its
commitment to addressing the issues faced by Scheduled Tribes.
● Inefficiency in Complaint Resolution: The rate of resolution of
complaints by NCST is only 50%, suggesting a slow and ineffective
response to the grievances of Scheduled Tribes.

CAG

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

26
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Key ideas ● CAG is vital for accountability and transparency in good governance.
● Constitutional Significance: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar recognized its
importance as a crucial constitutional office.
● Role in Parliamentary System: Assists the PAC in scrutinizing
government actions and ensuring fiscal responsibility.
● Unearthing Financial Impropriety: Exposes financial misconduct by
high-ranking officials.
● Types of Audit: Conducts compliance, financial, and performance
audits.
Credits to CAG ● Indicted Defence Minister VK Menon in 1962 for irregularities in the
purchase of army jeeps.
● Exposing the Bofors gun deal scandal.
● Investigating the 2G spectrum allocation case and highlighting the
estimated prospective loss to the nation due to faulty auction
processes.
● Revealing the Adarsh housing society scam.
● Investigating the Agustawestland VVIP chopper deal and bringing it
to public attention.
Issues with the CAG ● Mode of appointment influenced by the ruling party, leading to
and its audit process concerns about impartiality.
● Delayed responses from the government to CAG reports, with no
penal provisions for non-compliance.
● PAC's tenure should be aligned with the Lok Sabha's term to ensure
continuity.
● Lack of cooperation from ministries in complying with audit inquiries.
● CAG's focus on post-mortem analysis of government expenditure.
● Lack of clear timeframes for tabling completed reports and actions to
be taken.
● Government not bound by CAG's recommendations.
● External audit reports seen as unduly negative, focusing on
irregularities and fault-finding.
● Audit sometimes fails to recognize practical constraints faced by the
government.
● Failure to differentiate between errors arising from genuine
intentions and malicious intent.
● Inadequate credit given for good performance.
● Perception of audit as a policing mechanism for government
organizations.
● Inability to audit secret services, LIC, RBI, etc.
● Lack of time limits for entities being audited to respond to CAG's
requests, leading to delays.
● Recommendation to include local bodies and PPP projects in the
scope of the Audit Act, 1971.
● Supreme Court clarifications on CAG's mandate, stating that there is
no constitutional limitation on its audit scope.
Way ahead for the ● Multi-Member Body: Transforming the CAG into a multi-member
CAG body can enhance its effectiveness and ensure a broader perspective
in auditing processes

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

27
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Collegium System: Adopting a collegium system for appointing the

CAG, similar to the one used for selecting the CBI Director, can help
promote transparency and independence in the selection process.
● Strengthen Cooperation: Encouraging better cooperation between
government ministries and the CAG can lead to more effective and
efficient audits.
● Timely Responses and Action: The government should establish clear
timeframes for responding to CAG reports and implementing the
recommendations.
● Inclusiveness: Expanding the scope of CAG's audit to include local
bodies and Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects.
● Capacity Building: Invest in capacity building for the CAG and its audit
teams to keep pace with the evolving complexities of public financial
management and governance.
● Public Awareness: Raise public awareness about the role and
significance of the CAG in ensuring transparency, accountability, and
good governance.
● Empowering CAG's Recommendations
● Expanding Mandate: Explore possibilities of auditing sensitive areas
such as intelligence agencies, LIC, and RBI,

Election Commission of India

Introduction ● Election Commission of India (ECI) is an essential constitutional body

responsible for overseeing the entire electoral process in India. It
operates under Articles 324 to 329 of the Constitution.
Key functions and ● Electoral Advisory Jurisdiction: The ECI advises the President and
roles of the Election Governors on matters related to disqualification of Members of
Commission Parliament and State Legislatures.
● Conducting Elections: To the Lok Sabha, State Legislative Assemblies,
and Rajya Sabha. It also conducts the Presidential and Vice-
Presidential elections.
● Quasi-Judicial Functions: The Election Commission performs quasi-
judicial functions, such as settling election disputes and recognizing
the legitimate faction in case of a party split, along with allocating
symbols to them.
● Enforcing Model Code of Conduct
● Administrative Functions: The Commission is responsible for
overseeing all administrative aspects of the electoral process,
including voter registration, candidate nominations, polling station
setup, and the declaration of election results.
● Disqualifying Candidates: The Election Commission can disqualify
candidates who fail to lodge their election expenses within the
stipulated time.
● Reducing Disqualification Period: The ECI has the power to reduce
the period of disqualification of a candidate if certain conditions are
met.
● Advisory Role during President's Rule
Issues ● Politicization of the Election Commission during some instances.
● Misuse of government machinery during elections.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

28
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Lack of level playing field for all political parties and candidates.
● Influence of caste, religion, and other identity factors in voting
patterns.
● Manipulation of social media and fake news during elections.
● Allegations of electoral malpractices like booth capturing and voter
intimidation.
● Inclusion of criminals in politics and the impact on the electoral
process.
● Regional variations in electoral practices and conduct.
● Limited representation of women and marginalized communities in
politics and elections.
● Issues related to electoral registration and voter ID cards.
Reforms to strengthen ● Constitutional protection of tenure for Election Commissioners
the electoral process similar to Chief Election Commissioner (CEC).
● Reducing EC's dependence on external ministries for resources.
● Expenditures should be charged to the Consolidated Fund of India
(CFI) for ECI's independence.
● Legal backing to Model Code of Conduct (MCC) recommended by
Dinesh Goswami Committee and NCRWC.
● Collegium system for appointing CEC and EC as suggested by NCRWC.
● Political parties to maintain transparent accounts of funds and
expenditures - NCRWC.
● Introducing Section 58B in RPA, 1951 to address money-related issues
in elections.
● Empowering ECI to deregister political parties.
● Constitution of Special Elections Tribunal for speedy resolution of
election disputes - 2nd ARC.
● Consideration of partial state funding for elections - Indrajit Gupta
Committee.

NHRC - National Human Rights Commission

Key ideas ● "Wherever men and women are persecuted because of their race,
religion, or political views, that place must - at that moment - become
the center of the universe." - Harold Laski
● NHRC was established in 1993 under the Protection of Human Rights
Act, 1993, and adheres to the Paris Principles on Human Rights, 1991.
● Mandate: Strengthen the human rights culture in India and raise
awareness among both the administration and civil society regarding
the importance of respecting human rights.
Issues with NHRC ● Selection committee dominated by the ruling party.
● Perceived lack of proactive action, often limited to issuing notices
without meaningful follow-up.
● Criticized as an ineffective institution, unable to provide practical
relief to aggrieved parties.
● Dependent on the government for funds and functionaries,
compromising its autonomy.
● Limited powers regarding human rights violations by the armed
forces.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

29
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● No independent mechanism for investigation; relies on governments

to investigate cases.
● Lacks enforcement power; limited to making recommendations.
● Sometimes seen as a post-retirement destination for judges and
bureaucrats with political affiliations.
● Many grievances go unaddressed due to the one-year limitation for
registering complaints.
Suggestions ● Commission decisions should be made enforceable to ensure
accountability and implementation of recommendations.
● Reevaluate the composition of the commission by including members
from civil society and human rights activists to bring diverse
perspectives and expertise.
● Develop an independent cadre of staff with relevant experience to
strengthen the investigative capabilities and efficiency of NHRC.
● Make it mandatory for the executive to submit an action taken report
within a year of NHRC's recommendations to ensure timely and
effective follow-up on human rights issues.
Initiatives by NHRC ● Online complaint registration through the HRCNet portal for easy
accessibility and faster response to grievances.
● MADAD counter to assist complainants in filing complaints
effectively.
Actions Taken by ● Issued notices to various state governments, such as Maharashtra and
NHRC Odisha, to address human rights violations, including migrant deaths
and medical negligence.
● Successfully advocated for the rehabilitation of Chakma refugees.
● Played a role in striking down repressive laws like TADA/POTA to
protect human rights.
● Sent notices to the governments of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh
regarding issues like infant deaths in Kota and encounters of criminals,
respectively, to ensure accountability and justice.

NCSC (National Commission for Scheduled Castes)

Introduction ● Established under Article 338 of the Indian Constitution to safeguard

the rights of Scheduled Castes and promote their development.
Challenges ● Paper tiger: The NCSC has been criticized for lacking teeth, as its
recommendations and reports often do not lead to concrete action
and implementation.
● Reports not debated: Despite submitting numerous reports, the
recommendations and findings of the NCSC are not always discussed
and debated in the appropriate forums.
● Conflict with the Ministry of Social Justice: There have been
instances of conflicts and differences between the NCSC and the
Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, which can hinder
effective implementation of policies and programs.
● Lopsided priorities: Some critics argue that the focus of the NCSC has
been skewed towards the elite sections of Scheduled Castes,
potentially neglecting the most marginalized and vulnerable sections.

The National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC)

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

30
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Introduction ● Constituted under Article 338B of the Indian Constitution and

established by the NCBC Act, 1993.
● It operates under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
Key responsibilities ● Addressing grievances of Socially and Educationally Backward Classes
(SEBC)
● Inclusion and exclusion of castes in OBCs: The commission reviews
and examines the inclusion and exclusion of castes in the list of Other
Backward Classes (OBCs) and recommends changes, if necessary.
● Presidential assent for non-adherence: If the President decides not to
accept the advice of the NCBC, they are required to provide reasons
for their decision, which are to be placed before Parliament.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

31
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Federalism: Constitutional provisions; changing nature of center-state

relations; integrationist tendencies and regional aspirations; inter-state
disputes.

Introduction ● Federalism is a political system that derives its name from the Latin
word "foedus," which translates to treaty or agreement.
● In the context of governance, federalism refers to a system where a
central authority and its constituent units come together through an
agreement, sharing powers and responsibilities to govern the nation
effectively.
Scholars have ● W.H. Morris-Jones: He referred to Indian federalism as "bargaining
described Indian federalism," highlighting the negotiation and bargaining between the
federalism in various central government and the state governments in sharing powers and
ways resources.
● Ivor Jennings: Jennings described Indian federalism as "Federation
with strong centralizing tendency," pointing out the presence of a
strong central government in the Indian federal structure.
● Granville Austin: Austin characterized Indian federalism as
"cooperative federalism," emphasizing that while the Constitution
establishes a strong central government, it also preserves the
autonomy and strength of the state governments, making it a unique
form of federation.
● K.C. Wheare: Wheare considered Indian federalism as "quasi federal,"
indicating that it combines federal and unitary features. He viewed
the United States as an ideal federal model, leading to some
ethnocentric bias.
● Alexandrowicz: He termed Indian federalism as "sui generis,"
meaning it is a unique and distinct form of federalism specific to
India's diverse and complex needs.
● Alfred Stepan: Stepan praised India's federal model, labeling it a
"demos enabling model." He believes that federalism is well-suited
for multiethnic democracies like India as it balances the principles of
autonomy and integration.
Critics ● Suhas Palshikar: He argues that while the theoretical foundation for
federalism in India is strong, the actual practice of federalism is weak
and not fully realized.
● Soli Sorabjee: In his book, he criticizes the arbitrary exercise of
discretionary powers by Governors, leading to the transformation of
cooperative federalism into bargaining federalism.
● Yamini Aiyyar: She highlights the increasing presidentialization of
national politics and single-party dominance at the center, which has
diminished the stature of Chief Ministers (CMs) significantly.
● Party-to-party dispute: It is often observed that disputes between the
center and states in India are influenced by the political affiliations of
the ruling parties, leading to a party-to-party conflict rather than a
center-state dispute.
● Balveer Arora: He questions the fairness of the idea of competitive
federalism due to regional disparities, as it can lead to an uneven
distribution of resources and opportunities among states.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

32
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Fiscal federalism ● Vijay Kelkar emphasizes the importance of fiscal federalism for the
federal model.
● He sees fiscal federalism as the economic counterpart to political
federalism.
● Kelkar highlights the need to consider the third tier of government
(local governments) in the discourse of cooperative federalism.
● NK Singh suggests the necessity of a coordination mechanism
between the Finance Commission and the GST Council in his book
"Portraits of Power."
● Both bodies deal with fiscal federalism, and a coordinated approach
is crucial for effective governance and resource allocation.
● This coordination mechanism is seen as an "inescapable necessity" to
enhance cooperative federalism in fiscal matters.
Reorganisation of ● Y. Yadav and R.C. Guha emphasize the need for reorganisation to
States - Sociological address the development deficit and ensure greater representation
Perspective for marginalized sections.
Political Economy ● Atul Kohli argues that states like Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand need to
Perspective open their economy for mineral extraction.
Good Governance ● L.K. Advani and Mayawati advocate for smaller states to ensure
Perspective better governance and administration.
Political Basis ● Louise Tillin and C. Jaffrelot offer insights into the political
motivations and basis behind demands for smaller states.
On Smaller States ● In Favor: Advani, Mayawati, Bibek Debroy, who compares the
situation with the USA's federal structure.
● Against: M.P. Singh and Sudha Pai, who express concerns about
increased expenditure, water disputes, and potential balkanization of
India.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

33
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Centre-State issues
Issues in Legislative ● Shifting Subjects: The 42nd Amendment Act transferred five subjects
Sphere from the State List to the Concurrent List, giving concurrent
jurisdiction to both the Centre and the states to legislate on those
subjects.
● State Laws to Nullify Central Laws: States sometimes pass laws to
counter or nullify central laws, leading to conflicts over legislative
authority. For example, Punjab passed laws to nullify the central farm
bills.
● Articles 249, 252, and 253: These articles allow the Centre to make
laws on subjects mentioned in the State List if it is in the national
interest, in case of a resolution by Rajya Sabha, or if it is necessary for
implementing an international agreement.
Administrative Sphere ● Article 365 and 356: These articles deal with the President's rule in
states and give the Centre the power to take over the state's
administration in certain situations, leading to tensions between the
two.
● Control over All India Services: The Centre exercises control over All
India Services (IAS, IPS, IFS) through appointments and removal of
officers, sometimes leading to disputes with the states.
● Appointment and Removal of State Commission Members: Though
appointed by the state governor, the Chairman and members of State
Public Service Commission and State Human Rights Commission can
only be removed by the President, affecting state autonomy.
NCRWC ● Specify Matters for Interstate Council: The Interstate Council should
Recommendations be given a clear mandate with specified matters falling under its
purview.
● Establish Interstate Trade and Commerce Commission: A statutory
body, named Interstate Trade and Commerce Commission, should be
set up to deal with matters related to trade and commerce between
states.
● Consultation for Governor's Appointment: The President should
appoint a state's governor only after consultation with the Chief
Minister of that state.
● Confidence Test in Assembly: The question of whether a minister in
a state has lost the confidence of the assembly should be tested only
on the floor of the house.
● Time Limit for President's Decision: If a state bill is reserved for the
President's consideration, a time limit should be set within which the
President must make a decision to give assent or return the bill.
Other ● Sarkaria Commission: The commission stressed on avoiding over-
Recommendations centralization and promoting decentralization to prevent excessive
power concentration at the center and ensure better governance at
the periphery.
● Subsidiarity Principle: The 2nd ARC proposed the adoption of the
subsidiarity principle, which involves the delegation of powers to the
lowest level of government capable of handling a task effectively, to
promote efficiency and responsiveness in governance.
PB Mehta views He identifies four key factors for the sustainability of federalism:
● Diversity Accommodation: Federalism should respect linguistic and
cultural diversity within the country, fostering unity.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

34
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Genuine Power Distribution: An effective federal system must

genuinely distribute political power between the central government
and states.
● Political and Institutional Culture: The prevailing democratic and
cooperative culture is crucial for successful federalism.
● Asymmetrical Federalism: In some cases, granting special exemptions
or privileges to certain states based on regional needs enhances
federalism's sustainability.
Conclusion PM Modi- Federalism is no longer the fault line of Centre state relations
but the definition of a new partnership of team India

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

35
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Planning and Economic Development: Nehruvian and Gandhian perspectives;

Role of planning and public sector; Green Revolution, land reforms and
agrarian relations; liberalization and economic reforms.

Gandhi's Perspective ● Not a conventional economist: Gandhi's economic philosophy was

distinct and not based on conventional economic principles.
● Swaraj and Minimisation of Wants: He emphasized self-reliance and
self-sufficiency, advocating the minimization of material desires.
● Non-violence towards nature: Gandhi advocated a sustainable and
harmonious relationship with nature, promoting environmental
consciousness.
● Three Pillars: Gandhi's economic vision centered around economic
growth, redistributive justice, and moral regeneration.
● Gandhian Plan: He proposed reforms in agriculture, revival of
cottage industries, and ensuring basic necessities for all while not
being against industrialization.
Nehru's Perspective ● Progressive Socialism: Nehru's economic vision leaned towards
progressive socialism, with a focus on state-led economic planning
and industrialization.
● Mahalanobis Model: He embraced the Mahalanobis model,
emphasizing heavy industrialization and capital-intensive
development..
Conclusion ● Gandhi's economic philosophy emphasized simplicity, self-reliance,
and a balanced relationship with nature.
● Nehru, on the other hand, focused on state-led industrialization and
economic planning.
● While Gandhi's ideas influenced India's early development, Nehru's
approach played a crucial role in shaping the country's economic
policies.
● Despite their differing perspectives, both leaders aimed to improve
the well-being of the people and address socio-economic challenges
in their own ways.

Land reforms

Key ideas ● Land reforms aim to reform ownership and regulation of land,
redistributing it from landlords to landless laborers for socio-
economic justice and to end feudalism.
● Daniel thorner- India's extensive land reform legislation makes it a
compelling case study due to the vast number of poor people and
magnitude of hunger issues.
● The Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) in Articles 39(b) and (c)
emphasize the need to reduce the concentration of wealth and
economic resources.
● The 9th Schedule was enacted to implement land reforms effectively.
● Driven by the principle of distributive justice
Views of scholars on ● Gunnar Myrdal characterized India as a "soft state," which hindered
failure of land reforms the ability to challenge the power of zamindars, including Nehru.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

36
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● The peasant movement in Kagodu village, Shivamogga district,

marked the first post-Independence movement seeking land for
tenants and resulted in significant land reforms.
● Atul Kohli argued that the state lacks the political capacity to confront
the propertied class, and linked human development to successful
land reforms in Kerala and West Bengal.
● Francine Frankel highlighted how the accommodative politics of the
state have compromised radical land reform agendas.
● Sudipto Kaviraj views the state as an instrument to protect the
interests of the propertied class, leading to limited progress in land
reforms.
● Pranab Bardhan termed the Indian state as "semi-bourgeoisie,"
indicating its partial alignment with capitalist interests.
Suggestions ● The intellectual class should actively reintroduce the idea of land
reforms in public discourse, highlighting its importance for socio-
economic justice and equitable development.
● Civil society organizations have a crucial role to play in mobilizing
peasants and landless laborers, creating grassroots pressure on the
government to prioritize and implement effective land reforms.
● The Government of India should take decisive actions and formulate
comprehensive land reform policies to address issues of land
concentration, rural poverty, and socio-economic inequality.
● Failure to implement land reforms may exacerbate poverty, hunger,
and contribute to the spread of Left Wing Extremism (LWE). Hence,
the government must recognize the urgency of undertaking land
reforms to prevent such consequences.
Green Revolution ● Socio-economic Impact: While it led to increased agricultural
Impacts productivity and food production, it also contributed to the
marginalization of small and marginal farmers who had to mortgage
their lands to afford costly inputs.
● Ecological Impact: Soil degradation and water scarcity became
pressing issues in the long run, affecting agricultural sustainability.
● Political Impact: It gave rise to "Bullock capitalists" who amassed
wealth and power in the agrarian sector.
● Moreover, the political landscape saw the emergence of leaders
representing the interests of OBCs (Other Backward Classes) and
farmer pressure groups like the Bharatiya Kisan Union.
● The regions benefiting from the Green Revolution, such as Delhi,
Western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Haryana, gained prominence in
national politics, and regional parties with farmer leaders gained
significant representation.
● Transformation of Parliament: With the rise of farmer leaders and
representatives from agrarian regions, the composition of the
parliament became more diverse and inclusive.
Conclusion ● What we need is a rainbow and evergreen revolution based on
inclusivity and sustainability- MS Swaminathan

LPG reforms

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

37
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Scholarly views ● Trickle-down effect: Bhagwati believes that globalization has the
Jagdish Bhagwati's potential to benefit the masses through a trickle-down effect, leading
Perspective to a reduction in inequality and improvement in various indicators of
human development.
● Positive Impact: He points out that life expectancy has doubled,
infant mortality rates have declined, and global literacy rates have
improved significantly due to globalization.
Montek Singh ● Economic Reforms: Montek Singh Ahluwalia discusses the impact of
Ahluwalia's economic reforms on social indicators in India.
Perspective ● Challenges: He acknowledges challenges like a large unhealthy,
uneducated, and unskilled population, jobless growth, and the
middle-income trap.
Amartya Sen's ● Concerns: Amartya Sen expresses concerns about the actual pace of
Perspective development, which has not been as substantial as expected,
considering India's economic growth (the "Tiger Sprint").
● Issues in Sectors: He highlights stagnation in the agricultural sector,
the manufacturing sector being bypassed, and the services sector's
lack of skill development at the ground level.
Impacts of 1991 ● Increased Political Parties: Parties like BJP, Shiv Sena, BSP, SP, and RJD
reforms on Indian formed their first governments in the 90s, leading to a more diverse
politics and deliberative political environment.
● Decline of Socialism: Economic liberalization influenced political
ideologies, with Congress removing the word 'socialism' from its
manifesto in 1996, signaling a shift away from traditional socialist
policies.
● Rise of Reformist Chief Ministers: Economic changes empowered
Chief Ministers to adopt industry-friendly policies. States like
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh showcased reforms and attracted
investments, fostering economic growth.
● State Revenue Boost: Breaking the PSU-run monopolies provided
states like Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand with new opportunities for
development and revenue generation.
● Empowerment of Marginalized Groups:1990s saw a significant
proportion of Dalits exercising their franchise, reducing turnout gaps
and increasing political representation.
● Criminalization of Politics: With the rise of money and muscle power
in politics, there has been an unfortunate increase in the
criminalization of politics.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

38
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Caste, Religion, and Ethnicity in Indian Politics

Caste
Introduction ● The notion "Indians don't cast their vote, they vote their caste"
highlights the strong influence of caste in Indian politics.
● “Caste forms the mosaic of Indian politics.”- C. Jaffrelot.
● In the field of comparative politics, the political sociology approach
examines the intersection of politics with societal elements such as
ethnicity, caste, and religion.
● While caste and caste identity have always played a role, their current
impact extends beyond political calculations to influence social
interactions and personal identifications in the public sphere.
The role of caste in ● Prismatic Society: India's diverse and multi-layered society,
India can be characterized by a blend of traditionalism and modernity, allows caste
attributed to several to influence various aspects of life.
reasons ● Subconscious Influence: According to MN Srinivas, caste is deeply
ingrained in the subconscious minds of Indians, shaping their
attitudes, behaviors, and social interactions.
● Political Patronage: Kanchan Chandra highlights that political
patronage is often distributed along caste lines, making caste a crucial
factor in electoral politics and governance.
● Constitutional Framework: Andre Beteille points out that while the
Indian Constitution abolishes untouchability, it doesn't eliminate
caste. Instead, caste continues to play a role in public policies,
exemplified by initiatives like the socio-economic caste census.
Those who argue that ● Rajni Kothari: He emphasizes the role of caste as a significant factor
caste has in shaping political dynamics in India.
strengthened Indian ● Yogendra Yadav: He points to the democratic upsurges triggered by
politics include: the increasing political participation of OBCs (Other Backward Classes)
and Dalits in Indian politics.
● Christophe Jaffrelot (book: "India's Silent Revolution"): He discusses
how lower castes have become more conscious of their rights through
democratic means, and highlights the impact of linguistic
reorganization, green revolution, and the implementation of the
Mandal Commission in enhancing the role of caste in Indian politics.
Those who argue that ● C. P. Bhambhri: He asserts that the interplay of caste and politics
caste has degraded creates a vicious cycle that hinders the progress of politics in India.
politics include: ● Andre Béteille: He highlights that while the Indian Constitution
abolishes untouchability, it does not eliminate caste, and public
policies often continue to be influenced by caste considerations.
● Ashutosh Varshney (book: "Battle's Half Won"): He argues that while
there has been a democratic upsurge and silent revolution due to
caste-based political mobilization, it has not resulted in significant
improvements in the socio-economic conditions of marginalized
communities.
● He cites examples like the rise of Mayawati and Kanshi Ram, which
did not necessarily lead to the overall upliftment of Dalits.

Caste Census

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

39
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Updated data: The data available from the 1931 census is outdated,
Necessary and a caste census would provide a more accurate picture of the
present caste distribution in India.
● Informed decision-making: Having updated statistics on caste
composition will help in formulating better and more effective
policies to address social and economic inequalities.
● Inclusive reservation: A caste census will aid in identifying which
castes should be included/excluded in the reservation scheme,
ensuring a more targeted and inclusive approach.
● Representation in government jobs: Reports suggest significant
disparities in caste representation in central government jobs, and a
caste census can help address the underrepresentation of certain
communities.
Opposing arguments ● Social tensions and identity issues: Conducting a caste census may
lead to social tensions and identity-based conflicts as it reinforces
caste identities.
● Stagnation of social mobility: Once individuals are registered under a
specific caste, it may limit their chances of social mobility and
perpetuate rigid caste divisions.
● Inequality perpetuation: Resource distribution based solely on caste
numbers might lead to perpetuating inequality, with weaker
backward castes receiving less support than dominant ones.
● Distraction from developmental issues: Mobilization around caste
census demands may divert attention from critical developmental
issues like health and education.

Reservation

Key ideas ● Reservation refers to providing advantages to historically

disadvantaged groups to address historical injustice and promote
social equality.
● It is linked to John Rawls' Theory of Justice (TOJ) and his difference
principle, which justifies affirmative action based on reducing
inequalities for the least advantaged.
● Article 16 of the Indian Constitution allows for reservation in public
employment for backward classes, and Article 15 enables special
provisions for socially and educationally backward classes.
● Article 46 of DPSP directs the state to promote the interests of
weaker sections, including SCs, STs, and socially backward classes.
● Yogendra Yadav expresses concerns about the reservation policy
reaching a dead end, suggesting a need for reform.
● The M Nagraj case (2006) brought certain conditions and safeguards
for reservation in promotions, complicating the policy.
● Reforms could include implementing a creamy layer for SC/ST
reservations and reconsidering reservation in promotions.
● The recent Supreme Court judgment clarified that Articles 15 and 16
are "mere enabling provisions" and do not guarantee a fundamental
right to reservation.
● Reservation policies should be periodically evaluated and reformed
to ensure they continue to promote social justice and equity.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

40
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Scholarly Views ● Suhas Palshikar believes that reservation has shifted from being an
enabling provision for equal opportunity to becoming a right for
groups to demand a proportional share.
● Ronald Dworkin suggests that compensation for historical injustice
can only be made once, implying that reservation may not be a
perpetual policy.
● Amartya Sen views reservation as a necessary but insufficient
measure for promoting social justice. He advocates the Capability
Approach in his Theory of Justice, which emphasizes enhancing
people's capabilities through education, health, and skills
development.
● Neoliberal scholars like Robert Nozick do not support the concept of
historical injustice and argue against redistribution policies like
reservation.
Conclusion Piketty, in his book "Capital and Ideology," praises India's reservation
policy by highlighting that the income ratio between dalits and upper
castes is better than the income disparity between black Americans and
white Americans, implying that reservation has been effective in reducing
economic inequality.

Ethnicity

● Ethnicity involves social groups with common cultural, religious,

Introduction linguistic, and racial attributes.
● Political sociology examines the relationship between politics and
factors like ethnicity, caste, and religion.
● Donald Horowitz's book "Ethnic Groups and Conflict" highlights the
growing importance of ethnicity in democracy and politics.
● India's ethnicity is complex, encompassing caste, religion, language,
and race, leading to overlapping identities.
● India's political culture with a fluid sense of identity helps manage
ethnic conflicts without severe damage to the democratic fabric.
● Paul Brass's "Ethnic Groups and the State" discusses struggles at three
levels: within the group, between groups, and against the state.
● Struggles against the state carry particular significance in the context
of ethnic groups.
Causes of ethnic ● Charles Taylor: Marginalized sections attempt to assert their identity
movements through ethnic movements.
● Neera Chandhoke: Ethnic movements arise against the homogenizing
and ethnic mapping efforts by states.
● S.D. Muni: The end of ideology has led to identity mobilization based
on ethnic grounds. India's survival against ethnic movements is due to
its multilayered identities.
● Dipankar Gupta: Ethnic mobilization is not a popular passion but a
choice made by elites to mobilize people.
● Kanchan Chandra: Political patronage is often based on ethnic
grounds, contributing to ethnic movements.
Atul Kohli analysis ● Atul Kohli's detailed study examines the impact of democracy in
prismatic societies like India.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

41
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● There is no formal policy of the government, but a trend is visible in

handling ethnic challenges:
○ Government is ready to negotiate within the Constitution, not
outside it.
○ Territorial integrity is non-negotiable.
○ Ethnic movements with religious overtones are dealt with
sensitivity.
○ Nonviolence is a precondition, but if the other party uses force,
the government may respond with greater force.
○ The handling of ethnic challenges depends on the leadership and
ruling party's status at the Centre. Pandit Nehru used democratic
consensus to address Tamil nationalism, while Indira Gandhi used
force during the Khalistan movement due to a sense of insecurity.
● Kohli believes that ethnicity can pose long-term challenges, and in
handling them, more democracy is required as it allows for
accommodation. He gives examples of Nehru's approach in dealing
with language issues and Indira Gandhi's handling of the Khalistan
issue.
● In traditional societies, when democracy is introduced, elites may
mobilize on ethnic identities to preserve their hegemony.
Other scholarly views ● Ashutosh Varshney, in his article "Ethnic Conflicts and Civic Life,"
advocates for vigorous civic engagement among different ethnic
groups.
● Yogendra Yadav highlights India's model of a state-nation rather than
a nation-state, which recognizes that citizens can have multiple,
overlapping identities that need not detract from a larger sense of
national unity.
Conclusion The Sarkaria Commission observes that ethnic movements are never
purely ethnic; they often overlap with political and economic
deprivations. The commission emphasizes that democratic
decentralization is the most effective way to address such challenges.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

42
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Religion
Introduction ● Comparative politics approach of political sociology studies the
interface of politics with societal factors like ethnicity, caste, and
religion.
● Indian society is considered a prismatic society, with religion playing
a dominant role in shaping its political dynamics.
● Religion's influence in Indian politics dates back to pre-independence
times, facilitated by British policies like divide and rule, formation of
the Muslim League, and separate electorates.
● The partition of India on religious lines further entrenched the role of
religion in Indian politics.
● After the 1990s, religious identity gained more prominence in Indian
politics due to events like the Ram Janmabhoomi movement and the
rise of Mandal and Kamandal politics.
● These developments have led to the communalization of politics in
India, where religious identity plays a significant role in shaping
political narratives and mobilization.
Scholars ● Jaffrelot explores how the rise of Hindutva in Indian politics has
deepened polarization.
● He observes that caste politics has reached an optimal level, with
capping of reservation and no reservation in the private sector.
● According to him, religion remains the only viable option left for
mobilizing the masses in politics.
● Thomas Hansen Blom discusses the rise of the BJP in Indian politics in
his book "The Saffron Wave."
Paul Brass analysis ● Paul Brass is a prominent political scientist known for his analysis of
communal violence in India. He identifies three stages of
communalism:
● Preparatory Stage: During this stage, there are underlying tensions
and communal sentiments building up in society. The role of fire
tenders refers to the symbolic use of religious processions and
festivals to incite communal passions.
● Precipitatory Stage: In this stage, the communal tensions escalate
further, and communal violence breaks out. Conversation experts, or
those who specialize in hate speech and incitement, play a significant
role in triggering the violence.
● Explanatory Stage: After the violence occurs, blame games and
accusations start. Different parties and groups often use the
communal violence for their political advantage.
Causes behind ● Essentialists: Scholars like Louis Dumont argue that communalism
communalism arises from the inherent nature of people, who are bound to conflict
due to their communal identities. This perspective strengthens the
two-nation theory, which contributed to the partition of India.
● Instrumentalist: Bipin Chandra proposes that communalism is not
inherent in people, but it is instrumentalized by elites in India. These
elites use religion as a tool to mobilize people and further their
political interests.
● Social Constructivists: Ashis Nandy emphasizes that communalism is
a result of a trust deficit between different communities. Lack of
dialogue and understanding between groups can lead to the growth
of communal tensions.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

43
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● SD Muni: Muni points out that the end of ideology has led to
increased mobilization on identity lines, with religion playing a
primary role in shaping these identities.
● Atul Kohli: Kohli argues that India's society is in transition, with forces
of tradition (religion) and modernity (democracy) acting
simultaneously. This transitional phase may contribute to the
emergence of communal tensions and conflicts.
Conclusion To preserve India's tolerant foundation, leaders emphasized secularism.
Maintaining religious sensitivities as understanding, not prejudice, is vital
for fostering a harmonious and inclusive society.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

44
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Party System: National and regional political parties, ideological and social
bases of parties; Patterns of coalition politics; Pressure groups, trends in
electoral behavior; changing socio-economic profile of Legislators

Party System
Introduction ● Definition by Edmund Burke: Political parties are voluntary
associations with shared ideologies, seeking power for implementing
their agenda.
● Party system not solely about the number of parties: Sartori
highlights that party system relevance is based on systemic
significance, not merely the count of parties.
Importance of Political ● Interest aggregation and articulation: Gabriel and Powell's model
Parties highlights parties' role in representing and voicing the interests of
various groups within society.
● Essential for democracy: Laski emphasized that democracy cannot
exist without political parties as they provide platforms for competing
ideas and choices.
● Strengthening democratic institutions: Political parties enhance the
foundation of democracy, ensuring orderly and structured
governance.
● Preventing anarchy: Excessive "street politics" may disrupt civic
culture and pose a risk of transforming democratic order into chaos.
Y. Yadav's Views on Limited role of parties: Yadav emphasizes that political parties have
Indian Party System confined themselves to electoral politics and ignored their broader
responsibility of nation-building.
Three Phases of Party a) 1952-67: Congress dominance at the center and in states.
System b) 1967-89: Congress at the center, regional parties in states. First
democratic upsurge due to the rise of OBCs, referred to as "bullock
capitalists" by R&R (Ramachandra Guha and Rajni Kothari).
c) 1989-2014: Coalition politics, characterized by the era of Mandal,
Masjid, and Market. Implementation of Mandal report, rise of dalit
politics (e.g., BSP).
Recent Developments BJP's Dominance: From 2014 onwards, BJP has emerged as the dominant
force at the center and in several states.
Decline of Congress: Yadav believes that Congress has become irrelevant
and must undergo a transformation or fade away as an obstacle to
building an alternative political forum.
Suhas Palshikar's View Suhas Palshikar disagrees with the idea that Congress should fade away
completely. He suggests that during times of emergency or critical
situations, the presence of a strong Congress party can be essential for
the country.
Asis Nandy's Nandy talks about the "3rd Democratic Upsurge" in Indian politics,
Perspective marked by the rise of BJP and AAP (Aam Aadmi Party). This upsurge is
attributed to globalization and urbanization.
Key Points ● Rise of BJP and AAP: The emergence of BJP and AAP as influential
political players signifies a significant shift in Indian politics.
● Impact of Globalization: The process of globalization has had an
impact on the political landscape, reshaping the dynamics of political
parties and their strategies.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

45
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Urbanization and Middle Class: The growth of urban areas and the
rise of a powerful urban middle class have played a role in shaping
political aspirations and demands.
Zoya Hassan's ● Absence of Ideology: Indian political parties lack clear and consistent
Observations ideologies. Many parties adopt a "catch all" approach to increase
their voter base, leading to a lack of distinct ideological positions.
● Short-Term Focus: Parties often prioritize short-term electoral gains
over long-term national development plans. Their primary concern is
winning the next forthcoming election rather than having a
comprehensive vision for the country's development.
● Disconnect with People: There is a growing disconnect between
political parties and the general public. Parties may not fully represent
the interests and aspirations of the people they claim to represent.
● Corporate Connections: Political parties in India have increasingly
established links with corporate groups. Even socialist and communist
parties are not immune to these connections, raising concerns about
their independence from corporate influence.
● Office-Oriented Approach: Parties tend to be more focused on
gaining and maintaining political power rather than being policy-
oriented. This can result in a lack of coherent and effective policy
planning and implementation.

Congress System

Introduction The Congress system in India refers to the dominance of the Indian
National Congress party in the early years after independence. Some key
features and causes of its decline are as follows:
Features of the ● One-Party Dominance: The Indian National Congress enjoyed
Congress System significant electoral dominance and held a prominent position in
Indian politics.
● Party of Consensus: The Congress party was perceived as a party of
consensus, representing a rainbow coalition of various ideologies.
● Democratic Culture: The Congress system was distinguished by its
democratic culture, allowing diverse voices and opinions to be
accommodated.
Causes of Decline of ● Democratic Upsurges: The rise of regional parties during the 1960s
the Congress System: and the emergence of Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and Scheduled
External Factors Castes (SCs) as significant political forces during the 1990s challenged
the Congress's dominance.
● Green Revolution and States Reorganization: The success of the
Green Revolution and the reorganization of states led to the rise of
regional parties that represented specific regional interests.
● Perception as a Minority Party: The Congress party was perceived as
a party that favored minorities, leading to the loss of support from
the caste Hindu voters.
● Emergence of Civil Society: During the Emergency period, civil society
groups emerged and played a significant role in shaping political
agendas.
Internal Factors ● Lack of Internal Democracy: The Congress party faced criticism for
lacking internal democratic processes and decision-making.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

46
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Concentration of Power: Power was centralized in the hands of a

single leader, limiting the scope for internal criticism and dissent.
● Disconnect with Grassroots: The Congress leadership lost touch with
grassroots leaders, leading to a weakening of the party's base.
● Leadership Crisis and Factionalism: Internal factionalism and
leadership crisis emerged within the Congress, as evident from the
rise of the G23 group that seeks radical changes within the party.
Rise of BJP System ● The rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has marked a significant
transformation in Indian politics, leading to the emergence of a new
party system. Some key observations made by scholars about this
transformation are as follows:
● Fourth Party System: Suhas Palshikar categorizes the current phase
as the fourth party system in India. It signifies not only the BJP's
electoral victories but also a structural shift in the country's politics.
● Central Pole of Indian Politics: The BJP has become the central pole
around which Indian politics revolves. Its influence and dominance
have expanded across various states and regions.
● Twin Agenda: The BJP's twin agenda of Hindu nationalism and New
developmentalism has played a crucial role in shaping its political
narrative and garnering support from diverse sections of the society.
● Shift from Multipolarity to Unipolarity: According to Milan V of
Carnegie Endowment, the rise of the BJP has led to a shift from the
multipolarity of the coalition era to unipolarity, with the BJP emerging
as the dominant force in the political landscape.
● Second Republic: Some scholars have termed the current phase as the
second republic, signifying a major transformation in India's political
trajectory.
● Rightward Shift: The BJP's rise has marked a clear shift in Indian
politics towards the right-wing ideology, which is in contrast to the
earlier perception of Indian politics as center-left.

Rise of Regional Parties

Reasons ● Delinking of Parliament and state elections

● India's federal system
● Green Revolution
● Linguistic reorganization of states
● Mandalisation of politics
● Shortcomings of national parties
● Charismatic regional leaders
● Mobilization on cultural, ethnic, and religious grounds
● Politicization of caste
● Dominance of dominant castes in certain regions
Consequences ● Politicization of the post of the Speaker
● Policy paralysis
● Strengthening of the federal axis and bargaining power for state
governments
● Coalition politics
● Decline of Parliament
● Greater role of states in foreign policy

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

47
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Judicial activism
● Horse trading and defection
● Reduced role of the Prime Minister as a coalition manager
Role of regional ● Challenged one-party dominant system
parties: ● Increased responsiveness of the center
Advantages ● Enhanced political competition and popular participation
● Widened choices for voters
● Raised political consciousness and interest in politics
● Played important roles in coalition governments
Disadvantages ● Prioritized regional interests over national ones
● Adopted narrow approaches to national and international issues
● Encouraged regionalism and hindered national integration
● Hindered resolution of inter-state water and border disputes
Way ahead ● Adopt German model of constructive vote of no confidence for
government stability
● Institutionalize regular consultative mechanisms with all coalition
members
Conclusion The increasing significance of regional parties in the national decision-
making process in the contemporary era highlights the robust
participatory nature of Indian federalism.

The decline of the Left

Factors ● Shifting stands during the freedom struggle eroded the trust of Indian
masses.
● Importation of Marxist doctrines without adapting to peculiar Indian
circumstances.
● Leadership primarily consists of elites from universities, lacking
organic grassroots connections.
● Internal workings of left parties are often opaque and centralized.
● Focus on electoral politics over social movements weakened its
impact.
● Ideological vacuum filled by the rise of right-wing politics.
● Need for the Left to broaden its agenda and address issues beyond
capitalism, such as racism and workplace surveillance.
● Lack of strong organizational capacity at the grassroots level.
● Social agendas co-opted by other political parties, reducing the
uniqueness of the Left.
● Acceptance of liberal economic policies for state development,
leading to compromises with businesses.
● Challenges in organizing trade unions due to footloose industries and
the rise of gig economy.

Coalition governments

Evolution of coalition ● 1989-1999: Immature coalitions characterized by instability and

governments frequent changes in alliances.
● 1999 onwards: Mature coalitions with greater stability and a more
strategic approach to governance.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

48
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Bidyut Chakraborty on ● Book "Winning the Mandate" compares coalitions in the West and
coalitions India
● Coalition by design: Pre-planned alliances based on shared ideologies
or goals.
● Coalition by political calculation: Formed after elections based on
political considerations and arithmetic.
● Positive coalition: United by a common agenda and vision for
governance.
● Negative coalition: Formed to keep a specific party or leader out of
power rather than for positive reasons.
● Minimum winning coalition: Formed with the minimum required
number of seats to gain a majority in the legislature.
● Oversized coalition: Created due to a lack of trust among parties,
leading to an excess number of coalition partners.
● Ideological coalition: Comprising parties with similar ideologies and
policy priorities.
● Rainbow coalition: Inclusive of diverse parties representing various
interests, regions, and communities.
M.P. Singh analysis ● He introduces the parliamentary axis and federal axis to understand
coalition politics in India.
● The Parliamentary axis is strong in one-party dominant systems,
emphasizing the Prime Minister's authority.
● Federal axis gains strength in multiparty systems with coalition
governments.
● In coalition governments, even small factions can wield significant
influence.
● The role of the Prime Minister may be reduced to that of a "coalition
manager."
● Strong state parties can shift India towards a quasi-confederacy from
a quasi-federation.
Merits of coalition ● Accommodation of diverse interests
govt ● More representative in nature
● Leads to consensus-based politics
● Strengthens the federal fabric of the Indian political system
Demerits of coalition ● Prone to instability due to anti-defection law misuse
govt ● Criticisms of coalition partners as "super PM" or "ultra PM"
● Super cabinet role of steering committee undermining the cabinet
● Smaller constituents demanding more than their parliamentary
strength
● Increases blame game among coalition partners over policy lapses.
Conclusion 2nd ARC- ethics of coalition government is seriously strained when the
coalition partners change partnerships midstream. It recommends that
the Constitution should be amended to ensure that a common minimum
programme is framed before the elections.

Pressure groups

Intro The pressure group is a group of people who are organised actively for
promoting and defending their common interest. It is so called as it
attempts to bring a change in public policy by exerting pressure on the

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

49
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

government.
Analytical points on ● Pressure groups play a significant role in influencing public policy,
PG often referred to as the "legislation behind legislature."
● Finer's characterization of pressure groups as "invisible empires"
highlights their considerable impact and influence on policy making.
● Richard D. Lambert describes pressure groups as an "unofficial
government," indicating their informal but powerful role in shaping
public decisions.
● Gabriel and Powell's structural-functional approach emphasizes
pressure groups' role in interest articulation, representing and
advocating for various social and economic interests.
● Robert Dahl and Charles Lindblom's analysis suggests that power is
exercised through polyarchies, which encompass various pressure
groups in a democratic system.
● Rajni Kothari views pressure groups as reservoirs of leaders and
agents of modernization, noting how leaders emerge from
movements and civil society organizations.
● Pressure groups have gained prominence, especially after
liberalization, as market and state development outpaced community
development, creating space for civil society organizations.
● The 72nd and 73rd Amendments have empowered grassroots
movements and pressure groups to act as opposition to elected
representatives at various levels of governance.
Techniques used by ● Electioneering: Pressure groups support and endorse candidates who
pressure groups align with their interests, aiming to get them elected to public office.
● Lobbying: Pressure groups use persuasive tactics to influence public
officials and policymakers to adopt policies that align with their
agenda. They may also provide financial support to political parties to
gain favor.
● Propagandizing: Pressure groups use media and other
communication channels to shape public opinion in their favor. They
may publish statistics and information that support their claims and
objectives.
● Social movements: Some pressure groups engage in social
movements and mobilize public support to exert pressure on the
government and advocate for specific policy changes. Examples
include the Lokpal Bill and Right to Information (RTI) movements.
● Illegal methods: In some cases, pressure groups resort to disruptive
tactics like chakkajam (road blockades), strikes, and bandhs to force
the government to meet their demands.
● Invoking caste/religion: Certain pressure groups use identity-based
appeals, such as caste or religion, to mobilize support and advance
their interests. This can lead to primordial divisions in society and
create tension among different groups.
Contemporary ex of ● Dairy farmers: Pressure groups against RCEP's impact on dairy from
PG Australia & NZ.
● Environmental movements: Chipko, Narmada, Chilika Bachao
Andolan for conservation.
● Farmer protests: Kisan Sabha protests for farm law repeal.
● Trade unions: BMS, AITUC, INTUC opposing new labor codes.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

50
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Pressure groups and ● Political parties: Organized groups with shared ideologies seeking
political parties political power through elections.
● Pressure groups: Organizations promoting common interests,
influencing policy without seeking political office.
● Function: Parties aggregate interests for policy formulation; groups
articulate specific demands.
● Structure: Parties have formal hierarchy; groups vary in structure.
● Goal: Parties aim to govern; groups focus on policy influence.
● Collective behavior: Both represent collective action for common
objectives.
Conclusion In the words of Hannah Arendt, PG help the citizens in “reclaiming the
public sphere and help in realising the goals of a participative and a
deliberative democracy.

Trends in electoral behavior

●
“Electoral behaviour is a field of study concerned with the ways in
Introduction which people tend to vote in public elections and the reasons why
they vote as they do“ - Plano and riggs.
● It is a result of the development of behaviouralism in political theory.
● Electoral behaviour in India is a challenging task because of its size
and diversity
Determinants of ● Caste - Indian politics is influenced by caste considerations, and
Voting Behavior in political parties factor this in their election strategies.
India ● Religion - Communal propaganda and religious sentiments play a role
in electoral politics, despite India being a secular nation.
● Language - The linguistic basis of state organization reflects the
significance of language in politics, leading to the rise of regional
parties.
● Region - Regional parties appeal to voters based on regional identities
and sentiments.
● Personality - The charisma and appeal of leaders like Nehru, Indira
Gandhi, and Atal Bihari Vajpayee influence voting decisions.
● Money - Some voters may be influenced by inducements such as
money, liquor, or goods.
● Wave - Wave elections occur when a clear tendency develops in favor
of a national party or its leader.
● Performance of the ruling party - The ruling party's track record can
sway voter choices.
● Party identification - People who identify strongly with a particular
party tend to vote for it consistently.
● Ideology - Some voters are committed to specific ideologies like
communism, capitalism, democracy, or secularism.
● Political events - Events like wars, leader assassinations, or corruption
scandals preceding elections can impact voting.
● Economic conditions - Factors like inflation, food shortage, and
unemployment at the time of elections can influence voting behavior.

Conclusion Yogendra Yadav notes that Indian voters are moving from identity politics
to a more nuanced combination of identity and politics.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

51
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Changing socio-economic profile of Legislators

According to PRS ● 85% of Members of the 17th Lok Sabha are crorepati (having assets
Research worth at least one crore rupees).
● 72% of the members have a minimum graduate-level education.
● Only 14% of the members are women, which is lower than the global
average of 24%. A constitutional amendment bill is needed to provide
33% reservation for women in Parliament.
● Muslims constitute 5% of the Members in Parliament, despite being
13% of the population.
● 43% of the MPs have a criminal record, and 29% of them have serious
charges like rape, murder, or sexual assault against them, as reported
by ADR (Association for Democratic Reforms).
● 22% of the MPs are from Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
● 42.5% of the MPs belong to upper castes.
● 9.5% of the MPs are from religious minorities.
● 15.7% of the MPs are from Scheduled Castes (SC).
● 9.5% of the MPs are from Scheduled Tribes (ST).
● There is an increasing trend of civil servants joining politics, including
figures like RK Singh, Satyapal Singh, Hardeep Singh Puri, and KJ
Alphons.

Criminalisation of Politics

Introduction Political scientist Cristophe Jaffrelot has remarked that In india people are
under rule of money and muscle power rather than under the rule of law.
Reasons for the ● Vote bank politics: Parties may field candidates with criminal
presence of criminals backgrounds to appeal to certain vote banks.
in politics ● Role of caste, ethnicity, religion: Identity-based factors may influence
candidate selection and voting patterns.
● Electoral funding: Candidates with criminal backgrounds may have
access to more resources for campaigning.
● Lack of deterrence due to poor conviction rates: Low conviction rates
for criminal politicians may encourage their presence in politics.
● Parties prioritizing winnability over morality: Political parties may
prioritize winning elections, leading to the selection of candidates
with criminal records.
Steps taken to address ● Supreme Court rulings: SC has directed candidates to declare their
the issue assets, liabilities, and criminal antecedents.
● Disqualification of convicted MPs/MLAs: SC ruled that convicted
lawmakers would be disqualified with immediate effect.
● NOTA (None of the Above) option: Introduced to empower voters to
express dissatisfaction with candidates.
● Contempt of court charges: SC empowered EC to file cases against
party presidents if orders are not fulfilled.
● Setting up Fast Track Courts: EC recommended the establishment of
15 FTCs to deal with cases involving politicians.
● Voter awareness and information: ECISVEEP works to increase voter
awareness and knowledge about candidates.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

52
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Conclusion Law Commission and EC recommended barring candidates with charges

framed by a court for serious crimes from contesting elections, regardless
of conviction status.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

53
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

Social Movement: Civil liberties and human rights movements; women’s

movements; environmentalist movements.

Civil liberties ● Civil liberties are rooted in liberal ideas to curb the state's arbitrary
use of power, drawing from thinkers like Locke, Bentham, and Mill.
● These rights are deemed essential for a civilized way of life, ensuring
individual freedom and protection from state oppression.
● The civil rights movement in India seeks to promote and protect the
civil liberties of citizens against discrimination and abuse.
● Issues like AFSPA, preventive detention, and right to dissent are
crucial areas where civil liberties are at stake.
● Calls for establishing a Lokpal, police, prison, and judicial reforms are
efforts to safeguard civil liberties.
● Movements against rape and human trafficking are aimed at
securing the fundamental rights of victims.
● Institutions like NHRC, NCW, NGOs, and NCSC/ST/BC work to
safeguard and promote civil liberties.

Human Rights

Evolution ● Growth of Consciousness: Since the 1980s, there has been an

increased awareness and consciousness about human rights globally,
which also influenced India's human rights movements.
● Impact of Events: Human rights movements in India gained
momentum in the wake of events like the national emergency,
economic reforms (LPG - Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization),
and democratic decentralization through the 73rd and 74th
Amendments to the Constitution.
● Founding of PUCL: The formation of the People's Union for Civil
Liberties (PUCL) in 1976 played a significant role in heralding human
rights movements in India.
● PIL as Access to Justice: Activist judges like PN Bhagwati
institutionalized Public Interest Litigation (PIL), a revolutionary step
that provided marginalized sections with access to justice and the
ability to seek legal remedies.
● Wide Interpretation of Article 21: The Supreme Court's interpretation
of Article 21, which guarantees the right to life and personal liberty,
has expanded to include several aspects of human rights protection.
Human Rights ● Large Number of Undertrials: India faces the issue of a significant
Concerns in India number of undertrial prisoners, leading to overcrowding and delays
in the judicial system.
● Poor Prison Conditions: Prisons in India often suffer from
overcrowding, leading to poor living conditions and inadequate
facilities for inmates.
● AFSPA Violations: The Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) has
been criticized for human rights violations in areas of armed conflict
and insurgency.
● Death due to Hunger: The problem of malnutrition and hunger
remains a concern, leading to instances of deaths due to starvation.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

54
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

● Rape Issues: India faces challenges related to sexual violence, with

incidents of rape and other forms of gender-based violence being
reported (data from NCRB - National Crime Records Bureau).

Upendra Baxi's work ● India lacks genuine HR movements, more like an "HR industry."
● India's commitment to HR often appears as mere rhetoric, lacking
concrete actions.
● Advocacy groups employ management graduates, not social
activists.
● Some HR organizations have a corporate approach, prioritizing
fundraising over grassroots engagement.
● Concerns about selective focus, emphasizing state actors' violations
over non-state actors.

Environmental movements

● RC Guha's characterization of Indian environmentalism as one that

RC Guha highlights the issues faced by marginalized communities.
● Focus on disappearing forests, polluted rivers, and displacement of
peasants and tribals.
Survival-Centric Environmentalism
● In contrast to the "ecology of effluence" seen in the West, Indian
environmentalism is centered around survival.
● Competing claims over vital resources such as forests, fish, and water
are significant concerns.

Four Strands of Indian A. Crusading Gandhians:

Environmental ● View environmental degradation as a moral problem.
Movements ● Rooted in the rejection of materialism and consumerism that
disconnects humans from nature.

B. Ecological Marxists
● Argue that unequal access to resources drives environmental
degradation.
● The rich exploit nature for profit, while the poor do so to meet basic
survival needs.

C. Advocates of Appropriate Technology

● Propose the use of modern technology to strike a balance between
society's needs and environmental preservation.

D. Wilderness Enthusiasts
● Advocate for the protection of plant and animal species.
● Suggest methods such as establishing parks, sanctuaries, and
imposing a ban on human activity in protected areas.
Sunita Narain's Utilitarian Conservatism and Western Protectionist Conservatism:
Perspectives on ● Utilitarian conservatism focuses on the practical benefits of
Environmentalism in conservation and sustainable development.
India ● Western protectionist conservatism emphasizes preservation and
protection of nature without significant human intervention.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

55
 PAPER 1B FOOTNOTES

New ●
Narain introduces the concept of "new environmentalism" that goes
Environmentalism beyond the traditional focus on saving wildlife and natural resources.
● It emphasizes strengthening democracy and empowering people as
custodians of their rights and the environment.
Weakness of Indian ● Narain criticizes the reactive and "fire-fighting" approach of
Environmental environmental movements in India.
Movements ● The movements tend to respond to crises rather than proactively
addressing environmental challenges.
Importance of ● Narain stresses that for environmental movements to have a
Environmental significant impact, they must become a matter of electoral
Democracy: democracy.
● When environmental concerns become part of political agendas and
electoral discussions, their influence can be broader and more
effective.
Conclusion Bahuguna- Ecology is permanent economy.

For More Study Material, Visit: studyiq.com Page no.

56
 UPSC IAS (Mains)

FEATURES OF THE COURSE -

1. 400+ hours of live lectures spread over 5 months

2. Comprehensive coverage through high quality lecture notes
3. Hand written notes and hand written model answers
4. Live answer writing program under the guidance of faculty
5. Previous Year Questions discussions Use Code
6. PSIR Current affairs to keep the aspirant updated
7. Doubt clearing sessions by the faculty
TYAGILIVE
8. Static Session to avail this offer
Price: ₹24000
₹15999
For feedback/suggestions, contact PSIR team
sajal.tiwari@studyiq.com
Azeem.ahmad@studyiq.com
shreya.bose@studyiq.com

Shashank Tyagi
Faculty PSIR Optional, StudyiqIAS
Ex. Consultant, Office of Minister
Social Welfare, GNCTD