COASTAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

 Demonstrate an understanding of the work of the sea and wind in eroding, transporting, and depositing
 Describe and explain the formation of the landforms associated with these processes
 Describe coral reefs and mangrove swamps and the conditions required for their development
 Demonstrate an understanding that coasts present hazards and offer opportunities for people
 Explain what can be done to manage the impacts of coastal erosion

8i

Definitions of terms used in coastal studies

 The coast is a zone where the land meets the sea.

 The coastline is the outline edge of the land on a map.
 High water mark- is the average of the highest levels reached by the sea at high tides.
 Low-water mark - The average of the lowest levels of the sea at low tides.
 Cliff – a vertical or nearly vertical rocky slope on the coast or inland.
 The sea rises to high tide (high water mark) and falls to low tide (low water mark).
 The area between the lowest tide level and the highest point reached by storm waves is known as the shore.

 NB. The various landforms of coastal areas are almost exclusively the result of the action of ocean waves.
 The frictional effect of the wind on the water surface generates a wave. The general characteristics of waves
are shown in the diagram below.
  The strength of a wave depends on the following: -

1. The strength of the wind, i.e., the stronger the wind, the stronger the wave.
2. The length of time the wind has blown, i.e., the longer the wind has blown, the stronger the
waves.
3. The fetch is the distance of open water which the wind has been able to blow over, i.e., the
longer the fetch, the stronger the waves.

 Water particles in a wave tend to move up and down in a circular motion. This circular motion causes the
waves to break as they approach the coast. When the waves approach the coast, the base of the wave is
slowed by friction with the seabed. The top of the wave continues to move at the same speed, so the wave
height increases. The wave grows in height until it becomes unstable and eventually topples over the bottom
of the wave and breaks. As the wave moves up the beach, sediment is pushed up the beach, referred to as
the swash. The backwash is the movement of water and sediment back down the coast. The swash's and
backwash's strength can vary and are rarely equal.

There are two types: constructive and destructive waves. Their names suggest constructive adds to the beaches and
coastlines whilst destructive takes away and destroys.
Swash & Backwash
Swash is the water that rushes up the beach and as it rushes up the coast. It can push sand, sediment, and even
pebbles and rocks.
In contrast, backwash, as the name suggests, is the opposite. Once the water has pushed up as far as it can, it then
rushes back down the beach with the force of gravity. As it rushes back down, it carries sand and pebbles with it.

Destructive Waves
We can tell this is a destructive wave because it has a weak swash and a strong backwash. This means minimal
sediment will be pushed higher up the beach or deposited. Instead, the water will return to sea and carry sand and
sediment from the beach. Thus destroying the beach over time. The weak swash and strong backwash are, in part,
created by the fact that the destructive wave has a forward-moving crest that crashes down at about a 120-degree
angle. This directs the energy downwards at the beach. They are common when slow-moving waves approach a
steep shingle beach. The wave frequency is about 13 to 15 per minute. Additionally, the motion of the water in the
wave remains circular because of a deeper nearshore zone.

Constructive Waves

Constructive works in the opposite way. They are usually found where nearshore depths are shallow, such as at a
gentle sandy beach, in contrast to destructive waves that often have a steep approach. The swash is more powerful
than the backwash, and sediment is moved up a beach, making it wider. Waves break with a frequency of about 6 to
8 per minute. This allows each wave to complete its cycle so the swash is not interrupted. The motion of water in the
wave is elliptical, giving a strong forward movement. The energy of the backwash is reduced as the water percolates
through the beach material rather than running off the surface. If the wave approaches the beach at an angle, it may
push sediments into semicircles, creating a feature known as beach cusps.

Types of Wave Summary Table

Feature Constructive Waves Destructive Waves

More powerful swash, moving sediment Weak swash, very little sediment pushed higher
Swash Strength
up the beach, making it wider up the beach

Weaker backwash, allowing sediment to Strong backwash, carrying sand and sediment
Backwash Strength
percolate through the beach material back to the sea

Forward-moving crest crashing down at a 120-

Wave Crest Forward-moving crest with a gentle
degree angle, directing energy downwards at the
Direction approach
beach

Builds up the beach over time, making it Destroys the beach over time, carrying away sand
Beach Impact
wider and depositing sediment and sediment

Frequency of
About six to eight waves per minute About 13 to 15 waves per minute
Waves

Motion of Water in Elliptical motion, providing a strong Circular motion, directed downwards at the
the Wave forward movement beach due to the 120-degree angle of the crest

May push larger sediments into Little sediment pushed, leading to a narrower and
Beach Appearance
semicircles, creating beach cusps eroded beach
COASTAL EROSION

Coastlines are highly vulnerable to erosion due to the immense power of the sea waves. Rates of erosion can be
high-speed, exceeding 2m a year. Erosion is caused by destructive waves wearing away the coast. There are four
main processes which cause coastal erosion. These are corrasion/abrasion, hydraulic action, attrition, and
corrosion/solution.

 Corrasion/abrasion is when waves pick up beach material (e.g., pebbles) and hurl them at the base of a
cliff.
 Hydraulic action is when waves hit the base of a cliff, and air is compressed into cracks. When the wave
retreats, the air blasts out of the gap. Often, this causes cliff material to break away.
 Attrition is when loose sediment is knocked off the cliff by hydraulic action, and the waves swirl around
abrasion. It constantly collides with other sediment and gradually gets worn down into smaller and
rounder sediment.
 Corrosion/solution is when certain types of cliffs, for example, chalk and limestone, erode because of
weak acids in the sea.

Rates of marine erosion

So, what are the factors that determine how much erosion can take place on the coast?

1. The Resistance of the Rocks - e.g., limestone, chalk and granite are resistant rocks (often forming cliffs and
headlands) and erode relatively slowly, whilst less resistant rocks such as clay are easily eroded.

2. The Strength of the waves - affected by the wind strength and duration and its fetch

3. The shape of the coastline (which is dependent on its geology) - on concordant coastlines, rocks are parallel to the
wavefront; therefore, erosion rates are similar along the coastline. Differential erosion may occur on discordant
coastlines, where bands of hard and soft rock outcrop at right angles to the sea. Consequently, headlands and bays
form along discordant coastlines, and while headlands remain exposed to the force of the waves, bays are sheltered.

Landforms produced by coastal erosion

There are three main groups of marine features which result from marine erosion:
1. Headlands and Bays
2. Caves, Arches, Stacks and Stumps
3. Cliffs, Wave-cut notches, and wave-cut platforms

1. HEADLANDS AND BAYS

 Headlands are resistant outcrops of rock sticking out into the sea, whilst bays are indents in the coastline
between two headlands.

A headland

 projects out into the sea

 Is usually longer than its breath
 Has sides which form cliffs

A bay usually has:

 An approximately semi-circular shape of the sea extending into the land

 A wide, open entrance from the sea
 Land behind it that is lower than the headlands on either side

how do headlands form?

- Headlands form along discordant coastlines in which bands of soft and hard rock outcrop at right angles to the
coastlinmme.
- Due to the presence of soft and hard rock, differential erosion occurs, with the soft, less resistant rock (e.g. shale),
eroding quicker than the hard, resistant rock (e.g. chalk)
- Where the erosion of the soft rock is rapid, bays are formed
- Where there is more resistant rock, erosion is slower and the hard rock is left sticking out into the sea as a
headland.
- The exposed headland now becomes vulnerable to the force of destructive waves but shelters the adjacent bays
from further erosion.

2. Caves, arches and stacks

Wave erosion can create caves, arches, stacks, and stumps along a headland.

Caves occur when waves force their way into cracks in the cliff face. The water contains sand and other materials
that grind away at the rock until the cracks become a cave. Hydraulic action is the predominant process.
 o If the cave is formed in a headland, it may eventually break through to the other side, forming an
arch.
o The arch will gradually become more prominent until it can no longer support the top of the
arch. When the arch collapses, it leaves the headland on one side and a stack (a tall rock
column) on the other.
o The stack will be attacked at the base as a wave-cut notch is formed. This weakens the structure,
eventually collapsing to form a stump.

3. Cliffs, Wave-cut notches and wave-cut platforms

Cliffs are common coastal features. They are formed by a combination of erosion and weathering, weathering
working on the upper parts of the cliff and erosion wearing away the base of the cliff.

Cliffs are formed where the land is made up of hard, more resistant rocks; the difference between the sea level and
the level of the land determines their height. Hard rocks erode and weather slowly; the less cracked the rock is, the
better it will resist breaking down.

Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt form rugged vertical cliffs.

Softer rocks, such as clay, shale and some sandstones, erode more easily and can create more gently sloping cliffs.

Wave-cut or shore platform is the narrow, flat area often seen at the base of a sea cliff or along an extensive
lakeshore caused by the action of waves.

Wave-cut platforms are often most evident at low tide when they become visible as vast areas of flat rock.

Sometimes, the landward side of the platform is covered by sand, forming the beach, and then the platform can only
be identified at low tides or when storms move the sand.
It forms after destructive waves hit the cliff face, causing corrasion and hydraulic action and creating a wave-cut
notch. This notch then enlarges into a cave. The waves undermine this portion until the cave roof cannot hold due to
the pressure and freeze-thaw weathering acting on it, causing it to collapse and resulting in the cliff retreating.

The base of the cave forms the wave-cut platform as attrition causes the collapsed material to be broken down into
smaller pieces, while some cliff material may be washed into the sea.

 Coves form where different rock bands run parallel to the coastline, with harder and more resistant types
lying by the coast and the less resistant types further onshore, as shown below:

As you can see above, there is a band of resistant rock closest to the sea and a band of less resistant rock inland.

The waves seek out faults in the hard rock and erode these lines of weakness using the processes of
abrasion/corrasion and hydraulic action.

When the wave erosional processes reach the soft rock, they erode faster, leaving a circular cove with a narrow
entrance where the sea enters.
 The waves are also refracted within the cove, spreading out to erode in all directions.

A good example of this is Lulworth Cove.

Coastal Transport

Transport is the second process operating at the coast, other than erosion. Material eroded by the sea is carried up
and down the beach in several ways.

 Minerals dissolved from rocks are carried in solution

 Small rock fragments light enough to be held within the water float within the water body in suspension.
 The most significant rock fragments, which are too heavy to be picked up by the waves, are transported by
traction; this is where they roll along the seabed or beach bed when the waves pick up enough energy.
 Finally, medium-sized rock particles, which are too heavy to be transported by suspension and too light to
remain as traction load on the seabed or beach bed, are moved by saltation, as a series of jumps or
trajectories, i.e., they are momentarily lifted as suspension load but quickly fall back to the bed whereupon
the process is repeated once again.
 NB: As well as being moved up and down a beach, sediment can also be moved along the length of the
beach. This occurs because most waves do not strike the shore head-on or at right angles but at an oblique
angle. Therefore, the swash of water hits the shoreline at a slight angle.

However, the backwash is perpendicular to the shore, as shown below

The effect of this pattern of water movement is to transport the sediment on the beach in a zigzag pattern along the
beach, a process called LONGSHORE DRIFT of the particles, as shown below

On coasts where longshore drift occurs mainly in one direction, beach sediment is transported further down the
coast, so the beach sand at the start point of the drift will gradually be depleted. This causes two problems for the
local authorities:

 The smaller beach is less attractive to tourists, causing a loss of income

 It removes the protection that the beach provides for cliffs.

To counter this, local authorities put barriers called groynes at right angles to the beach – to trap the sediment and
reduce longshore drift. See coastal management.
Landforms of Coastal Deposition

Coastal deposition is when the sea drops or deposits material. This can include sand, sediment, and shingle. This
results in the formation of landforms of coastal deposition.

 BEACHES

A beach is a land area formed from sand, shingles, or pebbles deposition on wave-cut platforms. It is located
between the lowest tide level and the highest tide level.

A sandy beach usually forms in a sheltered bay, where constructive waves transport material onto the shore. The
swash is stronger than the backwash, so the material is moved up the beach.

There are several different sources of beach material - the primary source being rivers, where fine mud and gravel
are deposited at the river mouth. Other sources of beach material include longshore drift (bringing material from
elsewhere along the coast), constructive waves (bringing material up the beach from the sea), and cliff erosion.

Beach profiles

A beach profile shows the gradient of a beach from the back of the beach to the sea.
 A sandy beach generally has a gentler profile compared to a pebble beach, which has a steep, stepped
profile.Ridge and runnels are typical on wide sandy beaches with a large tidal range (big difference between
high and low tide). Ridges are raised areas of the beach. The dips are water-filled troughs called runnels. The
cross-section is like that of hills and valleys but at a much smaller scale.

 SPIT
It is an extended stretch of beach
material that sticks out to sea and
is joined to the mainland at one
end.
It is formed when longshore drift
moves material along a coastline.
However, where the coastline
changes direction, material being
transported by longshore drift is
deposited, forming a depositional
feature that protrudes out into
the sea, a spit.

A spit is an unstable landform. It will continue to grow until the water becomes too deep or until the
material is removed faster than it is deposited. On a shingle or pebble spit the pebbles become smaller
and more rounded towards the end of the spit due to attrition. They also become smaller as the
longshore drift becomes weaker.
 BARS


A bay bar is very similar to a spit. It is a ridge of sand or shingle that joins two headlands on either side of a
bay. It is formed due to longshore drift transporting sediment along the coastline. Behind the bar, a lagoon is
created, where water has been trapped, and the lagoon may gradually be infilled as a salt marsh develops.
This is because it is a low-energy zone, which encourages deposition.
SAND DUNES

These are landform features that are formed by the action of wind deposition along the coast.

It’s easy to look at a sand dune and see a pile of sand, but lots of different factors and processes are involved in
making a coastal sand dune system. Sand dunes can go through a lifecycle, generally with young dunes forming at
the beach more mature dunes further from the sea, and several other stages in between.

Nature’s process of building a sand dune is called succession. Waves push sand up onto the beach, then sand moves
around the coast and forms dunes when it’s picked up or pushed around by the wind. If there are any obstacles on
the coast, either a rock, a dead animal or some bush, the larger sand grains will be dropped in front of the obstacle
and pushed up it while smaller grains of sand are often deposited behind it. As this process continues, ridges of sand
build up and can start to form a sand dune. The stronger the wind, the higher the dunes!

The wind-facing side of the dune often has a gentle slope, while the sheltered side is much steeper. As the wind is
always changing, dunes are also always changing, growing, and shifting…

Type of dunes

 Embryo dunes`

Embryo dunes are the youngest dunes. They are the earliest stage in a dune’s life. These dunes face
the beach, are made up of mostly exposed sand, and are also the most minor dune stage – reaching
just up to a few metres tall. Here, pioneer species like couch or lime grass are the first to colonise
the sand and begin stabilising it with their long roots. These embryo dunes are often only present in
the summer and can be washed away by high tides or winter storms but will form again each year.
 Fore Dune

Behind the embryo dune, the fore dune often stands a few metres taller, with marram grass
stabilising it slightly more than the younger dunes and more vegetation cover than completely bare
sand. As more plants grow in the sand, this type of dune is more resilient to storms so that it can
stay in the same position for several years.

 Semi-fixed/Yellow Dune

With plant roots now reaching deep into the dune, semi-fixed dunes are stable, but you can still see
exposed sand on their surface, which can move. These dunes will continue to accrete sand from the
beach, and the sand on these dunes can be blown over the ridge and inland to grow the dunes
behind them. These are also known as yellow dunes because of the colour of the sand.

 Fixed/Grey Dune

As you move further away from the beach, the dunes become less yellow in colour and begin to turn
grey. This is because these dunes are starting to build up more humus (the broken-down organic
plant matter which is found in soil) from the diverse plant life and bacteria which now lives in these
stable dunes. These dunes are also better at holding in water, making them able to support larger
shrubs. These are also known as grey dunes and can still have sand blowing through them from
blowouts, the semi-fixed dunes or even from the beach on a windy day!

 Dune Slack

Sand dunes are separated by dips, called dune slacks. Slacks are formed in two ways – either when a
new dune ridge forms in front of a low-lying area which cuts it off from the sea, or when a dune
 blowout forms in an area that's got lots of vegetation, exposing a dip of bare sand. Freshwater pools
can form where these low areas are low enough to meet the dune water table. These slacks are
fantastic habitats for dune wildlife such as natterjack toads, which use the pools for breeding.

 Mature Dune

Mature dunes are the furthest away from the beach, are the oldest dunes in sand dune system and
often have very little exposed sand. Lots of broken-down organic plant and animal matter in the very
stable sand make these inland dunes accessible to some larger plants and even trees.
C O A S TA L E C O S Y S T E M S

Describe coral reefs and mangrove swamps and the conditions required for their development
Coral Reef Ecosystem

What do we know about corals?

 Tiny tropical marine animal invertebrates that are called polyps attach themselves to shallow sea floor rocks.
The polyp is like a tin can open at just one end: the open end has a mouth surrounded by a ring of tentacles.
The tentacles have stinging cells, called nematocysts, that allow the coral polyp to capture small
organisms that swim too close. Inside the body of the polyp are digestive and reproductive tissues.

 These animals obtain carbon dioxide dissolved in seawater to make calcium carbonate exoskeleton that
protects their soft inner tissue, in a similar way a turtle builds its shell. They live at the same place for the
rest of their lives. Some live solitary lives but others live as large colonies. The polyps pop out of the shells to
feed on tiny fish larvae or to occasionally fight with one another. They can be as small as a pin head or as
large as a basketball.

 Their colourful looks are due to the algae that symbiotically live within the tissue of the polyps. The
relationship is that the algae use photosynthesis to produce nutrients, many of which they pass to the corals'
cells. The corals in turn emit waste products in the form of ammonium, which the algae consume as a
nutrient.

 They reproduce in two different ways. The larvae are either (1) fertilized within the body of a mother polyp
or (2) fertilized outside of the mother polyp’s body in the water. Fertilization of an egg within the body of a
coral polyp is achieved from sperm that is released through the mouth of another polyp. The sperm and egg
merge and form a planula larva, which matures inside the body of its mother. When the larva is ready, it
gets spit out into the water through the mouth of its mother.
 Other species of coral reproduce by ejecting large quantities of eggs and sperm into the surrounding water.
When this happens, the eggs and sperm fertilise in the water. This process is called coral spawning. In some
areas, mass coral spawning events occur on one night per year and scientists can predict exactly when this
will happen. Trillions of eggs and sperm are simultaneously released into the water in one of the most
astounding acts of synchronicity in the natural world!
 Once in the sea, larvae are naturally attracted to the light. They swim to the ocean's surface, where they
remain for days or even weeks. If predators do not eat the larvae during this time, they fall back to the ocean
 floor and attach themselves to a hard surface. An attached planula metamorphosizes into a coral polyp and
begins to grow—dividing itself in half and making exact genetic copies of itself. As more and more polyps are
added, a coral colony develops. Eventually the coral colony becomes mature, begins reproducing, and the
life cycle continues.

 As they live and die, more and more polyps attach themselves to old corals, and in the process, over the
years, coral limestone deposits link up to form large physical rock features that may stretch for hundreds of
miles. These ridge like limestone rock deposits are what called coral reefs.

The following factors control the distribution of Coral Reefs:

 Temperature – minimum 18°C but grows best at 23°C – 25°C so normally grows between the tropic of Capricorn
and the tropic of Cancer.
 Light – Corals need light for photosynthesis of the algae and to survive.
 Water Depth – enough light is needed for Coral algae to photosynthesise and survive and grow, so only grow in
shallow waters of around 25 metres.
 Salinity – Coral can only survive in salt water.

At a local level, there are other factors affecting where Coral Reefs develop:

 Wave Action – Coral needs well-oxygenated water, and wave action provides this.
 Exposure To Air – While corals need oxygenated water, they die if they are exposed to air for long.
 Sediment – if there is sediment in the water, light might be blocked, and sediment stops corals from feeding
properly.
Coral Reefs with the highest biodiversity occur in Southeast Asia and northern Australia.

Value of Coral Reef

 Fisheries – Coral reefs are vital to the world’s fisheries. They form the nurseries for about a quarter of the ocean’s
fish with around 1500 species of fish and thus provide revenue for local communities of many LIC and national
and international fishing fleets.
 Tourism – Tourism revenues generated by coral reefs are also significant. For example, according to a report by
the Key West Chamber of Commerce, tourists visiting Australia’s Great Barrier Reef generate well over US$1
billion per year.
 Coastal Protection – Coral reefs break the power of the waves during storms, hurricanes, typhoons, and even
tsunamis. By helping to prevent coastal erosion, flooding, and property loss on the shore, the reefs save many
lives and lots of money each year.
 Source of Medical Advances – We can also expect coral reef species to contribute to future medical advances.
Already, coral reef organisms are being used in treatments for diseases like cancer, HIV, heart diseases, asthma,
and arthritis. Just so long as they are alive and healthy.
 Intrinsic Value – For many coastal societies worldwide, coral reefs and their inhabitants are intricately woven into
cultural traditions. For these people – as well as those who have floated with a mask and snorkel, immersed
themselves in the three-dimensional wonderland of a scuba dive, or experienced these habitats through media
and books – a world without coral reefs would be infinitely poorer.
 They absorb carbon dioxide in the oceans. This way, they prevent the Carbon dioxide from accumulating in the
atmosphere, which could cause global warming.

Threats to Coral Reefs

The most damage that is done to Coral Reefs is done by mankind with the following:

 Destructive Fishing Practices – Dynamite and cyanide fishing and regular fishing methods like trawling can tear
Coral rocks with a net.

 Overfishing – This affects the ecological balance of the biodiversity of the coral reef ecosystems.

 Tourism – Careless boating, diving, and scuba diving causes damage to the corals, for example, when the anchors
are dropped onto the Reef.

 Destruction of Mangroves – The destruction of mangroves results in the depositing of sediment that clouds the
water around coral reefs, depriving the corals of light and, in the process, killing coral.

 Besides the destruction caused by physical damage, Corals are damaged by Coral bleaching. This occurs
when coral polyps expel algae that live inside their tissue. Usually, coral polyps have a symbiotic relationship with
these algae, which is crucial for the health of the coral and the reef. Bleached corals continue to live but begin to
starve after bleaching. Some corals recover.

The leading cause of coral bleaching is rising water temperatures. A temperature about 1 °C above average
can cause bleaching. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, between 2014 and 2016
the longest recorded global bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale. In 2016, the bleaching
of coral on the Great Barrier Reef killed between 29 and 50 per cent of the reef's coral. In 2017, the
bleaching extended into the central region of the reef. The average interval between bleaching events has
halved between 1980 and 2016

o increased water temperature (marine heatwaves, most

commonly due to global warming), or reduced water
temperatures
o oxygen starvation caused by an increase in zooplankton levels
as a result of overfishing
 o increased solar irradiance (photosynthetically active
radiation and ultraviolet light)
o increased sedimentation (due to silt from runoff)
o bacterial infections
o changes in salinity
o herbicides toxicity
o extreme low tide and exposure
o cyanide fishing
o elevated sea levels due to global warming
o mineral dust from dust storms caused by drought

o pollutants such as oxybenzone, butylparaben, octyl

methoxycinnamate, or enzacamene: four
common sunscreen ingredients that are nonbiodegradable and
can wash off skin
o Ocean acidification due to elevated levels of CO2 caused by air
pollution
o being exposed to Oil or other chemical spills

Case Study: The Great Barrier Reef, Australia

The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s most extensive coral reef system, composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and
900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometres. The reef is in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia.

The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world’s most considerable single structure made by
living organisms. This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms known as coral polyps. It
supports diverse life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. CNN labelled it one of the seven natural
wonders of the world. The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland.
A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which helps limit human use impact, such
as fishing and tourism. Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff, climate change
accompanied by mass coral bleaching, and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish. According to
a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the reef has lost over
half its coral cover since 1985.

The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander
peoples and is an essential part of local groups’ cultures and spirituality. The reef is a very popular destination for
tourists, especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions. Tourism is an important economic activity for the
area, generating over $3 billion annually.

Mangrove Ecosystem

 Mangroves are a tree or shrub which grows in inter-tidal areas, chiefly tropical, coastal swamps. They have
numerous tangled roots that grow above ground and form dense thickets.
 The intertidal areas are periodically flooded during high tide. However, during the low tide, the water
retreats offshore, exposing the tangled leg-like roots that give the mangrove its nickname, the walking tree.
 The mangrove seeds germinate while attached to the mother tree. When ready, they drop off into the
muddy waters, where the pointed end gets anchorage in the mud.
 They also grow unique areal roots that absorb air when the roots are exposed.
 The roots absorb salt from the saline marine water and deposit it on the leaves; this way, the forest purifies
saline seawater to form fresh water available for humans.
 It is thought that it originated from Southeast Asia and then spread across the globe.
 Distribution

Distribution is controlled by the following factors of growth:

 Temperatures – Most mangroves grow between 300 North or South of the equator where temperatures are
reasonably high to allow them to thrive.
 Salinity – The water around mangroves must be of certain salt content, so if fresh water is added to salty water,
this would be harmful to the forests.
 Exposer to Air – Air that is too rich in oxygen will harm the mangrove if the mangrove is exposed for too long.

Value of Mangrove Forests

 Contain Natural Resources – Charcoal, firewood, fish, honey, medicines, and other substances can be extracted
from mangroves.
 When they are drained for intensive agricultural activities, they provide rich alluvial soils.
 Foraging and Living Place for Wildlife – they are home to 25% of the wildlife of marine species. In fact, mangrove
forests provide protection and habitats to young vulnerable fish larvae against predators. The eggs are spawned in
the deeper oceans, but when the larvae develop, they temporarily grow in the mangrove forests before they
return once again to the coral reefs.
 The mangrove forest entangled root network traps sediments from coastal erosion and this way, they prevent
the accumulation of silt in the offshore coral reefs. The coral reef, in turn, protects the forest from storm surges
and other violent storms.
 Reducing Water Pollution – The root systems of mangrove species absorb inorganic substances and reduce water
pollution.
 Protecting the Coastline – The Roots of Mangroves Act can stabilise the coastlines of the river shores and river
mouths. They also protect the coastline from wave erosion.
 Flood Prevention – Mangroves can stabilise the water capacity of the substratum and on the soil surface, hence
steady and retaining water to prevent flooding.
 Ornamental Value – A mangrove forest is a beautiful environment with a diversity of life that, in some people's
eyes, is worth saving.
 The mangrove ecosystem protects the coast from erosion
 Over the years, these forests have played the very important process of carbon sequestration (carbon removal)
from the atmosphere and its storage as woody material in the thick mangrove forests. Mangrove forests are
one of the most promising bio sequesters, having the highest carbon net productivity among all ecosystems. By
capturing carbon dioxide and storing it in their biomass, mangrove species can reduce the amount of
excess carbon in the air, thereby lessening the greenhouse gas contribution to global warming.

Threats
 Clearing – Mangrove forests have often been unproductive and smelly, and so cleared to make room for
agricultural land, human settlements and infrastructure, and industrial areas.
 Overharvesting – While harvesting has taken place for centuries, harvesting of mangroves has become
unsustainable and threatens their future.
 River Changes – Dams and irrigation reduce the amount of water reaching mangrove forests, changing the salinity
of water in the forest.
 Overfishing – The global overfishing crisis facing the world’s oceans has effects far beyond the directly overfished
population. The ecological balance of food chains and mangrove fish communities can also be affected.
 Destruction of Coral Reefs – Coral reefs provide the first barrier against currents and strong waves. When
destroyed, the stronger-than-normal waves and currents reaching the coast can undermine the fine sediment in
which the mangroves grow. This can prevent seedlings from taking root and wash away essential nutrients.
 Pollution – Fertilizers, pesticides, and other toxic man-made chemicals carried by river systems from sources
upstream can kill animals living in mangrove forests.
 Climate Change – Mangrove forests require stable sea levels for long-term survival.

Case Study: Bangladesh, Sundarbans

The Sundarban forest lies in the vast delta of the Bay of Bengal, formed by the super confluence of the Ganges,
Padma, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers across southern Bangladesh. The seasonally flooded Sundarbans
freshwater swamp forests lie inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe. The forest covers 10,000
square kilometres (3,900 sq mi), of which about 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) are in Bangladesh. It became
inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. The Indian part of Sundarbans is estimated to be about 4,110
square kilometres (1,590 sq mi), of which about 1,700 square kilometres (660 sq mi) is occupied by waterbodies in
the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few meters to several kilometres.

A complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests intersects the
Sundarbans. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every forest corner accessible by boat. The
area is known for the eponymous Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera Tigris), as well as numerous fauna, including species
of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use
for centuries, and the Eco-region has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest
remaining. The remaining forests, taken together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are critical habitats for the
endangered tiger. Additionally, the Sundarbans serve as a protective barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and
around Khulna and Mongla against the floods resulting from the cyclones. The Sundarbans have also been enlisted
among the finalists in the New 7 Wonders of Nature.

COASTAL MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Land uses in coastal areas include tourism, industry, fishing, trade, and transport. Many different groups of people
have an interest in how coastal areas are managed. These include:

 residents
 environmental groups
 developers
 local councils
 national governments
 tourist boards
 National Park Authorities, such as the Pembrokeshire National Park Authority

As things like coastal tourism have become more frequent, humans have found it increasingly necessary to attempt
to control the effects of the sea. The main reasons for coastal management are:

 to protect the coast from the erosive effects of the sea.

 to increase the amount of sand on the beach.

Many strategies have been tried worldwide, and these can be divided into two main groups: hard and soft
engineering. Hard engineering methods aim to stop the coastal processes from occurring. Soft engineering methods
try to work with nature to protect the coast.
Hard Engineering Methods

1. Sea Walls:

 Often built in front of seaside resorts.

 Very expensive.
 They aim to block the waves and their effects
completely.
 Life span of approximately 75 years.
 Can cause the erosion of the beach in front of
them.
 Socially reassuring for residents

2. Wooden Groynes:

 Wooden "fences" built at right angles to

the coastline.
 They aim to stop material movement
along the beach due to longshore drift.
 Their primary intention is to build up the
sand on the beach.
 They have a life span of approximately 25
years.
3. Gabion Groynes:

 Large steel mesh cages filled with large rocks.

 Aligned at right angles to the coastline.
 They aim to do a similar job to wooden groynes.
 Expected life span of 20 - 25 years, as the steel will rust.

4. Rip Rap / Rock Armour:

 Large boulders of 10 tonnes or more are used as a sea wall.

 The gaps between the rocks allow water through, which means that the energy of the waves is dissipated
very effectively.
 It is essential that the boulders are big enough to withstand being eroded and become part of the coastal
system.
b. Soft Engineering

Many coastlines are protected by soft engineering, which uses strategies that work with nature. They are cheaper
than hard engineering solutions and look more attractive but are usually less effective against erosion and flooding.

i) Beach nourishment

Beach nourishment means replacing lost sediment - also known as beach replenishment. It is vital to replace
lost sediment because a more expansive beach means that fewer waves reach the back of the beach as
there is more sand to slow the waves down through friction. The beach absorbs wave energy, therefore
reducing the rate of erosion.

There are two main ways to replace lost sediment...

Beach recharge - sediment is dredged from the seabed and pumped onto the beach - bulldozers are then
used to spread out the sand across the beach. This usually happens every 5-10 years

Beach recycling - sediment is collected from where it has built up down-drift and returned up-drift using
large trucks. This usually happens twice a year

Advantages

more expansive beaches attract tourists - good for the local economy

protects local people along the seafront from coastal flooding

more expansive beaches absorb more wave energy - which puts less pressure on sea walls, reducing
maintenance costs

looks natural and improves the look of the beach

Disadvantages

Beach nourishment can take several weeks - during this time, people cannot use large areas of the beach

not as cheap as many people believe - hiring a dredger and bulldozers is expensive, and it needs to be
repeated regularly
 ii) Beach reprofiling

Beach reprofiling uses existing sediment from the beach to artificially reshape the beach after destructive
waves have removed sand and shingle. In spring, bulldozers move sediment back up the beach following
winter storms. This process ensures that the beach remains large enough to provide adequate protection
against erosion.

Advantages

having an enormous beach protects against erosion, so residents feel safer

much less expensive than repairing flood damage (about £30 million over 25 years)

looks natural

Disadvantages

Bulldozers restrict access to the beach - especially during the winter when beaches are popular with dog
walkers

Major re-profiling can be expensive

The beach is often given a steep and high crest to protect the coastline against waves more effectively,
however, this can look unnatural and can restrict access to the sea line for some beach users

iii) Sand dune regeneration

Sand dune regeneration means either restoring existing dunes or artificially creating new ones. There are
several ways this can happen...

planting vegetation (such as marram grass) so the long roots can bind the sand together

fencing the dunes off to stop them being trampled whilst they become established - the fences also
encourage sand to collect against them

building 'sand traps' to catch wind-blown sand

adding extra sand to wind-eroded dunes, which can then be shaped into gently sloping dunes

It is essential to regenerate dunes as they provide a physical barrier between the sea and land. Dunes
protect against erosion and flooding by absorbing water and wave energy.

Advantages

established dunes protect the land behind them - they are often popular walking areas (e.g. pine woodlands)
dune planting projects are small-scale, so are cheap (they are also usually carried out by volunteers from
local wildlife trusts

maintains essential wildlife habitats, including birds and lizards

Disadvantages:

often involves fencing large areas of the beach off - this can have an impact on tourism

must be carefully managed - checked regularly to ensure that dunes are stabilising

sometimes fertilisers are applied to help vegetation grow quicker - this can impact wildlife ecosystems

measures put in place to prevent damage from tourism are expensive, e.g. wooden boardwalks, fire
warnings, clearing areas for firebreaks, etc

dunes are dynamic ecosystems - even when established, they are not exceptionally stable and can be
damaged during storms, which will take a few years to recover.