UNIT 1

POWER SYSTEM 1
UNIT 1

STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM

1. BASIC TERMINOLOGY
Alternating Current (AC) – Electric current in which the direction of the current's flow is
reversed or alternated at 60Hz in the U.S.

Conductors (Power Lines) – Metal cables used for carrying electric current.

Corona – Electrical breakdown of the air near high voltage conductors into charged particles.

Current – The flow of electricity or the movement of electrons through a conductor typically
measured in watts.

Direct Current (DC) – Electric current flows continuously in the same direction as contrasted
with alternating current.

Distribution Line – A line that carries electricity at lower voltages of 12kV to 44kV and is used
to distribute power drawn from high-voltage transmission systems to end-use customers.

Electric & Magnetic Fields (EMF) – Invisible areas of energy, often referred to as radiation,
that are associated with the use of electric power. EMFs fall into one of two radioactive
categories – non-ionizing (low-level of radiation) or ionizing (high-level of radiation).

Electric Load – Electricity consumers, such as residences, businesses, and government centers
that use electricity.

Electric Power Transmission – The process by which large amounts of electricity produced are
transported over long distances for eventual use by consumers.

Energy – The amount of work that can be done by electricity, typically measured in kilowatt-
hours (kWh) or megawatthours (MWh).

Foundation – System that transfers to the ground the various dead and live loads of the
transmission structure and conductors.

Generation – The production of electric energy. Fossil fuels, wind turbines, solar panels, and
other technologies are used to generate electricity.

Insulators – Used to contain, separate, or support electrical conductors.

Interconnection – Points on a grid or network where two or more transmission lines are
connected at a substation or switching station, or where one stage of the energy supply chain
meets the next.

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR

 UNIT 1
POWER SYSTEM 1
Load Center – A particular geographical area where energy is used. Most commonly refers to
an area within a utility’s service territory where energy demand is highest (i.e., cities, major
industrial areas, etc.).

National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) – The NESC is the U.S. standard of the safe
installation, operation, and maintenance of electric power systems.

Power – Rate at which electricity does work. Measured in watts or kilowatts (kW) or megawatts
(MW).

Rights-of-Way (ROW) – A legal land right, easement, set aside for the transmission line
structure and conductors needed for clearances and maintenance activities.

Shield and Ground Wire – Wires used primarily for protection from lightning strikes and
corresponding surges.

Substation – A part of an electrical transmission system that transforms voltage from high to
low, or the reverse.

Switching Station – A part of an electrical transmission system that ties two or more electric
circuits together through switches, to permit a circuit to be disconnected, or to change the electric
connection between circuits.

Transmission Line – A line that carries electricity at voltages of 69kV or greater and is used to
transmit electric power over relatively long distances, usually from a central generating station to
main substations.

Transmission Structures – Used to keep high-voltage conductors (power lines) separated from
their surroundings and from each other.

Voltage – Electric “pressure” measured in volts. Power systems are typically measured in 1,000s
volts or kV.

Watt – Unit of electrical power. 1MW is one million watts.

Grid - An electrical grid, electric grid or power grid, is an interconnected network for delivering
electricity from producers to consumers.

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR

 UNIT 1
POWER SYSTEM 1
2. INTRODUCTION

For economical and technological reasons, individual power systems are organized in the
form of electrically connected areas or regional grids (also called power pools). Each area or
regional grid operates technically and economically independently, but these are eventually
interconnected to form a national grid (which may even form an international grid) so that each
area is contractually tied to other areas in respect to certain generation and scheduling features.
India is now heading for a national grid.

The siting of hydro stations is determined by the natural water power sources. The choice of
site for coal fired thermal stations is more flexible. The following two alternatives are possible.

1. Power stations may be built close to coal mines (called pit head stations) and electric
energy is evacuated over transmission lines to the load centers.
2. Power stations may be built close to the load centers and coal is transported to them
from the mines by rail road.

In practice, however, power station siting will depend upon many factors technical,
economical and environmental. As it is considerably cheaper to transport bulk electric energy
over extra high voltage (EHV) transmission lines than to transport equivalent quantities of coal
over rail road, the recent trends in India (as well as abroad) is to build super (large) thermal
power stations near coal mines. Bulk power can be transmitted to fairly long distances over
transmission lines of 400 kV and above. However, the country’s coal resources are located
mainly in the eastern belt and some coal fired stations will continue to be sited in distant western
and southern regions.

As nuclear stations are not constrained by the problems of fuel transport and air pollution, a
greater flexibility exists in their siting, so that these stations are located close to load centers
while avoiding high density pollution areas to reduce the risks, however remote, of radioactivity
leakage.

In India, as of now, about 75% of electric power used is generated in thermal plants
(including nuclear). 23% from mostly hydro stations and 2%. come from renewables and others.
Coal is the fuel for most of the steam plants, the rest depends upon oil/natural gas and nuclear
fuels.

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR

 UNIT 1
POWER SYSTEM 1
Electric power is generated at a voltage of 11 to 25 kV which then is stepped up to the
transmission levels in the range of 66 to 400 kV (or higher). As the transmission capability of a
line is proportional to the square of its voltage, research is continuously being carried out to raise
transmission voltages. Some of the countries are already employing 765 kV. The voltages are
expected to rise to 800 kV in the near future. In India, several 400 kV lines are already in
operation. One 800 kV line has just been built.

For very long distances (over 600 km), it is economical to transmit bulk power by DC
transmission. It also obviates some of the technical problems associated with very long distance
AC transmission. The DC voltages used are 400 kV and above, and the line is connected to the
AC systems at the two ends through a transformer and converting/inverting equipment (silicon
controlled rectifiers are employed for this purpose). Several DC transmission lines have been
constructed in Europe and the USA. In India two HVDC transmission line (bipolar) have already
been commissioned and several others are being planned. Three back to back HVDC systems are
in operation.

FIG. 1.1 Structure of Power System

The first step down of voltage from transmission level is at the bulk power substation,
where the reduction is to a range of 33 to 132 kV, depending on the transmission line voltage.
Some industries may require power at these voltage levels. This step down is from the
transmission and grid level to sub transmission level.

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR

 UNIT 1
POWER SYSTEM 1
The next step down in voltage is at the distribution substation. Normally, two distribution
voltage levels are employed:
1. The primary or feeder voltage (11 kV)
2. The secondary or consumer voltage (415 V 3-ph/230 V 1- phase).

The distribution system, fed from the distribution transformer stations, supplies power to the
domestic or industrial and commercial consumers.
Thus, the power system operates at various voltage levels separated by transformer.

3. COMPONENTS OF AN ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM:

1. Generators: A device used to convert one form of energy into electrical energy.
2. Transformer: Transfer power or energy from one circuit to other without the change of
frequency.(to increase or decrease the voltage level)
3. Transmission lines: Transfer power from one location to another
4. Control Equipment: Used for protection purpose
5. Primary Transmission: 110kV, 132kV or 220kV or 400kV or 765kV, high voltage
transmission, 3 phase 3-wire system.
6. Secondary transmission: 3 phase 3-wire system, 33kV or 66kV feeders are used
7. Primary distribution: 3 phase 3-wire system, 11kV or 6.6kV, 3 phase 3-wire system
8. Secondary distribution: 400V for 3φ, 230V for 1φ

A. Generators:
• Generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Generating voltages are normally 6.6 kV,10.5 kV or 11 kV.

• This generating voltage can be step up to 110 kV/132 kV/220kV at the generating(indoor
or outdoor) to reduce the current in transmission line and to reduce transmission losses.

• Generators produce real power (MVA) and reactive power (MVAR).

B. Transformers:
• It is a static device which transfers power or energy from one circuit to another circuit
without change of frequency.

• The main function of transformers is step up voltages from lower generation levels to the
higher generation voltage levels and also step down voltages from higher transmission
voltage levels to lower distribution levels.

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR

 UNIT 1
POWER SYSTEM 1
• When we are increasing the transmission voltage, current flowing through the current
flowing through the grid decreases, thereby transmission losses (I^2R) reduces.

C. Transmission Lines
A transmission line is used for the transmission of electrical power from generating
substation to the various distribution units. It transmits the wave of voltage and current from one
end to another. The transmission line is made up of a conductor having a uniform cross-section
along the line.

In transmission line determination of voltage drop, transmission efficiency, line loss etc.
are important things to design. These values are affected by line parameter R, L and C of the
transmission line. Length wise transmission lines are three types.

1. Short Transmission Line

2. Medium Transmission Line

3. Long Transmission Line

a. Short transmission line

Short transmission line is classified as a transmission line with:

A length less than 80km (50 miles)

Voltage level less than 69 kV

Capacitance effect is negligible

Only resistance and inductance are taken in calculation capacitance is neglected.

b. Medium Transmission Line

A medium transmission line is classified as a transmission line with:

A length more than 80 km (50 miles) but less than 250 km (150 miles)

Operational voltage level is from 69 kV to approx .133 kV

Capacitance effect is present

Distributed capacitance form is used for calculation purpose.

c. Long Transmission Line

A long transmission line is classified as a transmission line with:

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR

 UNIT 1
POWER SYSTEM 1
A length more than 250 km (150 miles)

Voltage level is above 133 kV

Line constants are considered as distributed over the length of the line.

D. Control Equipment
Circuit Breaker (CB): Circuit breakers are used for opening or closing a circuit normal and
abnormal (fault) condition. Different types of circuit breaker are oil circuit breaker, air-blast
circuit breaker, vacuum circuit breaker, SF6 circuit breaker. During fault conditions relay will
give command to the circuit breaker to operate.

Isolators: Isolators are placed in substations to isolate the part of system during maintenance.

It can operate only during no-load condition. Isolated switches are provided on each side of the
circuit breaker.

Busbar: Busbars are used to connect number of lines operating at the same voltage electrically.
It is made up of copper or aluminium. Different types of busbar arrangements are –single busbar
arrangement, single bus bar with sectionalisation, double bus bar arrangements, ring bus bar
scheme etc.

E. Transmission System
It supplies only large blocks of power to bulk power station or very big consumers.

It interconnects the neighboring generating stations in to a power pool i.e, interconnection of

two or more generating stations.

Tolerance of transmission line voltage is ±5 to ± 10% due to the variation of loads.

a. Primary Transmission

If the generated power is transmitted through transmission line without stepping up the
generated voltage, the line current and power loss would be very high.

So the generated voltage is stepped up to higher value by using the step up transformer located
in substations known as sending end substations near the generating stations.

The high voltage transmission lines transmit power from sending end substation to the receiving
end substation.

Primary transmission voltages are 110KV, 132 KV or 220KV 0r 400KV or 760KV.It uses
3phase, and 3wire system.

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR

 UNIT 1
POWER SYSTEM 1
b. Secondary Transmission

At the receiving end substation, the voltage is stepped down to a value of 66 or 33 or 22 KV

using step down transformers.

The secondary transmission line forms the link between the receiving end substation and the
secondary station. It uses 3phase,3 wire system and the conductors used are called feeders.

F. Distribution System
The component of an electrical power system connecting all the consumers in an area to the
bulk power sources or transmission line is called a distribution system.

A distribution station distributes power to domestic, commercial and relatively small

consumers.

Distribution transformers are normally installed on poles or on plinth mounted or near the
consumers

a. Primary Distribution

At the secondary substations, the voltage is stepped down to 11 KV or 6.6 KV using step
down transformers.

The primary distributor forms the link between secondary substation and distribution
substation and the power is fed in to the primary distribution system. It uses 3phase, 3 wire
system.

b. Secondary Distribution

At the distribution substation the voltage is stepped down to 400V (for 3phase) or 230V (for 1
phase) using step down transformers.

The distribution lines are drawn along the roads and service connections to the consumers are
tapped off from the distributors.

It uses 3 phase, 4 wire system.

Single phase loads are connected between one phase wire and one neutral wire

4. VARIOUS VOLTAGE LEVELS

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR

 UNIT 1
POWER SYSTEM 1

5. NEED OF TRANSMISSION LINE SYSTEM

One of the key concerns in the transmission of electricity is the power loss in transmission lines,
dissipated as heat due to the resistance of the conductors. High-voltage transmission lines are
used to transmit electric power over long distances. Normally, high voltage (HV) transmission
power lines are made of high voltage (between 138 and 765 kilovolts) conducting lines of copper
and/or aluminum.

Assume the power to be transmitted is P, and the resistance of the transmission line is r.

If the power is transmitted with voltage V, then the current flow through the transmission line is

I= .

5. The power loss

𝑃 2
Ploss=I2*r=(
𝑣 *r
Since P and r are fixed conditions, less power will be lost if high voltages V are used.

6. ADVANTAGES OF DC TRANSMISSION

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR

 UNIT 1
POWER SYSTEM 1
 There are two conductors are used in DC transmission while three conductors are required in
AC transmission.
 There are no inductance and surges (High Voltage waves for very short time) in DC
transmission.
 Due to the absence of inductance, there are very low voltage drop in DC transmission lines as
compare to the AC (if both Load and Sending end Voltage is same)
 There is no concept of Skin effect in DC transmission lines. Therefore, conductor having
small cross sectional area is required in DC transmission line.
 A DC System has a less potential stress over AC system for same Voltage level. Therefore, a
DC line requires less insulation.
 In DC System, there is no interference with other communication lines and systems.
 In DC Line, Corona losses are very low as compared to the AC transmission lines.
 In High Voltage DC (HVDC) Transmission lines, there are no dielectric losses.
 In DC Transmission system, there are no difficulties in synchronizing and related stability
problems.
 DC system is more efficient than AC, therefore, the rate of price of Towers, Poles, Insulators,
and conductor are low so the system is economical.
 In DC System, the speed control range is greater than AC System.
 There is low insulation needed in the DC system (about 70%).
 The price of DC cables is low (due to low insulation).
 In DC Supply System, the Sheath losses in underground cables are low.
 DC system is suitable for High Power Transmission based on High Current transmission.
 In DC System, The Value of charging current is quite low, therefore, the length of the DC
Transmission lines is greater than AC lines.

7. DISADVANTAGES OF DC TRANSMISSION:

 Due to commutation problem, electric power can’t be produced at High (DC) Voltage.

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR

 UNIT 1
POWER SYSTEM 1
 In High Voltage transmission, we cant step-up the level of DC Voltage (As Transformer
won’t work on DC).
 There is a limitation of DC switches and circuit breakers (and they are costly too).
 The motor generator set is used to step down the level of DC voltage and the efficiency of
Motor-generator set is lower than a transformer.
 DC transmission system is more complex and costly as compared to the AC transmission
system.
 The level of DC Voltage cannot be changed (step-up or step-down) easily. So we cannot get
desire voltage for electrical and electronics appliances (such as 5 Volts, 9 Volts 15 Volts, 20
and 22 Volts etc) directly from the transmission and distribution lines.


8. ADVANTAGES OF AC TRANSMISSION:

 Nowadays, the generation, transmission and distribution of electric power has mostly been in
AC.
 Advantages of AC Transmission System
 AC Circuit breakers are cheaper than DC Circuit breakers.
 The repairing and maintenance of the AC substation is easier and inexpensive than DC
Substation.
 The Level of AC voltage may be increased or decreased by using step up and Step down
transformers.

9. DISADVANTAGES OF AC SYSTEM

 In AC line, the size of the conductor is greater than the DC Line.

 The cost of AC transmission lines is greater than DC Transmission lines.
 Due to skin effect, the losses in AC system are more.
 Due to the capacitance in AC transmission lines, a continuous power loss occurs when there
is no load on the power lines or line is open at all.
 There are some additional line losses due to inductance.
 More insulations are required in AC transmission system.
 The corona losses occur in an AC transmission line system.
 AC transmission lines interfere with other communication lines.
 There are stability and synchronizing problems in AC System.
 AC transmission system is less efficient than the DC transmission System.
 There are difficulties in controlling the reactive power.

PROF. PRAJAKTA DESHBHRATAR