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Early Concrete

Concrete is a composite material made of cement, sand, gravel, and water that gains strength over time. Early concretes used by Romans mixed volcanic ash or limestone with lime mortar. Reinforced concrete was developed in the mid-1800s by embedding steel bars in concrete to increase its tensile strength. Notable developments include Joseph Aspdin inventing Portland cement in 1824 and Francois Coignet publishing drawings of reinforced concrete beams and columns in 1861. Concrete has high compressive strength but low tensile strength, making reinforcement necessary. Its properties depend on factors like the water-cement ratio and curing conditions.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
52 views11 pages

Early Concrete

Concrete is a composite material made of cement, sand, gravel, and water that gains strength over time. Early concretes used by Romans mixed volcanic ash or limestone with lime mortar. Reinforced concrete was developed in the mid-1800s by embedding steel bars in concrete to increase its tensile strength. Notable developments include Joseph Aspdin inventing Portland cement in 1824 and Francois Coignet publishing drawings of reinforced concrete beams and columns in 1861. Concrete has high compressive strength but low tensile strength, making reinforcement necessary. Its properties depend on factors like the water-cement ratio and curing conditions.

Uploaded by

Gabriel Javelona
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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CONCRETE

Concrete is a composite material composed of aggregate, generally sand and gravel, chemically bound together by hydrated portland
cement. Admixtures are added to change certain characteristics of the concrete such as its workability, durability, and time of
hardening.
Reinforced concrete is a combination of concrete and steel wherein the steel reinforcement provides the tensile strength lacking in
the concrete.

BRIEF HISTORY
Early Concrete
Lime mortar was first used in structures by the Minoan civilization in Crete about 2000 B.C. This type of mortar gradually dissolves
when immersed in water.
About the third century B.C., the Romans discovered a fine sandy volcanic ash called Pozzolana and mixed it with lime mortar. The
mortar gained in strength and it can be used under water.
The Romans used it for bridges, docks, storm drains, aqueducts and other structures.

The roman pantheon is the largest unreinforced solid concrete dome in the world. It was built in 120 A.D. by emperor Hadrian.

Due to the lack of availability of similar pozzolans throughout the world, this type of concrete was not used elsewhere and stone and
brick masonry continued to be the dominant construction materials for most of the world's significant buildings for many centuries.

In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, an English mason, mixed ground limestone and


clay from different quarries and heated them in a kiln to make a cement.
He named his product Portland cement because concrete made from it
resembled Portland stone, a high-grade limestone from the Isle of Portland
in the south of England.

Occasionally in the production of cement, the mixture would be overheated, forming a hard
clinker which was considered to be spoiled and was discarded. In 1845, Isaac Charles
Johnson found that the best cement resulted from grinding this clinker. This is the material
now known as Portland cement.

Reinforced Concrete
W. B. Wilkinson obtained a patent in 1854 for a
reinforced concrete floor system that used hollow
plaster domes as forms. The ribs between the
forms were filled with concrete and were
reinforced with discarded steel mine-hoist ropes
in the center of the ribs.
In France, Joseph Lambot built a rowboat of
concrete reinforced with wire in 1848 and
patented it in 1855. His patent included drawings
of a reinforced concrete beam and a column
reinforced with four round iron bars.

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In 1861, another Frenchman, Francois Coignet, published a book illustrating uses of reinforced concrete.

In 1867, Joseph Monier, a French gardener, acquired first French patent in 1867 for iron reinforced concrete tubs, then followed by
his pipes, tanks in 1868, flat plates in 1869, bridges in 1873, stairways in 1875.

The first landmark building in reinforced concrete was


built by an American mechanical engineer, William E.
Ward, in 1871-1875. He built a concrete house (locally
known as Ward’s castle) that resembles a castle and
commissioned architect Robert Mook for the design in
1870.

In the 1870s Ernest L. Ransome of California experimented with


reinforced concrete and patented a twisted steel reinforcing bar in
1884.
In 1888, he constructed a building having cast-iron columns and a
reinforced concrete floor system consisting of beams and a slab
made from flat metal arches covered with concrete.

From 1890 to 1920, practicing engineers gradually gained a knowledge of the mechanics of reinforced concrete, as books,
technical articles, and codes presented the theories.
In an 1894 paper to the French Society of Civil Engineers, Coignet (son of the earlier Coignet) and de Tedeskko extended
Koenen’s theories to develop the working-stress design method for flexure, which was used universally from 1900 to 1950.
During the past seven decades, extensive research has been carried out on various aspects of reinforced concrete behavior,
resulting in the current design procedures for reinforced concrete.
Advantages of Concrete
1. It has considerable compressive strength per unit cost compared with most other materials.
2. Reinforced concrete has great resistance to the actions of fire and water and is the best structural material available for
situations where water is present.
3. Reinforced concrete structures are very rigid.
4. It is a low-maintenance material.
5. It has a very long service life. Under proper conditions, reinforced concrete structures can be used indefinitely without
reduction of their load carrying abilities. The strength of concrete does not decrease with time but actually increases over a
very long period, measured in years, because of the lengthy process of the solidification of the cement paste.
6. It is usually the only economical material available for footings, floor slabs, basement walls, piers, and similar applications.
7. The ability to be cast into an extraordinary variety of shapes from simple slabs, beams, and columns to great arches and
shells.
8. A lower grade of skilled labor is required for construction as compared with other materials such as structural steel.
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Disadvantages of Concrete
1. Concrete has a very low tensile strength, requiring the use of tensile reinforcing.
2. Forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens sufficiently. Falsework or shoring are necessary to keep the
forms in place for roofs, walls, floors, and similar structures until the concrete members gain sufficient strength to support
themselves. Formwork is very expensive.
3. The low strength per unit of weight of concrete leads to heavy members. This becomes an increasingly important matter for
long-span structures, where concrete’s large dead weight has a great effect on bending moments.
4. The low strength per unit of volume of concrete means members will be relatively large.
5. The properties of concrete vary widely because of variations in its proportioning and mixing. The placing and curing of
concrete is not as carefully controlled as is the production of other materials, such as structural steel and laminated wood.

Concrete has a great compatibility with steel. They work really well in reinforced concrete structures:
 Concrete is very strong in compression while steel is very strong in tension. The lack of tensile strength of concrete is
compensated by the high tensile capability of steel.
 The two materials create a strong bond enabling both to act as a single resisting structure. The excellent bond obtained is the
result of the chemical adhesion between the two materials, the natural roughness of the bars, and the closely spaced rib-shaped
deformations rolled onto the bars’ surfaces.
 Reinforcing bars are subject to corrosion, but the concrete surrounding them provides them with excellent protection.
 Concrete and steel work well together in relation to temperature changes because their coefficients of thermal expansion are
quite close.

CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Concrete strength generally refers to the uniaxial compressive strength as measured by a compression test of a standard test
cylinder, because this test is used to monitor the concrete strength for quality control or acceptance purposes.
The specified compressive strength, 𝑓′𝑐 , is measured by compression tests on 6 × 12 𝑖𝑛. (150 𝑚𝑚 × 300 𝑚𝑚) or 4 × 8 𝑖𝑛.
(100 𝑚𝑚 × 200 𝑚𝑚) cylinders tested after 28 days of moist curing.
 Concretes available with a 28 𝑑𝑎𝑦 ultimate strength ranges
from 2500 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (17.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎) to 20,000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (137.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎).
 Most of the concretes used fall into the 3000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (20.7 𝑀𝑃𝑎)
and 7000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (48.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎) range.
 For ordinary applications, concretes used are the
3000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (20.7 𝑀𝑃𝑎) and 4000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (27.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎) concretes.
 Prestressed concretes fall in the 5000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (34.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎) and
6000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (41.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎) strengths.
Concrete does not have a definite yield strength but rather, the
curves run smoothly on to the point of rupture at strains from
0.003 to 0.004.
The ACI code states that the strain of concrete at failure should be
0.003.
Factors affecting concrete compressive strength:
1. Water/cement ratio
2. Type of cement
3. Supplementary cementitious materials
4. Aggregate
5. Mixing water
6. Moisture conditions during curing
7. Temperature conditions during curing
8. Age of concrete
9. Rate of loading
Water/Cement Ratio
The strength of concrete is governed in large part by the ratio of the weight of the water to the weight of the cement for a given
volume of concrete.
 A lower water/cement ratio reduces the porosity of the hardened concrete and thus increases the number of interlocking
solids.
 The introduction of tiny, well-distributed air bubbles in the cement paste, known as air entrainment, tends to increase the
freeze–thaw durability of the concrete. However, the air voids introduced by air entrainment reduce the strength of the
concrete.
 Voids due to improper consolidation tend to reduce the strength below that corresponding to the water/cement ratio.

3
Type of Cement
Traditionally, five basic types of Portland cement have been produced:
Type of Cement Classification Applications
General construction
Type I Normal
(most buildings, bridges, pavements, precast units, etc.)
Structures with moderate exposure to sulphate attacks or
Type II Modified
where moderate heat of hydration is desirable.

Type III High early strength Rapid construction, cold weather concreting

Type IV Low heat of hydration (slow reacting) Massive structures such as dams.

Structures exposed to soils containing sulfates


Type V Sulphate resisting
(e.g. footings, basements walls, sewers, etc.)

Effect of type of cement on strength gain of concrete (moist/cured, water/cement ratio = 0.49) according to ASTM.

Supplementary Cementitious Materials


A portion of the cement is sometimes replaced by materials such as fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, or silica fume. The
supplementary effects of these additions results in
1. Material economy
2. Reduction of heat of hydration
3. Improved workability
Fly ash and silica fume are referred to as pozzolans, which are defined as siliceous, or siliceous and aluminous materials that in
themselves possess little or no cementitious properties but that will, in the presence of moisture, react with calcium hydroxide to
form compounds with such properties.
Fly ash is a material that is precipitated from the chimney gases from coal-fired power plants. Fly ashes from different sources vary
widely in composition and have different effects on concrete properties.
The introduction of fly ash to the concrete mix produces the
following effects:
1. It frequently leads to improved workability of the fresh
concrete.
2. It often slows the rate of strength gain of concrete but not
the final strength.
3. It can either reduce or improve the durability of the
hardened concrete depending on the composition of fly ash.
4. It affects the color of the concrete.

Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is slag from iron producing blastfurnaces that is rapidly quenched in water and then ground
into a powder. Chemically it is similar to, but less reactive than, portland cement.
Slag generates the following effects:
1. It tends to reduce the early-age strength and heat of hydration of concrete.
2. It enables concrete strengths at older ages to exceed those for normal concretes with
similar water/cement ratios.
3. It tends to reduce the permeability of concrete and its resistance to attack by certain
chemicals.

4
Silica fume is an extraordinarily fine powder that varies in color from light to dark gray and can even be blue-green-gray. It consists
of very fine spherical particles of silica produced as a by-product in the manufacture of ferrosilicon alloys.
The extreme fineness and high silica content of the silica fume make it a highly effective pozzolanic material.
Silica fume generates the following effects:
1. It increases the density and strength of concrete.
2. It is used to produce low-permeability concrete with
enhanced durability and/or high strength.

Aggregate
The strength of concrete is affected by the following aggregate parameters:
1. strength
2. surface texture
3. grading
Strong Aggregate
4. maximum size

Felsite Traprock Quartzite

Intermediate Aggregate Weak Aggregate

Limestone Granite Sandstone Marble

Normal-strength concrete made with high-strength aggregates fails due to


mortar cracking, with very little aggregate failure. Their stress–strain curves
tend to have an appreciable declining branch after reaching the maximum
stress.
If aggregate failure precedes mortar cracking, failure tends to occur abruptly
with a very steep declining branch. This occurs in very-high-strength concretes
and in some lightweight concretes.
Concrete strength is affected by the bond between the aggregate and the
cement paste. The bond becomes better using crushed, angular pieces of
aggregate. A well-graded aggregate produces a concrete that is less porous
resulting in stronger concrete.
The strength of concrete tends to decrease as the maximum aggregate size
increases. This appears to result from higher stresses at the paste–aggregate
interface.
Aggregates used for structural lightweight concretes are made of expanded
shales of volcanic origin, fired clays, or slag.
 If both fine and coarse aggregate are lightweight aggregates, the concrete
is called all-lightweight concrete.
 If the coarse aggregate is lightweight and the fine used is sand, the
concrete is known as sand-lightweight concrete.
Concretes made with lightweight aggregates are not as durable or tough as
those made with normal-weight aggregates.
Mixing Water
There are no standards governing the quality of water for use in mixing concrete. In most cases, water that is suitable for drinking
and that has no pronounced taste or odor may be used.
Guidelines for mixing water:
1. The pH of the water should be between 6.0 and 8.0.
2. Salt water or brackish water must not be used because chlorides and other salts in such water will attack the structure of the
concrete and may lead to corrosion of prestressing tendons.
5
Moisture Conditions during Curing
The development of the compressive strength of concrete is strongly affected by the moisture conditions during curing. Prolonged
moist curing leads to the highest concrete strength. The graph shows the effect of moist curing at 70 ℉ (21 ℃).

Temperature Conditions during Curing


The effect of curing temperature on strength gain is shown in the graph for specimens
placed and moist-cured for 28 days under the constant temperatures and then moist-
cured at 73 °𝐹 (22.8 ℃).
The temperature during the setting period is especially important. Concrete placed and
allowed to set at temperatures greater than 80 °𝐹 (26.7 ℃) will never reach the 28-day
strength of concrete placed at lower temperatures.

Age of Concrete
Concrete gains strength with age. Prior to 1975, the 7-day strength of concrete made with Type I cement was generally 65 to 70
percent of the 28-day strength. Changes in cement production since then have resulted in a more rapid early strength gain and less
long-term strength gain.
ACI Committee 209 has proposed an equation to represent the rate of strength gain for concrete made from Type I cement and moist-
cured at 70 °𝐹 21 ℃ :
𝑡
𝑓′𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑓′𝑐(28)
4 + 0.85𝑡
where 𝑓′𝑐(𝑡) is the compressive strength at age t.
For Type III cement,
𝑡
𝑓′𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑓′𝑐(28)
2.3 + 0.92𝑡
Concrete cured under temperatures other than 70 °𝐹 21 ℃ may set faster or slower than indicated by these equations.

Rate of Loading
The standard cylinder test is carried out at a loading rate of roughly 35 psi/sec, and the maximum load is reached in 1.5 to 2 minutes.
Under very slow rates of loading, the axial compressive strength is reduced to about 75 percent of the standard test strength. A
portion of this reduction is offset by continued maturing of the concrete during the loading period.
At high rates of loading, the strength increases, reaching 115 percent of the standard test strength. The cylinder would fail in roughly
0.10 to 0.15 seconds and would approximate the rate of loading experienced in a severe earthquake.

6
CONCRETE TENSILE STRENGTH

The tensile strength of concrete varies from about 8% to 15% of Although the tensile strength of concrete increases with an increase
its compressive strength. When concrete is subjected to tensile in the compressive strength, the ratio of the tensile strength to the
loads the cracks widen resulting in tensile failure. compressive strength decreases as the compressive strength
increases. Thus, the tensile strength is approximately proportional to
The actual value is strongly affected by the following:
the square root of the compressive strength.
1. The type of test carried out to determine the tensile
The modulus of rupture, fr, from ACI code section 19.2.3.1 and NSCP
strength.
2015 section 419.2.3.1
2. The type of aggregate.
𝑓𝑟 = 0.62λ 𝑓′𝑐
3. The compressive strength of the concrete.
The term λ depends on the aggregates that are used. For normal
4. the presence of a compressive stress transverse to the weight concrete, 𝜆 = 1. For all lightweight concrete, 𝜆 = 0.75. For
tensile stress. sand-lightweight concrete, 𝜆 = 0.85.

Relationship between splitting tensile strengths and compression strengths. The curve at the bottom corresponds to 0.56 𝑓′𝑐 while
the curve at top is approximated by 0.53 𝑓′𝑐 .

The tensile strength of concrete is affected by the same factors that affect the compressive strength.
 The tensile strength of concrete made from crushed rock may be up to 20 percent greater than that from rounded gravels.
 The tensile strength of concrete made from lightweight aggregate tends to be less than that for normal sand-and-gravel
concrete depending on the properties of the particular aggregate under consideration.

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

Concrete has no singular value for modulus of elasticity. Its value depends on the varying properties of concrete. The ACI code defines
𝐸𝑐 as the slope of the line drawn from stress zero of to a compressive stress of 0.45𝑓′𝑐 .
The modulus of elasticity of the concrete is affected by the
modulus of elasticity of the cement paste and by that of the
aggregate. An increase in the water/cement ratio increases
the porosity of the paste, reducing its modulus of elasticity
and strength. This is accounted for in design by expressing 𝐸𝑐
as a function of 𝑓′𝑐 .
The ACI code section 19.2.2.1 and NSCP 2015 section
419.2.2.1 permits the use of the given formulas for the
calculation of the modulus of elasticity.
For concrete weight 𝑤𝑐 ranging from 1500 to 2500 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 :

𝐸𝑐 = 𝑤𝑐1.5 0.043 𝑓′𝑐

For normal weight concrete weighing 23.6 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 :

𝐸𝑐 = 4700 𝑓′𝑐

7
TIME-DEPENDENT VOLUME CHANGES OF CONCRETE

Concrete undergoes volume changes which may cause stresses, cracking, or deflections that affect the in-service behavior of
reinforced concrete structures.
The three main types of volume changes are
1. Shrinkage
2. Creep
3. thermal expansion or contraction.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the decrease in the volume of concrete during hardening and drying under constant temperature. The amount of
shrinkage increases with time.

Shrinkage strains depend on


1. Concrete mix and type of cement
2. Loss of moisture
The magnitude of shrinkage strains depends on the composition of the concrete mix and the type of cement used. The hardened
cement paste shrinks whereas the aggregate acts to restrain shrinkage.
The larger the fraction of the total volume of the concrete that is made up of hydrated cement paste, the greater the shrinkage.

Shrinkage strains are dependent on the relative humidity and are largest for relative humidities of 40 percent or less. They are
partially recoverable upon rewetting the concrete.
Structures exposed to seasonal changes in humidity may expand and contract slightly due to changes in shrinkage strains.
There are three types of shrinkage:
1. Drying shrinkage
2. Autogenous shrinkage
3. Carbonantion shrinkage
Drying shrinkage occurs as the moisture diffuses out of the concrete.
 The exterior shrinks more rapidly than the interior.
 The outer skin of the concrete is subjected to tensile stresses while the interior is under compressive stresses.
 For large members, where the ratio of volume to surface area is larger (larger effective thickness), shrinkage is lesser because
there is more moist concrete to restrain the shrinkage.
 Shrinkage develops more slowly in large members.

Autogenous shrinkage occurs without the loss of moisture due to hydration reactions inside the cement matrix.
 It constitutes a more significant percentage of the total shrinkage in high-performance concretes (water/cement ratio below
0.40).
 The exterior shrinks more rapidly than the interior.
Carbonation shrinkage occurs in carbon-dioxide rich atmospheres, such as those found in parking garages.
 The amount of carbonation shrinkage is almost equal the drying shrinkage at 50 percent relative humidity. Thus the total
amount of shrinkage doubles.
 The carbonation shrinkage decreases at higher and lower humidities.

In a structure the shrinkage strains will tend to be less for the same concrete for the following reasons:
1. The ratio of volume to surface area (expressed as effective thickness) is generally larger thus drying shrinkage is reduced.
2. A structure is built in stages and some of the shrinkage is dissipated before adjacent stages are completed.
3. The reinforcement restrains the development of the shrinkage
8
Creep
Compressive stress on a concrete member results in an immediate or instantaneous elastic shortening. If the load is left in place for a
long time, the member will continue to shorten over a period of several years, and the final deformation will be significantly greater
than the initial deformation. This final deformation is called creep.

Factors affecting creep:


 Creep is greatest in concretes with a high cement–paste content.
 Concretes containing a large aggregate fraction creep less. It is because only the paste creeps and the creep is restrained by the
aggregate.
 The rate of development of the creep strains is affected by temperature. Creep increases significantly at mean temperatures in
excess of 90 ℉ 32.2 ℃ reaching a plateau at about 160 ℉ 71.1 ℃ . At high temperatures encountered in fires, very large
creep strains occur.
 Early loading of a concrete member results in higher shrinkage strains.
 A higher value of relative humidity and a larger volume/surface ratio (larger effective thickness) tends to reduce the
magnitude of creep strains.
 Creep strains are reduced when compression reinforcements are used. In an axially loaded reinforced concrete column, the
creep shortening of the concrete causes compressive strains in the longitudinal reinforcement and reducing the stress in the
concrete.
Thermal Expansion/Contraction
Concrete members expand/contract due to thermal changes. The amount of expansion/contraction is determined the coefficient of
thermal expansion of the materials.
Coefficient of thermal expansion is affected by
1. composition of the concrete
2. moisture content of the concrete
3. age of the concrete.
As the temperature rises, so does the coefficient of expansion. At temperatures experienced in building fires, it may be several times
the value at normal operating temperatures.
The thermal expansion of a floor slab in a fire may be large enough to exert large shear-forces on the supporting columns.

HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

Concretes with compression strengths exceeding 6000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (41.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎) are referred to as high-strength concretes. Strengths of up to
18000 𝑝𝑠𝑖 126 𝑀𝑃𝑎 have been used.
Admixtures such as superplasticizers improve the dispersion of cement in the mix and produce workable concretes with much lower
water/cement ratios than ordinary concrete. The resulting concrete has a lower void ratio and is stronger than normal concretes.
Most high-strength concretes have water-to-cementitious-materials ratios (w/cm) of 0.40 or less.
High-performance concrete is used to refer to concrete with special properties, such as ease of placement and consolidation, high
early-age strength to allow early stripping of forms, durability, and high strength. High-strength concrete is only one type of high-
performance concrete.

The stress–strain curves for higher-strength concretes tend to have a more linear loading branch and a steep descending branch.
 High-strength concrete exhibits less internal microcracking for a given strain than does normal concrete.
 In high-strength concrete, failure occurs by fracture of the aggregate on relatively smooth planes parallel to the direction of the
applied stress.
 The lateral strains tend to be considerably smaller than in lower-strength concrete.

9
REINFORCING STEEL

Because concrete is weak in tension, it is reinforced with steel bars or wires that resist the tensile
stresses. The most common types of reinforcement for nonprestressed members are hot-rolled
deformed bars and wire fabric.
Steel reinforcing bars are basically round in cross section, with lugs or deformations rolled into the
surface to aid in anchoring the bars in the concrete.

Welded wire fabric is used for reinforcing slabs, pavements, and shells, and places where
there is normally not sufficient room for providing the necessary concrete cover required for
regular reinforcing bars.
The mesh is made of cold-drawn wires running in both directions and welded together at the
points of intersection.
Wire mesh is easily placed and has excellent bond with the concrete, and the spacing of the
wires is well controlled.

Reinforcing bar are produced according to ASTM specifications which indicate certain dimensions and certain chemical and
mechanical properties.
1. ASTM A615: Standard Specification for Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement. This specification
covers the most commonly used reinforcing bars.
2. ASTM A706: Standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed and Plain Bars for Concrete Reinforcement. This specification
covers bars intended for special applications where weldability, bendability, or ductility is important
3. ASTM A996: Standard Specification for Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement. This specification
covers bars rolled from discarded railroad rails or from discarded train car axles.

Reinforcing bars are available in four grades, with yield strengths at 40 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (276 𝑀𝑃𝑎), 50 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (345 𝑀𝑃𝑎), 60 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (414 𝑀𝑃𝑎), and
75 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (518 𝑀𝑃𝑎). Grade 60 is the steel most commonly used in buildings and bridges. Grade 75 is used in large columns. Grade 40
is the most ductile, followed by Grades 60, 75, and 50, in that order.
ASTM A 615 defines three grades of metric reinforcing bars: Grades 300, 420, and 520, having specified yield strengths of 300, 420,
and 520 MPa, respectively.

10
Stress-strain curves for reinforcement.

Deformed-steel reinforcement subjected to high temperatures in fires tends to lose some of its strength. When the temperature of
the reinforcement exceeds about 850 ℉ 454.4 ℃ , both the yield and ultimate strengths drop significantly. One of the functions of
concrete cover on reinforcement is to prevent the reinforcement from getting hot enough to lose strength.

Corrosive environments causes corrosion of reinforcement to accelerate. The ACI code requires that for corrosive environments,
more concrete cover must be provided for the reinforcing. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars can also be used. Such bars need to be
handled very carefully so as not to break off any of the coating.

DESIGN CODES

The code used primarily for the design of buildings is based on the American Concrete Institute’s Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318). It is the basis of the National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP).
The ACI Code is not in itself a legally enforceable document. It just provides a standard of good practice in reinforced concrete
design.

11

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