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CHAPTER 8
CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHT TO FAIR LABOUR
PRACTICES
ABRIDGED CONTENTS

Page
A Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------ 297-300

B Historical Perspective---------------------------------------------------------- 300-302

C Meaning of Fairness
1 Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------- 302-305
2 Interpretation of the Concept of Fairness by our Courts
Before 1994---------------------------------------------------------------- 305-312

D Who Can Rely on section 23(1)?-------------------------------------------- 312-314

E A New Unfair Labour Practice?

1 Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------- 314-316
2 Case Law and the Content of the Right to Fair Labour
Practices-------------------------------------------------------------------- 316-319
3 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------ 319-320

F England------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 320-322

G United States of America

1 Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------- 322-323
2 Specific Unfair Labour Practices-------------------------------------- 323-326
3 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------ 327

H Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------- 327-328

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A Introduction

Section 23(1) of the Constitution1 provides that everyone has the right to fair labour
practices. This provision is becoming very influential and factorial in labour
legislation.2 Although the exact content of this right is not capable of precise
definition,3 it will be demonstrated herein that it is capable of wide definition and
scope and that it could be utilized by both typical and atypical employees in order
to protect their legitimate interests.4 The purpose of this chapter is to provide some
clarity as to who can turn to section 23(1) for relief and to shed some light on what
constitutes an ‘unfair labour practice’. After considering who this section is
applicable to, the meaning of the concept of fairness and its determination is
considered. Discussion of the old Industrial Court’s approach to the meaning of
fairness provides some alternatives of how to determine the fairness or otherwise
of certain conduct. Finally, a brief overview of some of the latest cases where
section 23(1) of the Constitution was considered provide the reader with examples
of the type of conduct that can possibly qualify as an unfair labour practice.

The changing world of work has resulted in a growing number of ‘atypical

employees’. The Department of Labour and the legislature are aware of this fact.5

1
Act 108 of 1996.
2
Le Roux “the New Unfair Labour Practice: The High Court Revives the Possibility
of a Wide Concept of Unfair Labour Practice” 2002 Contemp LL 91.
3
See National Union of Health and Allied Workers Union v University of Cape Town
2003 ILJ 95 (CC).
4
In fact, this right can even be utilized for the protection of employer interests- see
National Union of Health and allied Workers Union v University of Cape Town op
cit.
5
In the Department of Labour’s Green Paper: Policy Proposals for a New
Employment Statute (GG 23 Feb 1996) the legislature expressed itself as follows:
‘The current labour market has many forms of employment relationships that differ
from full-time employment. These include part-time employees, temporary
employees, employees supplied by employment agencies, casual employees,
home workers and workers engaged under a range of contracting relationships.
They are usually described as non-standard or atypical. Most of these employees
are particularly vulnerable to exploitation because they are unskilled or work in
sectors with little or no trade union organisation or little or no coverage by
collective bargaining. A high proportion is women. Frequently, they have less
favourable terms of employment than other employees performing the same work

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This knowledge prompted the 2002 amendments to the LRA which provide that a
person will be presumed to be an employee if one of the following conditions is
met:6
(i) There is control or direction in the manner the person works;
(ii) there is control or direction in the person’s hours of work;
(iii) the person forms part of the organisation;
(iv) an average of 40 hours per month has been worked for the last 3 months;
(v) the person is economically dependent on the provider of work;
(vi) the person is provided with tools or equipment; or
(vii) the person only works for one person.

This amendment is also found in the Basic Conditions of Employment Act7

(hereinafter the BCEA). The Minister of Labour has the power to extend the
provisions of BCEA to persons who do not qualify as employees in terms of the
legislation.8

However, the legislature’s attempt to extend the net of protection to atypical

employees has not been altogether successful. The fact that the administrative
power of extension of the Minister of Labour provided for in terms of the BCEA has
never been utilized has been attributed to ‘a lack of capacity within the Department
of Labour’.9 The courts’ traditional approach to defining an employee has also
been described as “unimaginative” with the result that there is a certain amount of
lack of protection for a “significant proportion of the workforce”.10 The criteria that

and have less security of employment. Often they do not receive ‘social wage’
benefits such as medical and or pension or provident funds. These employees
therefore depend upon statutory employment standards for basic working
conditions. Most have, in theory, the protection of current legislation, but in
practice the circumstances of their employment make the enforcement of rights
extremely difficult.’
6
S 200A. This presumption will only be operative where an employee earns less
than approximately R116 000 per annum.
7
S 83(A) of Act 75 of 1997.
8
S 83(1).
9
Benjamin “Who Needs Labour Law? Defining the Scope of Labour Protection” in
Conaghan, Fishl and Klare Labour Law in an Era of Globalization (2002) 91.
10
Benjamin op cit note 76.

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are relied upon for the operation of the presumption of being an employee are
based on the ‘traditional tests’ as applied by the courts. As such the criticisms,11
levelled against the courts’ approach to determining who qualifies as an employee,
are applicable to the 2002 Amendments of the LRA12 as well. In short therefore,
some ‘atypical employees’ are not in a position to enjoy the protection granted in
terms of the LRA, BCEA and other labour legislation.

Much research to establish the extent of atypical employment in South Africa has
been undertaken.13 Various categories of such atypical employees have been
identified including part-time work, temporary work, day work, outsourcing, sub-
contracting, homework, self-employment and so forth. After collecting all the
available data in South Africa, Theron concludes:14”The extent and effects of the
processes of casualization, externalisation and informalization cannot be
measured quantitatively at this stage, nor is it realistic to expect to be able to do
so. Yet the quantitative indicators are consistent with what is described in
qualitative studies and trends that are well established in both developed and
developing countries. It does not seem that there is any basis to argue that South
Africa is an exception to these trends.”

Although many ‘atypical employees’ enjoy protection in terms of labour

legislation15 some of these ‘atypical employees’ may still not qualify as employees
in terms of the legislation. Consequently they do not enjoy protection in terms of
these Acts. These ‘atypical employees’ can conceivably turn to section 23(1) of the
Constitution for protection against employer abuse. Those who are specifically
excluded from the legislation16 may also conceivably turn to section 23(1) of the

11
Benjamin op cit 82-85; Brassey “The Nature of Employment” 1990 ILJ 528.
12
S 200A.
13
See Theron “Employment is not What it Used to be”’ 2003 ILJ 1247 where a
summary of all the available studies and surveys undertaken in South Africa is
undertaken; see also ch 6 subsection F infra.
14
Theron op cit 1278.
15
See s 200A of LRA and s 83(A) of BCEA.
16
S 2 of the LRA provides that it is not applicable to members of the National
Defence Force, the National Intelligence Agency and the South African Secret
Service.

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Constitution for relief. Finally, section 23(1) may possibly also be utilised for relief
where the alleged unfair labour practice does not fall within the scope of the
17
definition of an unfair labour practice in terms of section 186(2) of the LRA. This
constitutional provision will also have an influence on how individual contracts of
employment are interpreted by our courts. Contracts or terms of contracts that are
contrary to the spirit of the Constitution or that prevent or limit fundamental rights
guaranteed in the Constitution may be set aside.18 In the light of the worldwide
trend towards individualisation of employment contracts, this provision can play a
very useful role in redressing the imbalance of power between employers and
employees.

B Historical Perspective

This concept originated in the United States as a “handy description for a clutch of
statutory torts designed to curb employer action against trade unions organizing.”19
The phrase was imported into South Africa, in a different context, at a time of
political upheaval.20 The concept was introduced into the South African labour law
dispensation as a result of recommendations of the Wiehahn Commission.21 The
first definition of unfair labour practice to be found in legislation was a very open-
ended and non-specific definition. An “unfair labour practice” was defined as “any
labour practice that in the opinion of the Industrial Court is an unfair labour
practice”.22 This obviously gave the Industrial Court enormous leeway and
‘amounted to a licence to legislate’.23

In 1980 the legislature intervened and a new definition of unfair labour practice
was introduced. It was more specific and the definition referred to four

17
This provision is discussed under heading 5 infra.
18
See Basson “Labour Law and the Constitution” 1994 THRHR 498 at 502.
19
Landman “Fair Labour Practices – The Wiehahn Legacy” 2004 ILJ 805.
20
Idem.
21
Commission of Enquiry into Labour Legislation appointed under GN 445 GG 5651
of 8 July 1977.
22
S 1(f) of the Industrial Conciliation Amendment Act 94 of 1979.
23
Thompson and Benjamin South African Labour Law (1997) A!-60.

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consequences that might arise as a result of an act or omission.24 Nevertheless,

this was still a general and open-ended definition requiring the Industrial Court to
use its discretion in interpreting it.25 In 1988 the definition was once again
amended. 26 This time it contained a list of specific unfair labour practices with an
omnibus clause that corresponded with the 1980 definition. Thus it was still open
ended and open to interpretation. Unions had negative perceptions concerning the
dispositions of the presiding officers of the Industrial Court. Consequently, they
were very unhappy about the fact that the new definition allowed the Industrial
Court to sit in judgement on the fairness of a strike.27 As a result of union
opposition to the 1988 definition an agreement between COSATU, NACTU and
SACCOLA was entered into in terms of which the 1991 definition was enacted.28

The 1991 definition reads as follows: 29

“An unfair labour practice is defined as any act or omission, other than a strike or
lock-out, which has or may have the effect that:
(a) any employee or class of employees is or may be unfairly affected or that
his or their employment opportunities or work security is or may be
prejudiced or jeopardised thereby;
(b) the business of any employer or class of employers is or may be unfairly
affected or disrupted thereby;
(c) labour unrest is or may be created or promoted thereby; or
(d) the labour relationship between employer and employee is or may be
detrimentally affected thereby.”

It is this definition of an unfair labour practice that is of relevance with reference to

section 23(1) of the Constitution. As pointed out by Van Jaarsveld, Fourie and

24
S 1(h) of the LRA Amendment Act Amendment Act 95 of 1980.
25
Thompson and Benjamin op cit A1-60.
26
S 1(h) of the LRA Amendment Act 83 of 1988.
27
Thompson and Benjamin op cit note 28 at 45 A1–30; see also Cameron, Cheadle
and Thompson The New Labour Law (1989) 139 et seq.
28
See Van Jaarsveld, Fourie and Olivier Principles and Practice of Labour Law 2004
par 775.
29
S 1 of the LRA Amendment Act 9 of 1991.

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Olivier,30 since this is the definition that was in place at the time of the enactment
of the Constitution, this is the definition that should be used as a ‘guideline to
determine the meaning of the concept or, alternatively, the broad parameters of
the concept of fairness.’31 Consequently the old Industrial Court’s interpretation of
the concept of ‘fairness’ in the context of unfair labour practices becomes
relevant.32

C Meaning of Fairness
1 Introduction
‘Fairness’ can be used as a synonym for equitable, reasonable, impartial, just,
honest, balanced, according to the rules, right.33 All these synonyms contain a high
degree of ethical and moral notions and consequently so does the notion of
fairness.34 As such the notion of fairness is not only difficult to define but is also
flexible.35 Different people from different cultures and backgrounds also might have
different views as to exactly what constitutes fairness.36 As Baxter points out,
fairness is a concept that is ambiguous and difficult to ascertain. Consequently its
meaning must be deduced with reference to surrounding circumstances.37

In WL Osche Webb & Pretorius (Pty) Ltd v Vermeulen38 the court explained the
concept of fairness as containing both procedural and substantive aspects. The

30
Op cit par 778.
31
Idem; see too NEHAWU v University of Cape Town 2000 ILJ 1618 (LC).
32
See Landman “Fair Labour Practices-The Wiehahn Legacy” 2004 ILJ 805.
33
See Poolman Principles of Unfair Labour Practices (1985) 42,and SADWV v
Master Diamond Cutters Association of SA 1982 ILJ 87 (IC).
34
In The Press Corporation 1992 ILJ 391 (A) at 400 C Grosskopf JA in referring to
the determination of unfair labour practices stated: ‘In my view a decision of the
court pursuant to these provisions is not a decision on a question of law in the strict
sense of the term. It is the passing of a moral judgment on a combination of
findings of fact and opinions.’
35
See Cameron, Cheadle and Thompson The New Labour Relations Act (1989) at
139.
36
Poolman op cit 58. See also Van Zyl “The Significance of the Concepts ‘Justice’
and ‘Equity’ in Law and Legal Thought” 1988 SALJ 272.
37
Administrative Law (1984) 543.
38
1997 ILJ 361 (LAC) at 366A-366C.

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court opined that although the courts readily enforce procedural fairness,39 they do
not so easily enter the debate on whether the result of the process is fair since this
would be tantamount to an intrusion that would impede the flexibility an employer
needs to operate efficiently in the marketplace.40 Since a certain amount of
creativity and hence subjectivity is inevitable in deciding what is fair or not, not only
must there be recourse to substantive fairness, but there must also be procedural
fairness.41

Natural justice as it is understood in its broader sense refers to procedural

fairness.42 Procedural fairness serves to ‘legitimize the outcome.’43 This concept
comprises two principles, namely audi alteram partem and nemo iudex in propria
causa.44 These two principles are discussed hereunder.

The essence of the audi alteram partem principle is that the individual should be
given notice of the intended action; and a proper opportunity to be heard.45 It is
obvious that where there is no notice or inadequate notice, there can also be no
opportunity to be heard.46 Notice of the impending action should state when and
where the opportunity to be heard may be exercised as well as the reasons and
salient factors motivating the pending proceedings.47 In other words, the individual
must be made aware of the charges against him. Secondly the individual must be

39
Baxter Administrative Law (1984) 540 states: “The principles of natural justice are
considered to be so important that they are enforced by the courts as a matter of
policy, irrespective of the merits of particular case in question.”
40
As Baxter op cit 541 states: The courts have ‘nearly always taken care to
distinguish between the merits of a decision and the process by which it is
reached. The former cannot justify a breach in the standards of the latter. The
isolated decisions which have overlooked this have seldom received subsequent
judicial endorsement.’
41
Marais Onbillike Arbeidspraktyke (1989) 12.
42
Baxter op cit 541.
43
Idem.
44
Baxter op cit 542.
45
Baxter op cit 544; see also Van Jaarsveld, Fourie and Olivier Principles and
Practice of Labour Law (2004) par 1097; Mhlangu v CIM Deltak 1986 ILJ 346 (IC);
Holgate v Minister of Justice 1995 ILJ 1426(E).
46
Baxter op cit 544.
47
Idem.

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given reasonable time to prepare his case.48 What is a reasonable time is

dependent on the circumstances.49 Furthermore the individual should be given an
opportunity to present and controvert evidence,50 to cross-examine witnesses51and
to legal representation.52

Since fairness is measured with reference to objectivity and also with the public
interest and public confidence,53 the principle of nemo iudex in propria causa is
very important.54 It is obvious that as soon as doubts concerning bias on the part
of the judge or arbiter arise, the fairness of the procedure is put into question.

Substantive fairness is concerned with the reason for treating someone

unfavourably. Fairness is determined by having regard to equity and the
substantial merits of the case in all its circumstances.55 In determining the
substantial fairness or the reason for the labour practice an objective test of what
the reasonable employer or employee would or should have done in the
circumstances is applied. What a reasonable employer or employee should have
done is determined by reference to the standards of fairness or the boni mores of
the community.56 In order to ascertain the fairness of a situation one must have
recourse not only to the consequences of the action or omission in question, but
also to the reasons for such action or omission and the manner which such action

48
Baxter op cit 551.
49
Idem.
50
Baxter op cit 553.
51
Baxter op cit 554.
52
Baxter op cit 555.
53
Baxter op cit 557-558.
54
In the case of Gotso v Afrox Oxygen Ltd [2003] BLLR 605 (Tk), at par 11, for
example, the court held that the plaintiff had been unfairly dismissed because the
presiding officer in the disciplinary enquiry had acted as judge and prosecutor. The
court stated: “The nub of the applicant’s case is that Mr Nel’s conduct in the
disciplinary hearing constituted an irregularity which caused his dismissal to be
unfair. On a proper analysis the respondent is alleged to have breached a
fundamental principle of natural justice that no one may be a judge in his own
case. The principle is entrenched in our legal jurisprudence and pervades our
constitutional law. A proven breach of this principle by the respondent will render
his actions both unlawful, and with equal force, an unfair labour practice.
55
Poolman op cit 64.
56
Idem.

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or omission took place. In other words the notion of fairness must be interpreted
with reference to all the surrounding circumstances in a particular situation.57 It is
not possible to make a numerus clausus of what would be fair and unfair. This is
so because of the potential different situations and circumstances that could
arise.58

Procedural and substantive fairness are interdependent.59 This is so because

procedural fairness requires certain facts to be proved before discretionary power
to take disciplinary action is exercised.

2 Interpretation of Concept of Fairness by Courts before 1994

2.1 Introduction
The concept of fairness is of paramount importance in the definition of unfair
labour practice. Since it was the 1991 definition of an unfair labour practice that
was in force at the time the Constitution was enacted the decisions of the Industrial
court dealing with the concept of fairness are relevant.60 In analysing the Industrial
Court’s interpretation of the concept of fairness Marais has identified 3 different
approaches to giving content to the term fairness. They are the following:
(i) The first approach61 uses the definition of an unfair labour practice as its starting
point. Commission reports and dictionaries, international law and the laws of other
countries are used to interpret the meaning of unfair labour practice. In the
process the term is fragmented and each word is interpreted in turn. In the end the
words are put back together to give them a meaning. I will call this the
‘interpretation of statutes approach’.62

57
Baxter op cit 533.
58
Marais op cit 12.
59
Baxter op cit 533.
60
Landman “Fair Labour Practices-The Wiehahn Legacy” 2004 ILJ 805.
61
Marais Onbillike Arbeidspraktyke (1989) 15-39.
62
Marais calls this the ‘wetsuitleg werkwyse’.

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(ii) The second approach63 poses the question whether the reasonable employer
would have reached the same conclusion as the respondent. I will call this the
‘reasonable employer approach’.
(iii)The third approach64 poses the question whether there were valid and justified
business considerations that were taken into account. I will call this the ‘economic
rationale approach’.

2.2 Interpretation of Statutes Approach

Criticism levelled against this approach is that the definition should be read in
context, and that the legislature’s intention and the Act as a whole should also be
considered.65 Such an approach is superficial and as it ignores the scope and
content within which the definition is required to operate. Reference to the
meaning of the words in a vacuum will result in a failure to consider any underlying
policies or objectives.66 Secondly, reliance on other legal systems is not always
appropriate. Different legislation, different socio-economic circumstances and the
like can render comparisons inappropriate. For example English legislation does
not provide for an unfair labour practice jurisdiction.67 Each legal system also has
its own unique problems and might have their own statutory principles.68

In summary therefore, to only look to the meaning of individual words with

reference to foreign law, commission reports and the like is superficial. Regard
should also be had to the surrounding circumstances of the facts at hand, the
context of the piece of legislation, as well as the intention of the legislature.69

2.3 The Reasonable Employer Approach

63
Marais calls this the ‘redelikheidskriterium werkwyse’.
64
Marais calls this the ‘kommersiële rede werkwyse’.
65
Marais op cit 23.
66
Marais op cit 23.
67
Brassey et al The New Labour Law (1987) 78.
68
Marais op cit 24.
69
Idem.

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The test has its origins in the English law.70 However the English law version of
‘unfair labour practice’ centres on unfair dismissals.71 The test is not applicable to
unfair labour practices in general.72 The English court’s and tribunal’s interpretation
of unfair dismissals guided the South African Industrial Court in giving content to
the term unfair labour practice in its different versions in respect of dismissals.73
The approach of the Industrial Court with reference to dismissals has more or less
been codified in our present legislation.74 Even though an unfair dismissal may
entail an unfair labour practice in terms of the section 23(1) of the Constitution,75
unfair labour practices in terms of the LRA are not limited to unfair dismissals.76
Nevertheless, comparisons with English law are still relevant to the question of the
interpretation of general and all embracing concepts such as fairness and
reasonableness that are inherent in any concept of unfair labour practice. The
reasonable employer test can provide guidance as to the determination op both
procedural and substantive fairness not only with reference to dismissals but also
with reference to other forms of employer conduct that may constitute unfair labour
practices.

English legislation provides that in determining whether a dismissal is unfair or not

recourse is to be had as to whether or not the employer acted reasonably or
unreasonably in treating the conduct in question as sufficient to warrant
dismissal.77 That question is to be determined in accordance with equity and the
substantial merits of the case. The test requires an examination of whether the
employer had reasonable grounds for believing that the employee committed the
alleged misconduct; whether the procedure adopted was reasonable in the

70
See s 57(3) of the English Employment Protection (Consolidation) Act.
71
Brassey et al op cit note 70 at 369.
72
See Brassey et al op cit 78.
73
See for example Lefu v Western Areas Gold Mining Co 1985 6 ILJ 307 (IC); NUM
v Nuclear Fuels Corp of SA (IC 24.10 1985, unreported); NUM v Western Areas
Gold Mining Co 1985 6 ILJ 380 (IC); Robbertze v Matthew Rustenburg Refineries
(Wadeville) 1986 7 ILJ 64 (IC).
74
Code of Good Practice: Dismissal in Schedule 8 of LRA
75
See Fedlife Assurance Ltd v Wolfaardt [2001] 12 BLLR 130 (A).
76
See definition of unfair labour practice contained in the LRA s 186(2).
77
S 94 of Employment Rights Act 1996.

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circumstances; and whether the penalty imposed by the employer was a

reasonable one.78

This approach focuses on the conduct of the employer and not on the effect of the
employers’ conduct. Even though such conduct might be found to be reasonable,
and hence fair, the results or consequences of such conduct or actions might be
unfair on the employee.79 Once the employer has shown that it was reasonable in
its conclusion on the facts i.e. that it had reasonable grounds for the belief that the
employee was guilty of the alleged misconduct, then the employer cannot have
committed an unfair labour practice. This is so even if it is later discovered that the
employee did not in fact commit the alleged offence or misconduct.80

81
The Industrial Court in Lefu v Western Areas Gold Mining Co followed this
approach. The facts of the case are briefly as follows: The employer dismissed 205
employees for either inciting or partaking in a riot in its mine. This riot had resulted
in nine deaths and the employer had suffered huge financial losses. The employer
did not hold a disciplinary enquiry since the process would have taken at least five
days during which period the employer would have had to house those it believed
guilty of the offences in its hostels. Furthermore, it felt that immediate dismissal
would help alleviate the highly emotional state of affairs that existed at the
workplace. The dismissed employees alleged that they were innocent and that
they had not committed the alleged offences. The court held that the employer had
not committed an unfair labour practice. In reaching its conclusion it relied on the
English law and referred with approval to Ferodo v R Barnes.82 It was held in that
case that the courts should not enquire as to whether or not an offence was
committed, but rather as to whether or not the employer at the time of dismissal
had reasonable grounds to believe that the employees had in fact committed the
offence.

78
Halsbury’s Laws of England (Employment Law) (2000) 6th ed par 480.
79
See Brassey et al op cit 72-73.
80
Idem.
81
1985 ILJ 307 (IC).
82
[1976] IRLR 302.

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A similar approach was adopted by the Labour Appeal Court in Yichiho Plastics
(Pty) Ltd v Muller,83 where it was stated84 that what is of relevance is what the
employer did and not what the employer might have done in other circumstances.
The approach taken in the Lefu case was followed in National Union of
Mineworkers v East Rand Gold and Uranium Co Ltd85 where Bulbulia AM stated:
“An employer need not be satisfied beyond reasonable doubt that an employee
has committed an alleged offence. The test to be applied is whether the employer
has reasonable grounds for believing that the employee has committed the
offence.”

However, in Hoechst (Pty) Ltd v CWIU & Another86 the Labour Appeal Court was
of the view that the Industrial Court should embark on a complete re-hearing of the
matter and that it could take into account new evidence that was not available to
the employer at the time of the dismissal in its determination of the fairness or
otherwise of the employers’ conduct. In other words it was held that the courts
should concern themselves with the fairness of the act or omission (i.e. its effect).
In this case the employee, accused of unlawful possession of property belonging
to a co-employee, gave evidence in court, which he had withheld at the disciplinary
enquiry. This evidence served to exonerate him from the alleged misconduct.

In 1989 in Food and Allied Workers Union & others v CG Smith Sugar Ltd,
Noodsberg87 the court referred to the Lefu case88 and National Union of
Mineworkers & Others v East Rand Gold and Uranium cases89 with approval. The
court held that in determining whether the alleged conduct constitutes an unfair
labour practice the court was limited to evidence available to the employer at the

83
1994 ILJ 593 (LAC).
84
P 4.
85
1986 ILJ 739 (IC).
86
1993 ILJ 1449 (LAC).
87
1989 10 ILJ 907 (IC).
88
Op cit.
89
Op cit.

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time of the employer’s decision and could not take evidence that subsequently
became available into account.

In 1990 in Govender v Sasko (Pty) Ltd t/a Richards Bay Bakery90 it was held that
the approach adopted in the CG Smith Sugar case91 was no longer applicable
because of the 1988 amendments to the definition of an unfair labour practice. In
terms of the 1988 definition an unfair labour practice includes:
“(a) the dismissal, by reason of any disciplinary action against one or more
employees without a valid and fair reason.”
The court was of the view that this provision rendered it necessary for the court to
establish the fairness and validity of the employer’s reason for dismissal. In order
to establish such fairness and validity the court should have recourse to all
available evidence including evidence that was not available to the employer at the
time the employer took its decision.92 But the 1991 amendments to the legislation
rendered the definition virtually the same as the definition considered by the court
in the Lefu and L Smith cases. In other words it was no longer required that the
courts determine a valid and fair reason for dismissal.93

The reasonable employer test focuses on the actions of the employer and not on
the effect of such actions. The most obvious criticism that can be levied against the
approach is that there may be circumstances where an employers’ conduct can be
found to be reasonable, but the effect thereof might be unfair on the employee.
This can happen if the employers’ reasonable decision is based on incorrect or
inaccurate facts, or a misinterpretation of facts. If the employer erred reasonably,
there will be no unfair labour practice.94 This is unfair. In order to determine
whether or not the effects of an act or omission are unfair it is necessary to have
recourse to evidence ‘beyond the factual circumstances which pertained at the

90
1990 ILJ 1282 (IC).
91
Op cit.
92
This decision was followed in FAWU v South African Breweries Ltd 1992 ILJ 209
(IC).
93
Van Niekerk 1994 CLL 68-69.
94
S98 (4) and (6) of Employment Rights Act 1996.

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time of the dismissal.’95 Since the court has to establish the effect on the
employee, it is necessary for the court to establish whether or not the alleged
misconduct was committed by the employee or not, not whether the employer was
justified in its beliefs. As such the court should have recourse to all evidence,
including evidence that was not made available to the employer. The employer
can also lead evidence to demonstrate that the effects on the employee are not
unfair.96

The problem with this approach is that where an employee chooses to withhold
evidence at the employers’ enquiry and then later (at the court proceedings) leads
that evidence, this will render an employers’ attempt to apply procedural fairness
meaningless. It will result in wasted time and money for the employer even where
the employer acts reasonably. If the courts make an order for re-instatement this
will be most disruptive for the employer. For these reasons the reasonable
employer test is preferable for employers.

Despite this, in the light of the fact the 1988, 1990 and 1991 definitions focus on
effects rather than employer conduct, and that labour unrest can be caused by
unfairness, my view is that the reasonable employer test is inappropriate for the
purposes of the 1991 definition of unfair labour practice and consequently for
purposes of section 23(1) of the Constitution..

2.4 Economic Rationale Approach

The basis of this approach is that the purpose of the employment relationship for
both employer and employee is financial gain.97 The legislature accepts this and
therefore, if there is an economic rationale the conduct can be justified and it will
not be an unfair labour practice. Brassey explains: “A rational employer dismisses
an errant employer so as to get a better employee in his place. He aims at
improving the quality of is workforce. If there are no better employees available,

95
Van Niekerk op cit 71.
96
Halsbury’s Laws op cit par 483.
97
Van Niekerk op cit 65.

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dismissal is senseless; the employee would not sooner be dismissed than he

would have to be recruited again, because he would be the most suitable applicant
for the job. Dismissal, therefore, looks to the future of a better workforce - it does
not look to the past. It is remedial, not punitive – punishment in our society being
the prerogative only of the parent, the schoolmaster and the bench.”98

By the same token, where an employee’s work is not up to standard, a dismissal

will be justified on the basis of an economic rationale. Disciplinary action short of
dismissal can likewise be justified on the basis of economic rationale. Dismissals
based on operational requirements (retrenchments) likewise, will be unfair where
there is no commercial rationale. In short, where the conduct complained of is not
accompanied by a commercial or economic rationale it will most likely be unfair.
The courts have confirmed this when deciding whether or not discrimination is
unfair.99One of the criticisms levelled against this approach is that conduct that has
an economic rationale is not necessarily fair.100 Also, it is difficult to confine or limit
the boundaries of what exactly is meant by ‘economic or commercial rationale’. It is
necessary to emphasize the procedural fairness in implementing decisions that
have an economic rationale especially where the employee is not at fault, for
example, where there has been no misconduct.

D Who Can Rely on Section 23(1)?

Having established that there may be ‘atypical employees’ that have slipped
through the net of legislative protection and spies and soldiers are excluded from
the ambit of the LRA,101 it is necessary to discuss what is intended by the word
‘everyone’ in section 23(1) of the Constitution.

98
Brassey et al The New Labour Law (1987) 70.
99
See Kadiaka v Amalgamated Beverage Industries 1999 ILJ 373 (LC) 380I and
Woolworths (Pty) Ltd v Whitehead 2000 ILJ 571 (LAC).
100
Marais op cit 36.
101
S 2.

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The broad terms used in s 23(1) of the Constitution in describing not only the rights
accorded but also the beneficiaries of the right to fair labour practices (namely
everyone, all workers) have prompted the suggestion that an extensive
interpretation of the definition of an employee would be possible, and that if such
an extensive interpretation of employee were to be accepted, it would lay the
foundation for the possibility of the Constitutional Court finding the exclusion of
some workers from other labour legislation to be unconstitutional. 102

According to Cheadle,103 the subject of the sentence in section 23(1), namely

‘everyone’ should be interpreted with reference to the object of the sentence,
namely ‘labour practices’. Since ‘labour practices are the practices that arise from
the relationship between workers, employers and their respective organisations’104
the term everyone should be understood in this sense and should only include the
persons and organisations specifically named in section 23, namely workers,
employers, trade unions and employers’ organisations. This interpretation would
be in line with an approach that looks to the section as a whole in ascertaining the
true intention of the legislature.

This approach renders it essential to ascertain who qualifies as a worker and who
does not. In SA National Defence Union v Minister of Defence & Another,105 in
considering the meaning of ‘worker’ the Constitutional Court stressed the
importance of its duty in terms of section 39 of the Constitution to consider
international law. The Court then in applying the approach of the ILO concluded
that even though members of the armed forces did not have an employment
relationship with the defence force strictu sensu, they nevertheless qualified as
workers for purposes of the Constitution.106 Cheadle also argues for a less

102
Benjamin op cit 79-80.
103
Cheadle, Davis, Haysom South African Constitutional Law: The Bill of Rights
(2002) 364-365.
104
Idem.
105
1999 4 SA 469 (CC);1999 ILJ 2265 (CC).
106
Pars 25 –27.

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restrictive meaning than that ascribed to ‘employee’107. The policy consideration

put forward in support of this argument is the growth in number and forms of
atypical employees who remain vulnerable to employer exploitation.108 Such
broader interpretation is supported by international practice.109 The crux of the
enquiry as to whether a person qualifies as a worker for purposes of section 23 of
the Constitution is that the relationship must be ‘akin’ to the relationship resulting
from a contract of employment. What renders such relationship ‘akin’ to the
relationship in terms of the common law contract of service is the presence of an
element of dependency on the provider of work. 110

E A New Unfair Labour Practice?

1 Introduction
The present LRA does not contain a broad concept of an unfair labour practice.
Initially, in the form of a ‘residual unfair labour practice’ contained in Item 2(1) of
Schedule 7 of the LRA, employees enjoyed protection against a numerus clausus
of certain employer practices that did not amount to dismissal.111 In terms of the

107
S 213 of the LRA defines an employee as follows: “(a) any person, excluding an
independent contractor, who works for another person or for the state and who
receives, or is entitled to receive, any remuneration; and (b) any other person who
in any manner assists in carrying on or conducting the business of an employer
and ‘employed’ and ‘employment’ have meanings corresponding to that of
‘employee’.
108
Cheadle, Davis, Haysom op cit 365-366.
109
Ibid.
110
‘Dependency’ in this context refers to a situation where the worker is financially
dependent on the provider of work in the sense that the worker has no other
means of earning a living.
111
Schedule 7 Part B 2 headed “Residual Unfair Labour Practices “ reads as follows:
‘(1) For the purposes of this item, an unfair labour practice means any unfair
act or omission that arise between an employer and an employee,
involving-
(a) the unfair discrimination, either directly or indirectly, against an employee
on any arbitrary ground, including but not limited to race, gender, sex,
ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion,
conscience, belief political opinion, culture, language, marital status or
family responsibility;
(b) the unfair conduct of the employer relating to the promotion, demotion or
training of an employee or relating to the provision of benefits to an
employee;
(c) the unfair suspension of an employee or any other disciplinary action short
of dismissal in respect of an employee;

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2002 amendments to the LRA112 the concept of ‘unfair labour practice’ is no longer
‘residual ‘. However the thrust of the definition has remained the same. In terms of
section 186(2) of the LRA an unfair labour practice amounts to any unfair act or
omission that arises between an employer and an employee involving-
(i) unfair conduct of the employer relating to the promotion or demotion of an
employee;
(ii) unfair employer conduct with reference to the training of an employee;
(iii) unfair employer conduct relating to employee benefits;
(iv) the unfair suspension of an employee;
(v) disciplinary action short of dismissal which is unfair; and
(vi) failure or refusal by an employer to reinstate or re-employ a former
employee in terms of an agreement.113

This definition of ‘unfair labour practice’ is limited: Firstly it is limited with reference
to what an unfair labour practice entails and; secondly, it is limited in the scope of
its application since as discussed above, not everyone can rely on the provision for
protection.114 Since section 23(1) of the Constitution ‘serves a general function as
a conceptual foundation for labour legislation’115 the view that ‘it could never have
been the intention of the legislature to limit the meaning of the constitutional ‘fair
labour practices’ only to the non-dismissal cases provided for in the Labour
116
Relations Act of 1995’ is not uncommon.117 An argument in favour of this view
is the fact that one of the objects of the Basic Conditions of Employment Act
(BCEA)118 is to give expression to the concept of ’fair labour practices’.119 In other

(d) the failure or refusal of an employer to reinstate or re-employ a former

employee in terms of any agreement.’
112
S 186(2).
113
The provision contained in Item 2 (1) (a) of schedule 7 is now contained almost
verbatim in s6 (1) of the Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998.
114
S 213 of the LRA defines an employee as: “(a) any person excluding an
independent contractor, who works for another person or for the State and who
receives, or is entitled to receive , any remuneration; and (b) any other person who
in any manner assists in carrying on or conducting the business of an employer.”
115
Grogan "Organisational Rights and the Right to Strike" 2002 11(7) Comp LL 92.
116
Van Jaarsveld et al op cit par 778.
117
See Grogan op cit 95; and the cases discussed in this section, namely section E.
118
75 of 1997.

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words, other pieces of legislation, aside from the LRA can be used to give content
and meaning to section 23(1) of the Constitution. Recent court decisions that have
sought to interpret the constitutional right to fair labour practices have led one
writer to the following conclusion: ‘Unwillingly it seems South African labour law
has returned to a point from which it sought to escape – an open textured, wide in
scope interpretation – dependent unfair labour practice’.120

2 Case Law and the Content of the Right to Fair Labour Practices121
2.1 Dismissals
In Fedlife Assurance Ltd v Wolfaardt,122 the respondent claimed damages for a
breach of contract. The respondent claimed that the contract of employment was
for a fixed term of five years and that after only two years the employer had
repudiated the contract by terminating it. The reason given for such termination
was that the respondent’s position had become redundant. The Supreme Court of
Appeal concluded that implicit in the constitutional right to fair labour practices is
the right not to be unfairly dismissed. This right, on the basis of the Constitution
was read into the contract of employment.123

In Ndara v the Administrator, University of Transkei124 the court held that the
plaintiff had been unfairly dismissed in violation of his constitutional right to inter
alia fair labour practices. Again in Gotso v Afrox Oxygen Ltd125 the High Court
found that an unfair dismissal constituted an unfair labour practice. The reason the

119
S 1.
120
Anonymous “‘The New Unfair Labour Practice: The High Court Revives the
Possibility of a Wide Concept of Unfair Labour Practice” 2002 CLL.91.
121
What follows is not concerned with arguments as to whether the High Court or the
Supreme Court of Appeal have concurrent jurisdiction with the Labour Court and
labour Appeal Court over certain issues. For a discussion of these issues see
Ngcukaitobi ‘Sidestepping the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation &
Arbitration: Unfair Dismissal Disputes in the High Court’ 2004 ILJ 1.
122
[2001] 12 BLLR 1301 (A).
123
S 39(2) of the Constitution provides: ‘when interpreting any legislation, and when
developing the common law or customary law, every court, tribunal or forum must
promote the spirit, purpose and object of the Bill of Rights’.
124
Case no 48/2001 (Tk) (unreported).
125
[2003] 6 BLLR 605 (Tk).

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dismissal was found to be unfair in this case was that the principle that no one may
be a judge in his own case was not adhered to.

In Van Dyk v Maithufi NO & Andere126 the court found that it would amount to an
unfair labour practice if an employer were to condone conduct which was in
contravention of a statutory provision and subsequently without warning prosecute
the employee for the contravention.

2.2 Transfers
In Nelson & Others v MEC Responsible for Education in the Eastern Cape and
Another,127 the High Court expressed the view (albeit obiter) that the transfer of the
applicants amounted to ‘the antithesis of fair treatment’128 and that if it had
jurisdiction it would have set aside the redeployment directives.

2.3 Constitutional Right to Fair Labour Practices as a ‘General Unfair Labour

Practice’
In Ntlabezo & Others v MEC for Education, Eastern Cape & Others129 the High
Court made a distinction between what constitutes a (residual) unfair labour
practice130 and a ‘general’ unfair labour practice. The court found that the LRA
does not deal with general labour practices as provided for in the Constitution and
therefore, the Labour Court lacked jurisdiction to pronounce on these general
unfair labour practices. The conclusion is that the unfair labour practices against
which employees are protected in terms of the LRA are distinct and different from
what would constitute an unfair labour practice in terms of the Constitution.

126
2004 ILJ 220 (T).
127
[2002] 3 BLLR 259 (Tk).
128
At 272.
129
[2002] 3 BLLR 274 (Tk).
130
Prior to the 2002 Amendments to the LRA Item 2 of Schedule 7 of the LRA
contained the definition of a ‘residual unfair labour practice’. A very similar
definition now appears in s 186(2) and they are now referred to as ‘unfair labour
practices’ not ‘residual unfair labour practices’.

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In National Union of Health and Allied Workers Union v University of Cape Town &
Others131 the Constitutional Court held that the word ‘everyone’ in section 23(1) of
the Constitution is broad enough to include employers and juristic persons. As
such it is possible for an employee to commit an unfair labour practice. The court
expressed the view that the focus of section 23(1) of the Constitution is the
relationship between the employer and the worker and its continuation, so as to
achieve fairness for both parties. In order to achieve balance between the
conflicting interests of the parties these interests should be accommodated. With
regard to giving content to the constitutional right to fair labour practices the court
stated: “the relevant Constitutional provision is s 23(1) which provides that:
‘everyone has the right to fair labour practices’. Our Constitution is unique in
constitutionalising the right to fair labour practices. But the concept is not defined
in the Constitution. The concept of fair labour practice is incapable of precise
definition. This problem is compounded by the tension between the interests of the
workers and the interests of the employers that is inherent in labour relations.
Indeed, what is fair depends upon the circumstances of a particular case and
essentially involves a value judgement. It is therefore neither necessary nor
desirable to define this concept…In giving content to this concept the courts and
tribunals will have to seek guidance from international experience. Domestic
experience is reflected both in the equity based jurisprudence generated by the
unfair labour practice provision of the 1956 LRA as well as the codification of unfair
labour practice in the LRA.” 132

In Denel (Pty) Ltd v Vorster133 the employer (appellant) submitted that since the
procedure adopted by it in dismissing the respondent was one that respected
respondent’s constitutional right to fair labour practices, it would constitute an
infringement on the appellant’s (employer’s) right to fair labour practices if the
dismissal were to be regarded as unlawful. In accepting this submission the court

131
(2003) 24 ILJ 95 (CC).
132
Par 33.
133
2004 ILJ 659 (SCA).

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stated that the constitutional dispensation introduced into the employment

relationship “a reciprocal duty to act fairly”.134

In the case of National Entitled Workers Union vs. CCMA, Nana Keisho NO and
George Laleta Manganyi135 the Labour Court like the Constitutional Court in
National Union of Health and Allied Workers Union v University of Cape Town136
also expressed the view that what constitutes an unfair labour practice for
purposes of section 23(1) is not capable of precise definition and that much
depends on what is fair in the circumstances and that this concept is flexible. The
court found that the concept as provided for in the Constitution was broad enough
(unlike the concept in the LRA) to include employee conduct vis-à-vis an employer
that might be unfair. The crux, therefore, turns on what would be fair or unfair in
the circumstances.

3 Conclusion
The court decisions that have attempted to give some content to the constitutional
right to fair labour practices indicate that it is an imprecise concept, incapable of
definition, open-ended and that the over-riding criterion should be fairness. The old
Industrial Court also had to deal with an open-textured definition and ultimately
decide what was fair in the circumstances. The old Industrial Court decisions
provide useful precedents to assist the courts in deciding what constitutes fairness
in the context of unfair labour practices. In order for conduct not to be considered
unfair it should be both procedurally and substantively fair. In the light of the fact
that the 1991 definition of an unfair labour practice was in force at the time the
Constitution was enacted, it seems appropriate that in determining the fairness of
employer conduct the effects of the conduct on the worker or employee should be
considered. It is in this sense that the reasonable employer test should be
rejected. These effects should then be weighed against the possible justification of
employer conduct in terms of the economic rationale approach.

134
P 667.
135
Case JR 685/02 (unreported).
136
2003 ILJ 95 (CC).

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As seen,137 the concept of an unfair labour practice can be extended to include

unfair employee conduct vis-à-vis the employer. It may also include dismissals138
and redeployment or transfer of employees.139 Fairness as opposed to lawfulness
will be the determining factor. Ultimately, what the judge considers to be fair or
unfair in the circumstances will prevail. What is certain, as Landman concludes is
that: “The unfair labour practice has crept into the heart of our labour law
jurisprudence and it may be expected that it will continue to grow, by conventional
and unconventional means, as long as lawful, unilateral action is regarded by the
courts, in their capacity as custodians of industrial justice, as unfair and
inequitable. This is the legacy of the Wiehahn Commission.”140

F England

The South African common law has commonalities with the English common
law.141 It is not surprising therefore that in interpreting the term ‘unfair labour
practices’ the South African industrial court referred to statutory definitions, court
cases, judicial opinions emanating from England and the USA.142Nevertheless, in
undertaking comparative studies, one should not lose sight of the fact that different
legislation might have different underlying policies and objectives and national and
socio- economic circumstances might also differ. Furthermore, and even more
importantly, the statutes that are being compared are different.

Be that as it may, it is nevertheless useful to have recourse to other systems when

our law lacks clarity. As was stated in the industrial court: “…one should be
cautious of relying on foreign sources in interpreting and developing the concept of

137
National Entitled Workers Union case and National Health and Allied Workers
Union case supra.
138
Fedlife Assurance Ltd v Wolfaardt supra.
139
Nelson & Others v MEC Responsible for Education in the Eastern Cape & Another
supra.
140
“Fair Labour Practices – The Wiehahn Legacy” 2004 ILJ 805, 812.
141
Poolman Principles of Unfair Labour Practice (1985) 128.
142
Brassey, et al The New Labour Law (1987) 367.

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‘unfair labour practice … although … such development might be enriched by

taking cognisance of what is happening overseas on this specialized field.”143

The English law version of ‘unfair labour practice’ centres on unfair dismissals.144
The English courts and tribunal’s interpretation of unfair dismissals guided the
South African Industrial Court in giving content to the term unfair labour practice in
its different versions in respect of dismissals.145 Guidance as to what constitutes a
fair reason for dismissal (substantive fairness) and what the procedural
requirements for a fair dismissal should be is available in English law. Our
Industrial Court made use of such guidance.146 As stated by Brassey et al:147 “The
English unfair dismissal cases are also helpful. They can teach us, for example,
about the place of warnings in discipline, about the nature and purpose of a
disciplinary enquiry and about the function of an internal appeal hearing. They can
shed light on the weight to be attached to internal disciplinary codes when they are
unilaterally imposed by the employer, and when they are agreed. And, though we
know that one case of misconduct is never on all fours with another, they can
suggest standards to us by which we can decide whether the misconduct was
grave enough to justify dismissal.”

The approach of the Industrial Court with reference to dismissals has more or less
been codified in our present legislation.148 One major difference is that in South
Africa unfair labour practices, are not limited to unfair dismissals and entail other

143
See also Mahlangu v CIM Deltak 1986 7 ILJ 346 (IC) at 354C-D where it was
stated: “The decisions of foreign jurisdictions ought to have a strong persuasive
influence on the industrial court’s decision and serve as guidelines in the absence
of any relevant South African case law”.
144
Brassey et al op cit 369.
145
See 1980, 1988 and 1991 definitions supra.
146
See for example Lefu v Western Areas Gold Mining Co (1985) 6 ILJ 307 (IC); NUM
v Nuclear Fuels Corp of SA (IC 24.10 1985, unreported); NUM v Western Areas
Gold Mining Co 1985 6 ILJ 380 (IC); Robbertze v Matthew Rustenburg Refineries
(Wadeville) 1986 7 ILJ 64 (IC).
147
Op cit 71.
148
Code of Good Practice: Dismissal in Schedule 8 of LRA

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conduct as well, including other disciplinary action, short of dismissal, conduct

relating to promotion, training, demotions, the provision of benefits and so forth.149

Comparisons with English law are also relevant to the question of the interpretation
of general and all embracing concepts such as fairness and reasonableness that
are inherent in any concept of unfair labour practice.150

G United States of America

1 Introduction
Until the middle of the 19th century trade unions were regarded as criminal
associations. Nevertheless, from 1890 to 1932 the trade union movement grew
rapidly.151 Despite trade unions no longer being considered criminal associations
their activities were restricted by labour law injunctions (interdicts).152 Gradually
however, the suppression of trade unions was progressively relaxed by legislation.
The result of such legislation is that the American system is based on the following
premise: Collective bargaining is the principal means of settling disputes of
153
interest. Consequently the right to freedom of association and organisation for
the purposes of collective bargaining is protected.154 The underlying policy of this
legislation is the pursuit of self-determination by the majority of employees and the
encouragement and protection of the process of collective bargaining.155

This change in policy towards trade unions was a result of powerful social,
economic and political forces at the end of World War II. When the National
Labour Relations Act 1935 (the Wagner Act) was passed one in five Americans

149
See definition of unfair labour practice contained in the LRA s 186(2).
150
See ch 7 subsection C where the English courts’ application of the concept of
fairness in employment contracts is discussed.
151
Gregory Labor and the Law (1946) 15.
152
Idem.
153
See Raza and Anderson Labour Relations and the Law (1996) 4-12 for a detailed
analysis of the progression of US law towards tolerance and even encouragement
of trade unions.
154
See the National Labour Relations Act 1946 (NLRA; also known as the Taft Hartley
Act). This Act replaced the National Labour Relations (Wagner) Act of 1935 and
has been amended on several occasions.
155
Raza and Anderson op cit 167.

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was unemployed.156 Sympathy for the working people, patriotism, a determination

to reduce unemployment and increase wages were all underlying goals that
helped shape the underlying policy of the National Labour Relations Act 1947
(hereafter the NLRA).

The objectives of this legislation are to encourage economic activity by defining

and protecting the respective rights of employers and employees and creating
orderly and harmonious procedures in order to prevent disregard of these rights by
the parties to the employment relationship. All this is in the interests of public
policy as is the encouragement of orderly collective bargaining. Ultimately the
objective is to prevent or at least curtail industrial action.157

2 Specific Unfair Labour Practices

2.1 Introduction
Unlike under English law the NLRA makes provision for certain unfair labour
practices which do not deal directly with dismissals at all. Instead the Act grants
both employers and employees certain rights in order to promote collective
bargaining. The most important of these unfair labour practices will be mentioned
briefly hereunder.158

2.2 Unfair Labour Practice of Employers

The NLRA prohibits any employer from:
(a) interfering with restraining or coercing employees in the exercise of their
rights to organize and bargain collectively;159
(b) dominating or interfering with the formation or administration of any labour
organization or contributing financial or any other support to it;

156
Idem.
157
S 1 of NLRA.
158
Only a brief discussion is necessary because the focus of this article is the
protection of the individual employee (i.e. individual labour law as opposed to
collective labour law).
159
S 7 of NLRA guarantees employees the right to organize and bargain collectively.

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(c) Discriminating or hiring or tenure of employment or any term or condition of

employment to encourage or discourage membership in any labour
organisation;
(d) discharging or otherwise discriminating against an employee because
he/she filed charges or gave testimony under the NLRA; and
(e) refusing to bargain in good faith with representatives of their employees.160

2.3 Employer Interference with Protected Employee Rights

Section 8(a) (i) prohibits employers from interfering with, restraining, or coercing
employees in the exercise of their collective bargaining rights. The decisions of
the National Labour Relations Board (NLRA) and the Supreme Court have given
content to this right. For example employer speech held to be per se coercive
must consist of threats of discharge, lay-offs, or demotion because of union
activity.161 It has at times been difficult to distinguish between a threat of reprisal
and a legitimate prediction about the future state of affairs within the company. An
important determining factor is whether or not the predictions are based on
‘objective facts’. Secondly the court and NLRB also look to the ‘surrounding
context’ in determining whether or not employer speech constitutes a threat or
coercion.162 It is still unclear as to whether employer intent is a prerequisite for
such violations.163

Employer interrogation of employees concerning union membership and/or union

activity has been found to be unlawful where such interrogations would restrain or
interfere with employee’s lawful rights.164

2.4 Employer Domination of Labour Unions

Section 8(a) (2) of the NLRA outlaws employer interference or domination with the
formation or administration of union activity as well as the provision of financial and

160
S 8(a) and 8(e) of NLRA.
161
Raza and Anderson op cit 237.
162
Raza and Anderson op cit 238.
163
Ibid 236.
164
Ibid 240-241.

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other assistance to unions. This is to prevent the creation of company unions.

Both the Supreme Court and the NLRB have found difficulty in differentiating
between unlawful employer support for a union and lawful co-operation with the
union. Generally, what is decisive is the ‘totality of the employer’s conduct and the
tendency to coerce employees in their choice of bargaining agent’.165

2.5 Discrimination Against Employees for Engaging or not Engaging in Union

Activity.
Section 8(a) (3) of the NLRA outlaws discrimination against employees for taking
part in union activities or for not taking part in union activities. Such discrimination
includes dismissal, denying promotion, reduction of benefits, change in work
conditions and less favourable working conditions than other employees.166 The
purpose of this section is to prevent employers from encouraging or discouraging
trade union membership.

Employers are prohibited from discriminating against employees for taking their
grievances to the NLRB in terms of section 8(a) (4). prohibits Employer actions
that are prohibited include hiring, firing, lay off, demotion, transfer and forced
resignation. Protected employee action includes participating in NLRB
investigations, refusing to testify, testifying, filing charges and announcing an
intention to file an unfair labour practice charge.167

2.6 Refusal to Bargain in Good Faith

The employer’s refusal to bargain in good faith is prohibited.168 This prohibition is
problematic because the legislation does not oblige either unions or employers to
accept proposals in the bargaining process. In terms of this section the employer
must bargain in accordance with the principles contained in Section 8(d), which
defines good faith bargaining. The test of good faith is flexible and dependent on

165
Ibid 259.
166
Poolman Principles of Unfair Labour Practice (1985) 141.
167
Raza and Anderson op cit 260.
168
S 8(a) (5).

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the surrounding circumstances and what the reasonable employer would do. The
employer must display an open mind and sincere intention to bargain.169

2.7 Unfair Labour Practices of Unions

Since South African law does not deal specifically with union unfair labour
practices it is not necessary for the purposes of this article to discuss these unfair
labour practices in detail.170 Briefly, it is an unfair labour practice for a union to inter
alia:

(i) restrain or coerce employees in the exercise of their rights to join a union, to
bargain collectively, or refrain from such activities;171
(ii) to discriminate against an employee or cause an employer to discriminate
against an employee who has been denied union membership on a ground
other than failure to pay membership fees;172
(iii) to refuse to bargain collectively in good faith;173
(iv) to engage in secondary strikes, boycotts, picketing and other actions
specified in the Act.174
(v) To attempt to or to cause an employer to pay or deliver or agree to pay or
deliver any money or other thing of value, in the nature of an exaction, for
services which are not performed or not to be performed.175 The purpose of
this provision is to create and maintain more jobs than are required by the
employer.
(vi) To engage in organizational and recognitional picketing by uncertified
unions.176

169
Poolman op cit 144.
170
For a detailed discussion of these unfair labour practices, see Raza and Anderson
op cit ch 10.
171
S 8(b) (1).
172
S 8(b) (2).
173
S 8(a) (3).
174
S 8(b) (4).
175
S 8(b) (6).
176
S 8(e).

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3 Conclusion
American labour law attempts to regulate labour relations by collective bargaining.
As such it sets the ground rules for collective bargaining and creates rights for both
parties so as to protect and encourage the collective bargaining process. Much
can be gleaned from American law with reference to the process of collective
bargaining including what is meant by bargaining in good faith,177 and what
constitutes reasonable procedures.178

However, it must be borne in mind that the South African legislative system deals
with unfair labour practices in a completely different manner. It follows therefore
that our courts should not rely too heavily on the American labour law. ‘Arbitrator
law’, on the other hand, could provide some assistance in determining both
substantive and procedural fairness of employer’s disciplinary action.179

H Conclusion

The court decisions that have attempted to give some content to the constitutional
right to fair labour practices seem to indicate that it is an imprecise concept,
incapable of definition, open-ended and that the over-riding criterion should be
fairness. The old Industrial Court also had to deal with an open-textured definition
and ultimately decide what was fair in the circumstances. It follows, therefore, that
the old Industrial Court decisions will provide useful precedents to assist the courts
in deciding what constitutes an unfair labour practice. As seen,180 the concept can

177
SADWU v The Master Diamond Cutters Association of SA 1982 3 ILJ 87 (K) 120E-
G where the Industrial Court applied the American principle of bona fide
negotiation.
178
See NAAWU v Pretoria Precision Castings 1985 6 ILJ 369 (IC) 378D-E.
179
For an analysis of the interpretation of the concepts of fairness and
reasonableness in the context of the employment relationship by the courts in the
USA, see ch 7 sub-section E infra.
180
National Entitled Workers Union case (supra) and National Health and Allied
Workers Union case (supra).

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be extended to include unfair employee conduct vis-à-vis the employer. It may

also include dismissals181 and redeployment or transfer of employees.182

Fairness as opposed to lawfulness will be the determining factor. As such recourse

to other systems of labour law, especially the English system might be useful to
the courts. In the end, what the judge considers to be fair or unfair in the
circumstances will prevail.

181
Fedlife Assurance Ltd v Wolfaardt (supra).
182
Nelson & Others v MEC Responsible for Education in the Eastern Cape & Another
(supra).

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