Mekdela Amba University College of Agriculture and Natural Resource

Department of Plant Science

Course: Field Crops Production and Management

1.1 Definition and Importance of field crops

Plants are living organisms that belong to the kingdom Plantae. They are autotrophic,
meaning they produce their own food through photosynthesis using sunlight, water, and
carbon dioxide.
Crop: - The term ‘’crop’’ specifies certain kind of plants that are grown on purpose for a later
harvest. This definition describes ‘’crops’’ as economically important plants that are purposely
selected and grown by human beings or the word crop refers to plants sown and harvested by
man for economic purpose or when several plants in respect to life cycle, morphologically or
physiologically are grown.
Field crops are agricultural crops that are grown in large areas, typically on open fields. They
are a vital part of the global food system, providing essential food, feed, and fiber for humans
and animals
Crop production: it is a complex business, requiring many skills (such as biology, agronomy,
mechanics, and marketing) and covering a variety of operations throughout the year. It refers
to the principles and practices of managing production resources in a such a way that crop
plant grows and develops to express its genetic potential to the highest possible extent.

Importance of field crop production

 Food security: field crops like wheat, rice, corn and soybeans are the primary source of
calories for billions of people around the world. They provide carbohydrates, protein,
vitamins and minerals that are necessary for a healthy diet.
 Animal feed: many field crops such as maize, soybean and barley are used to feed
livestock. This ensures a steady supply of meat, dairy products and eggs for human
consumption.
 Biofuels: field crops like maize and sugarcane can be converted into biofuels, which are a
renewable source of energy. Biofuels can help to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels and
improve air quality.
 Industry: field crops are also used to produce a variety of industrial products such as
textiles (from cotton), cooking oil (from sesame) and bioplastics (maize).
 Economic development: field crop production is a major driver of economic
development in many countries. It provides jobs for farmers, laborers, and others involved
in the agricultural sector. Cash crops like cotton and tobacco can be a significant source of
income for developing countries.
1. 2 Historical Development of Crop Production
The evolution of crop production spans several key periods, from ancient civilizations to
modern agricultural advancements. Below is a summary of its development:

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A. Prehistoric Agriculture (Before 10,000 BC)
 Early humans were hunter-gatherers, relying on wild plants and animals for food.
 Around 10,000 BC, the Neolithic Revolution marked the transition to agriculture,
where humans began domesticating plants and practicing settled farming.
 Major early crops included wheat, barley, rice, and maize.
B. Ancient Agriculture (10,000 BC - 500 AD)
 Early civilizations, such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and the Indus Valley,
developed irrigation systems and organized farming.
 Crop rotation, plowing, and seed selection improved yields.
 Key crops: wheat and barley (Middle East), rice (Asia), millet and sorghum (Africa),
maize (Americas).
C. Medieval and Renaissance Agriculture (500 AD - 1700 AD)
 The three-field system (Europe) improved soil fertility.
 The use of animal labor (oxen, horses) enhanced plowing and planting efficiency.
 The Columbian Exchange (post-1492 AD) introduced new crops like potatoes,
tomatoes, and maize to Europe and Asia. Europeans brought wheat, barley, and
livestock to the Americas. This exchange significantly altered global agriculture and
food cultures.
D. Early Modern Agriculture (1700 AD - 1900 AD)
 The Agricultural Revolution (18th-19th centuries AD) in Europe introduced:
 Mechanization (seed drill, plow improvements).
 Selective breeding for better crop varieties.
 Use of fertilizers and crop rotation.
E. 20th Century and Green Revolution (1900 AD - Present)
 Expansion of large-scale farming due to colonialism and global trade.
 Introduction of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and hybrid seeds increased
productivity.
 The Green Revolution (1940s-1960s AD) introduced high-yielding crop varieties,
especially in developing countries.
 Mechanization (tractors, harvesters) transformed farming.

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 Biotechnology and genetic engineering (GMOs) emerged to enhance crop resistance
and yield.
F. 21st Century Agriculture (Present and Future Trends)
 Sustainable farming methods (organic farming, conservation agriculture).
 Precision agriculture using drones
 Climate-resilient crops to combat climate change effects.

1.3 Status and Constraints of Field Crops Production in the World, Africa and Ethiopia
Field crop production is essential for global food security, but faces limitations at every level.
The details of the status and constraints crop production across the world, Africa and Ethiopia
is provided below.
In the world:
Status: Crop production is keeping pace with population growth, but unevenly distributed.
Developed countries have high yields, while many developing countries struggle to meet their
food needs.
Constraints:
 Climate change: Disruptions in rainfall patterns, extreme weather events (droughts,
floods) threaten yields.
 Land degradation: soil erosion, salinization reduce productivity.
 Pests and diseases: cause significant crop losses.
 Water scarcity: limits irrigation potential in some regions.
Africa:
Status: Despite vast agricultural potential, Africa has low crop yields compared to the global
average.
Constraints: Many of the global constraints are amplified in Africa, additionally.
 Low input use: limited access to fertilizers, improved seeds, and proper irrigation.
 Poor infrastructure: makes it difficult to get crops to market and access resources.
 Post-harvest losses: lack of storage facilities leads to spoilage.
Ethiopia:
Status: Ethiopia's agriculture is dominated by smallholder farmers who rely on rain-fed
production. There has been some growth in recent years, but yields remain low and
vulnerable to climate shocks.
Constraints:
Similar to broader African constraints with emphasis on:
 Reliance on rain-fed agriculture: Makes harvests susceptible to droughts.
 Land fragmentation: small, divided plots make it harder to implement modern practices.
 Limited access to credit and markets: hinders farmers' ability to invest in improvements.

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1.4 Population Growth and Food Production

It is known that about 98% of the energy food obtained from crop plants. Hence, human
survival depends on crop production. The amount of food produced is not sufficient to feed
world population.
Food supply for human population depends primarily on the ability of green plants to convert
solar energy into carbohydrates through photosynthesis. The increase in agricultural supply
is possible by intensive (increasing productivity per unit area) and extensive (increasing
production area) farming system.
For most of the past 50 years food production has outpaced rising demand. World population
has doubled since World War II, but food production has tripled.
World food production has expanded since the early 1960’s due mainly to the Green
Revolution–adoption of crop rotation, the mass production and use of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides, expanded irrigation, and the introduction of genetically superior, disease-resistant
cultivars.
Since about 1990 global grain production has risen only slightly and, despite slower rates of
population growth, grain supplies per capita have fallen.
The reasons for the change in the trend include:
- Rapid population growth on the demand side;
- Higher population densities in traditional agricultural areas;
- Fragmentation of small farmsteads;
- Poor land management, and
- Inappropriate agricultural policies.
All of the above-mentioned factors in turn suppress supply.
Expectations:
Nowadays, world population is expected to be nearly 6 billion. With one-third of world
population lacking food security now, FAO estimates that world food production would have
to double to provide food security for the 8 billion people projected for 2025.
By 2050 (according to FAO), world population is expected to be over 9 billion, and the
situation would be even more challenging.
 At current levels of consumption, without allowing additional imports of food, Africa
would have to increase food production by 300% to provide minimally adequate diets
for 2 billion people projected in 2050.
 Latin America would have to increase food production by 80% to feed a projected 810
million people.
 Asia’s food production would have to grow by 70% to feed the 5.4 billion people
projected.
 North America would have to increase food productivity by 30% to feed a projected 384
million people in 2050.

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Rapid population growth not only pushes up demand for food but may also be starting to
diminish supply as well.
Impact of population growth on food supplies and environment
As the world population continues to grow geometrically, great pressure is being placed on
arable land, water, energy and biological resources to provide an adequate supply of food
while maintaining the integrity of our ecosystem.
This in turn leads to:
- Worsening of soil loss;
- Scarcity of fresh water, and
- Increasing of pollution.
1.5 Food Self-Sufficiency and Food Security

Food self-sufficiency is defined as being able to meet consumption needs (particularly for
staple food crops) from own production rather than by buying/importing. It is when we grow
all the food we need, right here at home.
Food security is defined as access by all people at all times to the food required for healthy
life. Food security is achieved/ exists when all people at all times have physical and economic
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences
for an active and healthy life.
Food security has four components:
i. Availability: the need to produce sufficient food
ii. Access is typically constrained by income
iii. Utilization: individual ability to use food consumed for growth, nutrition, nutrition and
health
iv. Stability: The food supply is stable and reliable over time, not prone to shocks or
disruptions.
There is a long-standing debate on whether food self-sufficiency is a useful strategy to achieve
food security:
Supporters of this proposition argue that relying on the market to meet food needs is a risky
strategy because of volatility in food prices and possible interruption in supplies.
Opposing view is that it is costly for a household (or country) to focus on food self-sufficiency
rather than producing according to its comparative advantage and purchasing some of its
food requirements from the market.

1.6 Measures of Improving Field Crop Production in Ethiopia

Agricultural output can be increased by: Intensification and extensification

A. Intensification: It is increasing agricultural output/area/time. It could be realized by
using fertilizers, pesticides, double cropping, and use of improved technologies, practices
and services such as:

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 Seeds: Distributing access to high-yielding, disease-resistant crop varieties. This can
significantly increase yield potential.
 Fertilizers: Encouraging the use of appropriate organic and inorganic fertilizers to
improve soil fertility and nutrient availability for crops.
 Water Management: Promoting water-saving irrigation techniques and rainwater
harvesting to optimize water use, especially in drought-prone areas.
 Pest Management: Implementing Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices to
reduce crop losses from pests, diseases, and weeds while minimizing environmental
impact.
 Agricultural Extension Services: Strengthening extension services to provide
training and education to farmers on best practices in crop production, soil
conservation, and new technologies.
 Credit and Market Access: Facilitating access to credit and financial resources for
farmers to invest in inputs and technologies. Additionally, improving market access
helps farmers get better prices for their crops.
 Infrastructure Development: Investing in rural infrastructure like roads, storage
facilities, and irrigation systems can reduce post-harvest losses and improve overall
agricultural productivity.
 Soil Conservation: Promoting practices like terracing, cover cropping, and crop
rotation to prevent soil erosion and maintain soil health.
 Climate-Smart Agriculture: Adopting climate-smart agricultural practices like
drought-resistant crop varieties and early warning systems to improve resilience to
climate change.
By implementing these measures, Ethiopia can significantly improve field crop production,
leading to increased food security, farmer income, and economic growth.
B. Extensification: It is increasing agricultural output by bringing more land under
cultivation.

2 Crop production as an art, science and business

Nowadays, crop production requires a highly specialized and complex activity. It is an art, a
science and a business. It entails the management of inputs, biological processes and sources
of depletion of production.

2.3 Crop Production as an Art

The art of crop production is older than civilization, and its essential features have remained
almost unchanged for centuries.
These include:
- Gathering and preserving the seed of the desired crop plants;
- Destroying other kinds of vegetation growing on the land;

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- Stirring the soil to form seed bed;
- Planting when the season and weather are right as shown by past experience;
- Destroying weeds;
- Protecting the crop from natural enemies, and
- Gathering, processing and storing the products.
These artistic values are carried out in modern agriculture but at improved levels such as:
improved cultivars and agronomic practices, (e.g., use of organic and inorganic fertilizers and
effective pests’ control), and better harvesting and storage facilities.
Primitive agriculturalists/farmers used primitive tools that required great human power to
operate.
As man learns new ideas the art of crop production changed or improved (i.e., as technology
advanced, some of the difficulty in production was transferred to draft animals for tillage and
transportation). The development and use of machines have reduced the need for labour.
Land preparation is much easier with machines.
Technology is not only in terms of mechanical innovations but also chemical
(agrochemicals, e.g., insecticides, fungicides, herbicides), biological (improved cultivars),
cultural (improved practices), and general knowledge and expertise management.
2.4 Crop Production as Science
Crop production involves applying theories from various scientific disciplines mainly,
agronomy or field management.
 Agronomy is the branch of agriculture that deals with the principles and practice of crop
production and field management (i.e., soil, water and crop management). The term is
derived from two Greek words, agros meaning field and nomos to manage.
 This branch of agriculture itself depends upon other basic science disciplines such as
botany, chemistry and physics.
 Agronomists develop cropping systems, which are the production packages comprised of
crop and pasture communities and sets of management practices of farming systems
(pertaining to particular farms).
Plant breeding/genetics. Plant breeders utilize genetic principles to develop new and
improved cultivars of high yielding, environmentally responsive, disease resistant and
adapted to environmental stress.
Chemistry. Chemists develop chemical products such as growth hormones, pesticides and
fertilizers that enhance crop productivity.
Physics. Agricultural Engineers develop machinery and equipment to facilitate production
operations. These include equipment for land preparation, seeding, cultivating, fertilizing,
irrigating, spraying to protect against pests and harvesting.
Recent advances in the field of crop production technology i.e., land preparation, sowing,
improved varieties, fertilizer management, water management, weed management, pest

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management, harvesting, threshing, storage etc. have revolutionized the crop production as
they are based on scientific knowledge.

2.5 Crop Production as a Business

Crop production and productivity (production efficiency) entails managing production inputs
to produce outputs. The producer should be able to make the right choices in terms of
selecting and managing the appropriate production inputs. As the business, crop production
aims at maximum net return through the management of land, labour, water and capital. In
recent years, crop production is commercialized to run as a business through mechanization.

3 Origin of cultivated plants

3.3 Primary Centre
The concept of centers of origin for cultivated plants was developed by Russian scientist/
geneticist/Nikolai Vavilov. He identified eight primary centers of origin, which are geographic
regions where specific crops were first domesticated. These regions are characterized by a
high degree of genetic diversity in the wild relatives of cultivated plants. This diversity is
thought to be a result of long-term coevolution between plants and their environments.
The 8 main centres of origin as proposed by Vavilov are:
1. China
- This centre consists of the mountainous regions of central and western China and
the neighboring lowlands. It is the largest and the oldest independent centre of
origin.
- Soybean, radish, orange, tea, small bamboo
- It is also secondary centre for maize, cowpea and sesame
2. India it includes Philippines
- It is the primary centre of origin for rice, cow pea, mung bean, cucumber ,
sugarcane, cotton, banana and mango
3. Central Asia
- It includes North – Western India, whole of Afhanistan
- It is primary centre of origin for wheat, pea, linseed, sesame, onion, garlic, spinach
- And grape
- It is secondary centre of origin for rye
4. Near East
- Is also known as Asia Minor centre of origin
- It includes whole Iran
- Primary centre of origin for rye, alfalfa, carrot, cabbage, oat, fig , apple and nuts
5. Mediterranean centre of origin
- It is primary centre of origin for durum wheat, barley , lentil, pea, lettuce, onion,
garlic

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6. Abyssinian centre of origin
- It includes Ethiopia and Eritrea
- It is primary centre of origin for safflower, castor, linseed and coffee, finger millet,
cowpea, sorghum, barley, wheat, teff,
- It is also secondary centre of origin for broad bean
7. Central American
-it includes south Mexico and Central America
-It is primary centre of origin for maize, cotton, pumpkin, papaya, and avocado
8. South American centre of origin
-it includes high mountain regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, parts of Chile
and Brazil and whole of Paraguay.
-it is primary centre of origin for potato, tomato, tobacco, groundnut, rubber
3.4 Secondary Centre

These are regions where crops were introduced after their initial domestication and where
further diversification occurred. Secondary centers of origin typically have less genetic
diversity than primary centers, but they may also have a wider range of cultivated varieties.
The distinction between primary and secondary centers of origin is not always clear-cut, and
some crops may have originated in multiple regions. However, the concept of centers of origin
is an important one for plant breeders and conservationists. By understanding where crops
originated, we can better understand their genetic diversity and develop strategies for
preserving it. Secondary centers of origin can be important sources of genetic variation for
plant breeding programs. Some crops may have multiple secondary centers of origin.
3.5 Dispersal of Domesticated Crops
The dispersal of domesticated crops is a fascinating story about the interaction between
humans and plants. In the wild, plants have evolved various mechanisms for seed dispersal,
relying on wind, animals, or even explosive pods to scatter their offspring. However, during
domestication, humans unwittingly selected for traits that benefited them, fundamentally
changing how these crops spread. Once crops were domesticated, humans became the
primary agents of their dispersal. Trade routes played a major role in bringing crops to new
regions.
 Crops carried by migrating populations: Another way crops dispersed was through the
movement of human populations. As people migrated to new territories, they took their
crops with them, introducing them to new environments.
 Exploration and colonialism: European exploration and colonialism also played a
significant role in the spread of crops. European powers transported crops from their
colonies to other parts of the world, often with devastating consequences for indigenous
agriculture.
 The Columbian Exchange: refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases,

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and cultures between the Old World (Europe, Africa, and Asia) and the New World (the
Americas) after 1492. This exchange had a profound impact on global agriculture,
introducing new crops to both hemispheres.
 American crops to Europe: Crops like maize (corn), potatoes, tomatoes, and peanuts
were brought from the Americas to Europe, where they became dietary staples and
had a significant impact on agricultural practices.
 European crops to the Americas: Conversely, European crops like wheat, barley, and
rice were introduced to the Americas, where they were readily adopted by indigenous
populations.
The dispersal of domesticated crops has had a profound impact on human history. It has
shaped our diets, agricultural practices, and even the course of civilizations.
3.6 The Advantage of Conserving Crop Biodiversity
Crop biodiversity refers to the variety of plant species, varieties, and landraces used for food,
fodder, fiber, fuel and industrial products. Conserving this diversity is essential for ensuring
the long-term sustainability of our food systems.
Some of the advantages of conserving crop biodiversity:
 Increased food security: A wider variety of crops reduces the risk of crop failure due to
pests, diseases, or climate change. If one crop is wiped out, others may still survive and
provide food.
 Enhanced nutrition: Different crops provide different nutrients, so a diverse diet is
essential for good health. Crop biodiversity can help to ensure that people have access to a
wider variety of nutritious foods.
 Improved soil health: Different crops have different root structures and nutrient
requirements. Planting a variety of crops can help to improve soil health and fertility.
 Reduced reliance on pesticides and herbicides: Diverse cropping systems can help to
control pests and diseases naturally. This can reduce the need for pesticides and
herbicides, which can be harmful to human health and the environment.
 Potential for new crops and products: Crop wild relatives and landraces can be a
valuable source of new genes that can be used to breed crops that are more resistant to
pests and diseases, more tolerant of drought or salinity, or more nutritious.
 Cultural and social benefits: Crop diversity is an important part of many cultures and
traditions. Conserving crop biodiversity can help to preserve these cultural heritage
Efforts to conserve crop biodiversity include seed banks, which store seeds of different crop
varieties; gene banks, which store the genetic material of crops; and on-farm conservation,
where farmers continue to grow traditional varieties of crops.

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3.7 Causes for the Losses of Biodiversity

The main causes for the loss of crop biodiversity:
Industrialization of Agriculture: This involves large-scale farming operations that rely on a
few high-yielding crop varieties. This reduces the overall genetic diversity of crops, making
them more susceptible to pests, diseases, and climate change. For example, the vast majority
of bananas consumed today are Cavendish bananas, a single variety that is highly vulnerable
to a fungal disease called Panama disease.
Habitat Loss and Degradation: The conversion of natural habitats to agricultural land
destroys wild relatives of domesticated crops. These wild relatives can be a source of new
genes that can be bred into crops to improve their yield, resistance to pests and diseases, and
tolerance to environmental stresses. For example, the clearing of rainforests in South America
has led to the loss of many wild relatives of cassava, a starchy root vegetable that is a staple
food for millions of people in Africa and Latin America.
Climate Change: Climate change is altering weather patterns and increasing temperatures,
which can disrupt crop production and lead to crop failures. Crop varieties that are adapted to
current climatic conditions may not be able to survive in the future. For example, rising
temperatures are expected to reduce yields of maize (corn) in Africa, which could lead to food
shortages.
Seed Policies: Government policies that favor the use of certified seeds can discourage
farmers from saving their own seeds. This can lead to a loss of crop diversity, as farmers
become reliant on a few commercial seed varieties.
Invasive Species: Invasive species are plants, animals, or microorganisms that are
introduced into an environment where they do not naturally occur. Invasive species can

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compete with crops for resources and reduce crop yields. For example, the introduction of the
corn borer into North America from Europe has caused billions of dollars in losses to corn
farmers.

3.8 Mechanism of Conservation of Crops

There are two main ways crops are conserved:

 In situ conservation: This involves conserving crops in their natural habitats, which for
cultivated crops is the farm itself. This is the responsibility of the farmers who use various
practices to maintain genetic diversity and protect crops from pests and diseases.
 Ex situ conservation: This involves conserving crops outside their natural habitats,
typically in gene banks. Gene banks store seeds or other propagules of crop varieties
under controlled conditions. This ensures that genetic diversity is preserved for future
generations.
Some of the specific mechanisms used for crop conservation are:
Seed banks: Seed banks are facilities that store seeds under controlled temperature and
humidity conditions. This slows down the rate of seed deterioration and allows seeds to be
stored for long periods.

Field gene banks: Field gene banks are collections of crop varieties that are grown in the
field. This allows for the natural selection of traits that are important for survival in a
particular
environment.
Tissue culture: Tissue culture is a technique that allows for the propagation of plants from
small pieces of tissue. This can be used to conserve rare or endangered crop varieties.
DNA banking: DNA banking is the storage of DNA samples from crop varieties. This can be
used to regenerate plants from the DNA if seeds or other propagules are no longer available.

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4. Classification of crop plants
 Importance of classifying the crops:
 To get acquainted with crops
 To understand the requirement of soil & water for different crops
 To know adaptability of crops
 To know the growing habit of crops
 To understand climatic requirement of different crops
 To know the economic produce of the crop plant & its use
 To know the growing season of the crop
 Overall to know the actual condition required to the cultivation of plant

4.1 Botanical classification

Botanical classification is based upon similarity of plant parts. Most field crops belong to two
botanical families, namely Gramineae or grass family and legumineae or legume family.
The grass family: the grass family includes about three-fourths the cultivated forage crops
and all the grain cereals crops. They are annual, biennial or perennial. They possess long
narrow leaves with parallel veins and fibrous roots. The annual, crops of this family are wheat,
barley, oat, maize, sorghum etc., whereas perennial crops are sugarcane, napier grass etc.
The legume family: it ranks next to grass family. The plants possess broad leaves and tap
roots system, which bears nodules. Their seeds are borne in pods. The common annual
legumes are greengram, blackgram, cowpea, soybean, redgram, peas, bengalgram, lentil,
berseem etc., and perennial legume is alfalfa.
Other crops families: a list of some important families is given below:
 asteraceae(Compositae): sunflower, safflower
 chenopodiaceae: Spinach, beet
 convolvulaceae: sweet potato
 cruciferae: rapeseed and mustard, toria
 cucurbitaceae: pumpkin, sweet gourd, ash gourd, bitter gourd, cucumber
 euphorbeaceae: castor, tapioca
 liliaceae: onion, garlic

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 malvaceae: cotton, mesta
 pedaliaceae: potato, tobacco and tomato
 umbelliterae: coriander, carrot, cumin
 zingiberaceae: ginger, turmeric
4.2 Agronomic classification
The crop plants can be predominantly used for a particular purpose. Therefore they have been
classified into different groups:
Cereals: Cereals are the crop plants belonging to the grass family, poaceae. These are growth
for their edible starchy seed or grain(one seeded fruit know as caryopsis). The important
grain crops used as stable food are cereals such as rice wheat and barley.
Oilseeds: crops from which oil can be extracted are known as oilseed crops. Groundnut,
sesame, mustard, sunflower, safflower, caster and linseed are the main oilseed crops.
Pusle: the leguminous plants that bear edible pod are known as pusle crops. The seeds are
rich in protein. For instance, greengram, blackgram, cowpea, pigeonpea, lentil, moth etc. are
pusle.
Forage crops: there are used as feed for animals, fresh or preserved. The feed can be in the
form of hay, silage, soilage, pasture or fodder. Forage crops are Lucerne, berseem, field bean,
cowpea, napier grass, maize, oat, sudan grass etc.
Fibre crops: crop plants grown to produce fibres are referred to as fibre crops. These are
cotton, jute, mesta, sunnhemp, flex, agave, pineapple remi, sisal etc.
Sugar crops: these crops are grown for the production of sugar, e.g.sugarcane, sugarbeet.
Medicinal crops: these crops are used for preparation of medicines, e.g. opium poppy,
tobacco, and mint.
Beverages: products of crops used for mild, agreeable and stimulating liquors meant for
drinking, such as tea, coffee and cocoa, are called beverage crops.
Spices and condiments: crops or their products used to flavour, taste and add zest and
sometimes colour the fresh or preserved food, for instance, ginger, chillies, garlic, fenugreek,
cumin, turmeric, onion, coriander, and fennel, are as spices and condiments.
Narcotics: crop plants or their products that are used for stimulating, drowsiness or relishing
effect are called narcotics. These are tobacco, opium poppy etc.

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4.3 Special purpose crops
Crop plants grown for other purposes in addition to obtaining yield to meet a particular use
are grouped into special crops:
Cash crops: these crop plants are grown for sale to earn cash. The processing of such crops
after harvest is beyond the means of individual farmer. Jute, cotton, tobacco and sugarcane are
grouped as cash crops.
Green manure crops: these crop plants are grown to be incorporated into the soil to improve
fertility of soil. Sunnhemp and dhaincha are generally grown for green manure.
Cover crops: these crop plants are able to minimize soil erosion from wind or water or both
through covering the ground surface with their foliage, e.g. blackgram, cowpea, and
groundnut.
Smother crops: these crop plants produced heavy foliage, which suppress the population and
growth of weeds by curtailing the movement of air and radiation. Mustard, cowpea etc. are
good example of smothering crops.
Catch crops: these are also known as emergency crops or contingency crops. These are
cultivated to catch the forthcoming season. They replace a major crop that has failed due to
biotic, climate or management hazards. They generally quickgrowing crops. Greengram,
blackgram, cowpea, sunflower and toria may be grown as catch crops.
Mulch crops: these crops are grown to conserve soil moisture from bare ground by their thick
and multilayered foliage, e.g. cowpea and cluster bean.
Trap crops: these crop plants are grown to trap soil-borne hurmful biotic agents, e.g. parasitic
weed orobanche and striga, e.g. solanaceous crops and sorghum respectively. These weed
seeds germinate when they come in contact with roots of these crop plants. Thereafter the
destruction of these crops reduce the inoculum of such parasitic weeds.
Augmenting crops: when subcrops are sown to supplement the yield of main crops, these
crops are known as augmenting crops. Japanese mustard are augmenting crops.
Alley crops: when arable crops are grown in alleys formed by trees or shrubs, established
mainly to increase soil productivity and reduce soil erosion, they are known as alley crops.
Sweet potato, blackgram, turmeric and ginger in between the rows of subabool, eucalyptus
and cassia, these crops form a component of agro forestry system.

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 Mekdela Amba University College of Agriculture and Natural Resource
Department of Plant Science
4.4 Classification based on life habit
Crop plants complete their life-cycle after passing through progressive stages of development
during certain period of time. According, crops are grouped into three categories:
Annual crops: crops that complete their life-cycle within a season or a year are called annual
crops. These are rice, wheat, maize, mustard and tobacco. Most of field crops are annual in
nature. They produce seeds within a season or a year and die.
Biennial crops: crop plants that complete their life-cycle in two successive seasons or two
consecutive live years are referred to as biennial crops. In the first year they produce leaves
and store food and in the second year they produce fruits and seeds, after which the plants
dies. Cabbage, radish, carrot, sugarbeet etc. are example of biennial crops.
Perennial crops: the plants that live for three or more crop seasons are termed perennial
crops. These plants may by seed bearing or no seed bearing. They may propagate by seed or
by vegetative propagules that may be developed in aerial, subaerial or in both parts, such as
sugarcane, Lucerne, napier grass, ginger and sweet potato etc.

Page 16 of 131 Amare G., February 2024