BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Binary logic is fundamental to modern digital devices, and minimizing the cost of the circuits that
implement it is a key concern for designers. By using Boolean algebra to find simpler and more cost-
effective circuit designs, significant savings can be achieved in the overall design process.

Designers use Boolean algebra to simplify and reduce the cost of binary logic circuits in digital devices.

BASIC DEFINITION

• Boolean algebra, like any other deductive mathematical system, may be defined with a set of
elements, a set of operators, and a number of unproved axioms or postulates.

• A set of elements is any collection of objects, usually having a common property. If S is a set, and x and
y are certain objects, then the notation x S means that x is a member of the set S and y S means that y is
not an element of S.

*A set with a denumerable number of elements is specified by braces: A = {1, 2, 3, 4} indicates that the
elements of set A are the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4.

• A binary operator defined on a set S of elements is a rule that assigns, to each pair of elements

from S, a unique element from S.

• As an example, consider the relation a * b = c. We say that * is a binary operator if it specifies a rule for
finding c from the pair (a, b) and also if a, b, c S. However, * is not a binary operator if a, b S, and if c S.

POSTULATES

1. Closure. A set S is closed with respect to a binary operator if, for every pair of elements of S, the
binary operator specifies a rule for obtaining a unique element of S.
Example:
A set S is closed under a binary operator if applying the operator to any two elements in S results
in another element in S. For instance, the set of natural numbers N={1,2,3,… }N={1,2,3,…} is
closed under addition (++) because adding any two natural numbers yields another natural
number. However, NN is not closed under subtraction (−−) since 2−3=−12−3=−1, and −1−1 is not
in NN.

2. Associative law. A binary operator * on a set S is said to be associative whenever (x * y) * z = x *

(y * z) for all x, y, z, S
3. Commutative law. A binary operator * on a set S is said to be commutative whenever x * y = y *
x for all x, y S
4. Identity element. A set S is said to have an identity element with respect to a binary operation *
on S if there exists an e S with the property that e * x = x * e = x for every x S
Example: The element 0 is an identity element with respect to the binary operator + on the set
of integers I = {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}, since x + 0 = 0 + x = x for any x I
5. Inverse. A set S having the identity element e with respect to a binary operator * is said to have
an inverse whenever, for every x S, there exists an element y S such that x * y = e

Example: In the set of integers, I, and the operator

+, with e = 0, the inverse of an element a is (-a),
since a + (-a) = 0.
6. Distributive law. If * and . are two binary operators on a set S, * is said to be distributive over .
whenever x * (y . z) = (x * y) . (x * z)

The operators and postulates have the following

meanings:
• The binary operator + defines addition.
• The additive identity is 0.
• The additive inverse defines subtraction.
• The binary operator . defines multiplication.
• The multiplicative identity is 1.
• For a ≠ 0, the multiplicative inverse of a = 1 / a defines
division (i.e., a . 1 / a = 1 ).
• The only distributive law applicable is that of . over + :
•a.

(b + c ) = (a . b ) + (a . c )

AXIOMATIC DEFINITION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

In 1854, George Boole developed an algebraic

system now called Boolean algebra. In 1938,
Claude E. Shannon introduced a two‐valued
Boolean algebra called switching algebra that
represented the properties of bistable electrical
switching circuits. For the formal definition of
Boolean algebra, we shall employ the postulates
formulated by E. V. Huntington in 1904.
Boolean algebra is an algebraic structure defined by a set of elements, B , together with two binary

operators, + and . , provided that the following (Huntington) postulates are satisfied:

1. (a) The structure is closed with respect to the operator +.

(b) The structure is closed with respect to the operator .

2. (a) The element 0 is an identity element with respect to

+; that is, x + 0 = 0 + x = x.

(b) The element 1 is an identity element with respect to .; that is, x . 1 = 1 . x = x.

3. (a) The structure is commutative with respect to +; that is, x + y = y + x.

(b) The structure is commutative with respect to . ; that is, x . y = y . x.

4. (a) The operator . is distributive over +; that is, x . (y + z) = (x . y) + (x . z). (b) The operator + is
distributive over . ; that is, x + (y . z) = (x + y) . (x + z).

5. For every element x B, there exists an element x’ B

(called the complement of x) such that,

(a) x + x’ = 1 and (b) x . x' = 0.

6. There exist at least two elements x, y B such that x ≠ y.

Comparing Boolean algebra with arithmetic and

ordinary algebra (the field of real numbers), we

note the following differences:

1. Huntington postulates do not include the

associative law. However, this law holds for

Boolean algebra and can be derived (for both

operators) from the other postulates.

2. The distributive law of + over .

(i.e., x + (y . z) = (x + y) .
(x + z) ) is valid for

Boolean algebra, but not for ordinary algebra.

3. Boolean algebra does not have additive or

multiplicative inverses; therefore, there are no

subtraction or division operations.

4. Postulate 5 defines an operator called the

complement that is not available in ordinary

algebra.

5. Ordinary algebra deals with the real numbers,

which constitute an infinite set of elements.

Boolean algebra deals with the as yet undefined

set of elements, B, but in the two‐valued Boolean

algebra defined next (and of interest in our

subsequent use of that algebra), B is defined as a

set with only two elements, 0 and 1.

In order to have a Boolean algebra, one must

show that

1. the elements of the set B,

2. the rules of operation for the two binary

operators, and

3. the set of elements, B, together with the two

operators, satisfy the six Huntington postulates.

One can formulate many Boolean algebras,

depending on the choice of elements of B and the

rules of operation
Two-Valued Boolean Algebra

- defined on a set of two elements, B = {0, 1}, with rules for the two binary operators + and . as shown in
the following operator tables (the rule for the complement operator is for verification of postulate 5):

- These rules are exactly the same as the AND, OR, and NOT operations, respectively

We must now show that the Huntington postulates are valid for the set B = {0, 1} and the two binary
operators + and .

1. That the structure is closed with respect to the two operators is obvious from the tables, since the
result of each operation is either 1 or 0 and 1, 0 B.

2. From the tables, we see that

(a) 0 + 0 = 0 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 = 1;

(b) 1 . 1 = 1 1

. 0 = 0 . 1 = 0.

This establishes the two identity elements, 0 for + and 1 for ., as defined by postulate 2.

3. The commutative laws are obvious from the symmetry of the binary operator tables.
4. (a) The distributive law x . (y + z) = (x . y) + (x . z) can be shown to hold from the operator tables by
forming a truth table of all possible values of x, y, and z. For each combination, we derive x .

(y + z) and show that the value is the same as the value of (x . y) + (x . z):

Theorems and Postulates

• The Huntington postulates were listed in pairs and designated by part (a) and part (b). One part may be
obtained from the other if the binary operators and the identity elements are interchanged. This
important property of Boolean algebra is called the duality principle and states that every algebraic
expression deducible from the postulates of Boolean algebra remains valid if the operators and identity
elements are interchanged.
Operator Precedence

• The operator precedence for evaluating Boolean expressions is (1) parentheses, (2) NOT, (3) AND, and
(4) OR.

• Example:

• A. (x + y)’

• B. x’y’

Boolean algebra is an algebra that deals with binary variables and logic operations. A Boolean function
described by an algebraic expression consists of binary variables, the constants 0 and 1, and the logic
operation symbols. For a given value of the binary variables, the function can be equal to either 1 or 0.

• As an example, consider the Boolean function

F1 = x + y’z

• The function F1 is equal to 1 if x is equal to 1 or if both y’ and z are equal to 1. F1 is equal to 0

otherwise.

• F1 = 1 if x = 1 or if y = 0 and z = 1.

• A Boolean function expresses the logical relationship between binary variables and is evaluated by
determining the binary value of the expression for all possible values of the variables.

• A Boolean function can be represented in a truth table. The number of rows in the truth table is 2n,
where n is the number of variables in the function. The binary combinations for the truth table are
obtained from the binary numbers by counting from 0 through 2n – 1

• A Boolean function can be transformed from an algebraic expression into a circuit diagram composed
of logic gates connected in a particular structure.
• Example 2: Make the truth table & logic diagram of the function F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’

• Now consider the possible simplification the function by applying some of the identities of Boolean
algebra

F2 = x’y’z + x’yz + xy’

Algebraic Manipulation

• When a Boolean expression is implemented with logic gates, each term requires a gate and each
variable within the term designates an input to the gate.

• A literal is a single variable within a term, in complemented or uncomplemented form. The function of
F2 (a) has three terms and eight literals & F2 (b) has two terms and four literals.

• Reducing the number of terms, the number of literals, or both in a Boolean expression, it is often
possible to obtain a simpler circuit.

• The manipulation of Boolean algebra consists mostly of reducing an expression for the purpose of
obtaining a simpler circuit.

• The concepts introduced in this chapter provide the framework for manipulation.

• The only manual method available is a cut‐and‐try procedure employing the basic relations and other
manipulation techniques that become familiar with use, but remain, nevertheless, subject to human
error.