Starting Chemistry Notes OPM tem ed ¢ Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter can exist in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. ¢ Element: A substance made of only one type of atom (e.g., hydrogen, oxygen). ¢ Compound: A substance made from two or more different elements that are chemically bonded (e.g., water - H,0). ¢ Mixture: A combination of two or more substances where each retains its properties (e.g., air, seawater).2. Units and Measurements * SI Units: The International System of Units used in scientific measurements. o Length: Meter (m) o Mass: Kilogram (kg) © Time: Second (s) o Temperature: Kelvin (K) o Amount of substance: Mole (mol) * Significant Figures: Digits in a number that carry meaning contributing to its precision. 3. The Mole Concept (Start of Physical Chemistry) Ome) Cited) AML Ren Coy col CSom aT -MTanolUlals of substance. 1 mole = 6.022 x 107 particles (Avogadro's Number). * Molar Mass: The m2ss of 1 mole of a substance,meas ,, grams per mole (g/mol).(g/mol). eeu __ Given Mass Cea arene Example: To find the number of moles in 18g of water: Moles of HanO = == aa vete) 4. Atomic Structure * Atom: The basic unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and electrons orbiting the nucleus. * Subatomic Particles: © Proton (p): Positive charge (+1), located in the nucleus. © Neutron (n): No charge (0), located in the nucleus. © Electron (e-): Ne~ative charge (-1), foundinelect ., ds or orbitals around the nuc.Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons in an atom, determines the element. Mass Number (A): Sum of protons and neutrons in an atom. Chemical Bonding (Basics) lonic Bonding: Occurs between a metal and a non-metal when electrons are transferred from the metal to the non-metal, forming ions (e.g., NaCl). Covalent Bonding: Occurs when two non-metals share electrons (e.g., H,0). Metallic Bonding: Occurs between metal atoms where electrons are free to move, creating a "sea of electrons" (e.g., copper, iron). Laws of Chemical Combination Law of Conservation of Mass: Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reactio V,¢ Law of Definite Proportions: A given compound always contains the same elements in the same proportion by mass (e.g., water always has 8 grams of oxygen for every 1 gram of hydrogen). e Law of Multiple Proportions: If two elements form more than one compound, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with a fixed mass of the first element are simple whole alUlnalel-l ace7. Chemical Reactions and Types ¢ Reaction Types: ° Combination: A+ B — AB ° Decomposition: AB - A+B © Displacement: A+ BC — AC +B ° Double Displacement: AB + CD — AD + CB ° Combustion: Fuel + 0, = CO, +H,0 Saco Lelia ¢ The study of the relationships between the amounts of reactants and products in chemical reactions. Example: In the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to form water: 2H + Op + 2H2O0 41. Atomic Mass and Molecular Mass ¢ Atomic Mass: The mass of an atom, usually expressed in atomic mass units (amu). It is approximately equal to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom. ¢ Molecular Mass: The sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule. Example: For a water molecule (H,0), © Atomic mass of H=1 amu © Atomic mass of O = 16 amu © Molecular mass of H,O = (2 x 1) 4+ 16 = 18,amu2. Empirical and Molecular Formulas ¢ Empirical Formula: The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound. © Example: For hydrogen peroxide (H,0,), the empirical formula is HO (because the ratio of H to O is 2:2, or 1:1). ¢ Molecular Formula: The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. co Example: For hydrogen peroxide, the molecular formula is H,0,.3. Types of Chemical Bonds (Advanced Understanding) ¢ Polar and Non-Polar Covalent Bonds: © Polar Covalent Bonds: Electrons are shared unevenly between atoms (e.g., H,0). One atom becomes slightly negative, and the other becomes slightly positive. © Non-Polar Covalent Bonds: Electrons are shared equally (e.g., O2, Nz). * Coordinate Bond (Dative Bonding): A type of covalent bond where both electrons come from the same atom (e.g., in the formation of NH,* from NH, and H*).4. Chemical Equilibrium (Core Concept) ¢ Dynamic Nature of Equilibrium: The state where the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction. It doesn't mean the reactions stop, but they continue at the same rate in both directions. Le Chatelier's Principle: If a system at equilibrium is disturbed by changing conditions (such as pressure, temperature, or concentration), the system will shift to counteract the change and restore equilibrium. Example: If the concentration of a reactant is increased, the system will shift towards the products to consume the extra reactant.5. Thermochemistry and Heat Changes ¢ Exothermic Reactions: Release energy in the form of heat (e.g., combustion of fuel). o AH (change in enthalpy) is negative. ¢ Endothermic Reactions: Absorb energy in the form of heat (e.g., photosynthesis). o AH is positive. ¢ First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transferred or converted from one form to another.6. Periodic Table — Trends ¢ Atomic Radius: Decreases across a period and increases down a group. © Reason: Across a period, the number of protons increases, pulling electrons closer to the nucleus. Down a group, the number of electron shells increases, making the atom larger. ¢ lonization Energy: The energy required to remove an electron from an atom. It increases across a period and decreases down a group. o Reason: More protons in the nucleus across a period make it harder to remove electrons. More electron shells down a group make electrons easier to remove. ¢ Electronegativity: The tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a bond. It increases across~ _“iod and decreases down a group. A8. Redox Reactions and SCX tcol Cea ¢ Oxidation and Reduction: In a redox reaction, one substance is oxidized (loses electrons) and the other is reduced (gains electrons). © Oxidizing Agent: The substance that gains electrons. o Reducing Agent: The substance that loses electrons. * Electrochemical Cells: Devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy (e.g., batteries). © Galvanic Cell: A spontaneous electrochemical cell that generates electrical energy (e.g., zinc-copper cell). © Electrolytic Cell: A non-spontaneous electrochemical cell that requires external energy to drive the reaction (e.g., electrolysis of water).9. Molarity, Molality, and Normality ¢ Molarity (M): Moles of solute per liter of solution. Moles of solute atu Ee Volume of solution in liters ¢ Molality (m): Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Moles of solute ° Formula: m = Mass of solvent in kg ¢ Normality (N): Equivalent moles of solute per liter of solution. © Example: For HCI, normality = molarity x 1 (since it has 1 hydrogen ion per molecule).10. Organic Chemistry - Key Functional Groups ¢ Alcohols: -OH group (e.g., ethanol, CH,CH,OH). ¢ Aldehydes: -CHO group (e.g., formaldehyde, HCHO). ¢ Ketones: C=O group between two carbon atoms (e.g., acetone, CH,COCH,). ¢ Carboxylic Acids: -COOH group (e.g., acetic acid, CH;COOH). ¢ Amines: -NH, group (e.g., methylamine, nA11. lsomerism ¢ Structural Isomerism: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural arrangements. © Example: Butane (C,H,,.) can have two structural isomers: n-butane and isobutane. ¢ Stereoisomerism: Compounds with the same molecular and structural formula but different spatial arrangements. © Geometrical Ilsomerism: Due to restricted rotation (e.g., cis-trans isomerism in alkenes). © Optical Isomerism: Due to the presence of chiral centers (e.g., D- and L-glucose).12. Chemical Reactions in Everyday Life ¢ Combustion Reactions: Burning of fuels (e.g., burning of wood, petrol). ¢ Respiration: The oxidation of glucose in the body to release energy. ¢ Photosynthesis: The process in plants where carbon dioxide and water are converted into glucose and oxygen in the presence of sunlight.7. pH and Bufter Solutions pH Scale ¢ The pH of a solution indicates how acidic or basic it is. © Acidic: pH < 7 © Neutral: pH = 7 ° Basic: pH > 7 Buffer Solutions ¢ A buffer solution resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. © Example: A mixture of acetic acid and acetate ions (CH,COOH and CH,COO-) olga ol Uiaieexe) (Udo) ae9. Key Organic Functional Groups ¢ Alcohols: Contain an -OH group. Example: Ethanol (CH,CH,OH). ¢ Aldehydes: Contain a -CHO group. Example: Formaldehyde (HCHO). ¢ Ketones: Contain a C=O group between two carbons. Example: Acetone (CH,;COCH,). ¢ Carboxylic Acids: Contain a -COOH group. Example: Acetic acid (CH,COOH).Inorganic Chemistry Pech © Molecular Formula: H,0 Vem NLA) © Molecular Formula: NH; 3. Hydrochloric Acid ° Molecular Formula: HCl 4. Sulfuric Acid © Molecular Formula: H,SO, 5. Nitric Acid ° Molecular Formula: HNO; 6. Carbon Dioxide © Molecular Formula: CO, 7. Oxygen ° Molecular Formula: 0, 8. Nitrogen © Molecular Formula: N,see ie ‘vz ie Ce iis ston Sodium Chloride (Salt) o Molecular Formula: NaCl Sodium Hydroxide (Lye) © Molecular Formula: NaOH Calcium Carbonate © Molecular Formula: CaCO, Magnesium Sulfate co Molecular Formula: MgSO, Copper(Il) Sulfate © Molecular Formula: CuSO, ole Ven LiCer Tire LG) © Molecular Formula: KMnO, Calcium Phosphate © Molecular Formula: Ca,(PO,). Zine Sulfide © Molecular Formula: ZnSOrganic Chemistry SPU T 1) © Molecular Formula: CH, 2. Ethane OM CoCo Lm meer lt Merl aed 3. Propane CM CoCo Tm el eril|t On a Py Pee 1) © Molecular Formula: C,H,, 5. Ethanol © Molecular Formula: C,H;OH 6. Acetic Acid © Molecular Formula: CH,COOH 7. Formaldehyde © Molecular Formula: CH,0 8. Acetone © Molecular Formula: C,H,OGlucose a Ce) C-eot Teele: . Sucrose MCD eeu . Benzene MCCLANE ee pa ed T 1-9 Croll eeu EB . Benzoic Acid MCLANE ele . Phenol aC) C-eat Teele LE: cel cela] MC CLea Em eeu RCo m crt MoCo ED ee or are lOnPi a PrACkEy erat OP Cary C.H;COOH C,H,O CHCl, omHydrogen Peroxide © Molecular Formula: H,0, Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking Soda) © Molecular Formula: NaHCO, Ammonium Chloride © Molecular Formula: NH,Cl Magnesium Hydroxide (Milk of Magnesia) © Molecular Formula: Mg(OH), ST Le) © Molecular Formula: KNO, PNT ess ee 1 cy © Molecular Formula: Al,(SO,), Sodium Carbonate (Washing Soda) © Molecular Formula: Na,CO,SM ETO Ce BK © Molecular Formula: KCIO, Paes) IA LU ° Molecular Formula: AgNO, 10. Hydrogen Sulfide ° Molecular Formula: H,SGaseous Compounds 1. Ammonium Nitrite © Molecular Formula: NH,NO, 2. Nitrosyl Chloride © Molecular Formula: NOCI 3. Nitrogen Dioxide © Molecular Formula: NO, 4. Sulfur Dioxide o MolecularFe “ SO,1. Periodic lable (Important Elements) A concise periodic table is essential for quickly referencing elements during your study. Be familiar with: ¢ Atomic Number and Symbol of elements. ¢ Grouping elements into categories like EV emt Lem TLC MST Loe transition elements, noble gases, etc. ¢ Familiarize yourself with periodicity trends like atomic radius, ionization energy, electronegativity, etc. Important Groups to Focus on for NEET: ¢ Group 1 (Alkali Metals): Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, ae Group 2 (Alkaline Earth Metals): Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra * Group 17 (Halogene’ F, Cl, Br, |, At ¢ Group 18 (Noble w ): He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rnata Symbol Atomic Mass (g/ mol) Hydrogen H Iolo) Oxygen 0 16.00 ler-Td efen) ie Vn Nitrogen N arb Sulfur S 32.07 Sodium NE} 22.99 Potassium i 39.10 or} Col (inn) Ca CLO} Iron a) 55.85 Copper Cu Y 63.553. Common Acids and Bases Having a table of common acids and bases will help you in solving acid-base reactions. PX (eA TEX) edt e:) Strength Hydrochloric | HCl Strong Acid acid Sulfuric acid | H,SO, Strong Acid Nitric acid HNO, Strong Acid Acetic acid CH,COOH Weak Acid Sodium NaOH Strong Base hydroxide ecole: SoH 101 a0) KOH Strong Base hydroxide Ammonium | NH,OH Weak Base hydroxideUnderstanding oxidizing agents and reducing agents is critical for redox reactions. Here’s a simplified table: Oxidizin | Formula | Reducin Formula g Agent g Agent Potassiu | KMnO, Hae Lele |— aa PS m i permang Ela) Potassiu | K,Cr,0, | Sodium Na,S,0, fa) Mee Ce] dichrom te lic) Chlorine | Cl, Zinc Zn (eck) Nitric HNO, Iron (Fe) | Fe acid Hydroge | H,0, Hydroge | H,S i} eS ite peroxide (H,S)5. Common Gas Laws (For Gaseous BST E19) Having a table for gas laws is useful for NEET, especially when dealing with problems in the kinetic theory of gases and ideal gas equations. ler VY ey TLE) Explanation Boyle's Law | P,V,=P,V, At constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its volume. Charles's V,/T, = V2/ At constant EV Va pressure, the volume of a (orckom Sy directly Vv proportional to itsAvogadro's VT V,/n, = V,/n, At constant temperature and joy c-eoKo1U goo UAT) volume of a eer directly proportional to the number of moles. Ideal Gas eT) A ao OER) oye eo volume, temperature, Tate dat) amount of Cri EV eli vom ml of Partial TL P_total = P, a atom ce) t=] occ well agas abacelcom sy ia-eNU laneIdeal Gas Aaa) a Relates ) pressure, volume, temperature, and the amount of lorekon Dalton's Law | P_total=P, | The total of Partial +P,+P, pressure of TALC) +. agas anipaielcom cy Liat MclO aol the partial pressures of the individual ereFunctional Formula Example Group Compound Alcohol -OH Methanol (CH,0H) Aldehyde -CHO Formaldehyd e (CH,0) Ketone C=O Acetone (between C) | (CH,COCH,) Carboxylic -COOH Acetic Acid Acid CH,COOH) Ester -COO- stat Acetate CH,COOCH, CH,) Neal tal=) SN Sy NV Cl daa rela at CH,NH,) Amide -CONH, Acetamide CH,CONH,) Alkene C=C ita Tat =) C,H)Carboxylic -COOH Acetic Acid Acid (CH,COOH) tg -COO- ataNvA Acetate (CH,COOCH, CHs) Amine -NH, Methylamine (CH,NH,) Amide -CONH, Acetamide (CH,CONH,) ON Tal) C=C etter) (Any) Alkyne (Cae Satan) (C,H)7. Mole Conversion Table This table will help you convert between moles, mass, volume, and number of particles: Quantity emu) rth g Conversion Moles to Mass =n x n= Number WEES Molar Mass __ of moles, Molar Mass Sane l og mole (g/ mol) IV Ce) -tsym ce) Volume = nx | For gases at Avo) [Una c= 22.4L STP, n= STP) moles, volume in liters (L) Moles to Number of n= moles, Particles Particles =n | 6.022 x 1078 x 6.022 x = Avogadro's es falUian) 198. Solubility Rules (For NEET Inorganic Chemistry) Having a solubility chart can help you quickly determine whether certain salts are soluble in water or not. Soluble Compounds All Nitrates (NO,-) All Sodium (Na‘*), Potassium (K‘*), Ammonium (NH,*) iC Chlorides (CI-) except AgCl, PbCl., Hg,Cl, Sulfates (SO,?-) except PbSO,, BaSO,, CaSO, Insoluble Compounds All Silver Salts (Ag*) Lead (Pb?*) salts Calcium Sulfate (CaSO,) Barium Sulfate (BaSO,)9. Important Reactions for Organic Chemistry A quick reference table for the most common organic reactions will help you during revision: Reaction Type RTT Sat) Lica) Xela ea) Eliminati coli} Oxidatio fi] Crea cid s ON ela Halogen ON Tn Hydroge Vi halogen Alcohol/ Alkyl ae lieKy Alcohol celles Halogen El i-Xe| Alkane ON eT -YA Alkyl Halide ON tT) Aldehyde /Ketone/ Carboxyl ic Acid cy (-3 seme — CH,Cl oan el (Aah? Rhy 7a (oARelal = C,H, carl nb{o) C,H,OH CH,CHOReductio | Aldehyde | Alcohol CH,COO fi) /Ketone ae C,H,OH 10. Important pH Values Memorizing the pH values of common substances will also be very useful during practical exams and NEET MCQs. Substance ya YL y Strong Acid (e.g., <1 HCl) TM (er) fae} CMEC 7 (neutral) Baking Soda 8-9 Sotto) PCM al oi10. Important pH Values Memorizing the pH values of common substances will also be very useful during practical exams and NEET MCQs. | Substance Ey Strong Acid (e.g., <1 HCl) Lemon Juice Bos! mW Elle 7 (neutral) Baking Soda 8-9 Solution Ammonia Solution sea HEY-Tel 12-13The electrode potentials of common redox couples are important for solving electrochemistry problems, especially in identifying the oxidizing and reducing agents. Eimer late) E° (V) Zn?* + 2e- = Zn -0.76 Cu?* + 2e- = Cu aa Fe*+ + e- — Fe?* +0.77 Ag* +e = Ag +0.80 (oP <-ey A0 +1.36 LY LiL e Pam ats) sat aloe a llofl — Mn?* + 4H,0 * More positive E° values correspond to stronger oxidizing agents. ¢ More negative E° values correspond to stronger reducin \ts. Vv