1.

Introduction to Chemistry

Chemistry is the study of matter, its properties, how and why substances combine or separate,
and how substances interact with energy. It's often called the central science because it connects
physical sciences with life sciences and applied sciences.

Key Concepts:

 Matter: Anything that has mass and takes up space.

 Atoms and Molecules: The basic building blocks of matter.
 Chemical Reactions: Processes that transform one set of chemical substances into
another.

2. Atomic Structure

2.1 Atoms

Atoms are the smallest units of matter that retain the properties of an element. Each atom
consists of three main subatomic particles:

 Protons: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus.

 Neutrons: Neutral particles found in the nucleus.
 Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus.

2.2 Atomic Number and Mass Number

 Atomic Number (Z): The number of protons in an atom’s nucleus. It defines the
element.
o Example: Carbon has an atomic number of 6.
 Mass Number (A): The sum of protons and neutrons in an atom’s nucleus.
o Example: Carbon-12 has a mass number of 12.

2.3 Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

 Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon.

3. The Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes elements based on their atomic number and electron configuration.
Elements are arranged in periods (rows) and groups (columns).

3.1 Groups and Periods

  Groups: Elements in the same column have similar chemical properties. For example,
Group 1 (alkali metals) are highly reactive.
 Periods: Elements in the same row have the same number of electron shells.

3.2 Key Groups

 Alkali Metals (Group 1): Highly reactive metals like sodium (Na) and potassium (K).
 Noble Gases (Group 18): Inert gases like helium (He) and neon (Ne).

4. Chemical Bonding

4.1 Ionic Bonds

Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred from one atom to another, creating positive and
negative ions that attract each other.

 Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) – Sodium (Na) loses an electron to chlorine (Cl),
forming Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions.

4.2 Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. This can occur between nonmetals.

 Example: Water (H₂O) – Each hydrogen atom shares an electron with the oxygen atom.

4.3 Metallic Bonds

Metallic bonds occur between metal atoms where electrons are delocalized, allowing them to
flow freely and conduct electricity.

 Example: In metals like copper (Cu) and aluminum (Al), electrons are not bound to any
one atom but move throughout the metal.

5. Chemical Reactions

5.1 Types of Reactions

 Synthesis Reaction: Two or more substances combine to form a new compound.

o Example: 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O (Hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water).
 Decomposition Reaction: A compound breaks down into two or more substances.
o Example: 2HgO → 2Hg + O₂ (Mercury(II) oxide decomposes into mercury and
oxygen).
 Single Replacement Reaction: One element replaces another in a compound.
o Example: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl₂ + H₂ (Zinc replaces hydrogen in hydrochloric
acid).
 Double Replacement Reaction: The ions in two compounds exchange places.
 oExample: AgNO₃ + NaCl → AgCl + NaNO₃ (Silver nitrate and sodium chloride
react to form silver chloride and sodium nitrate).
 Combustion Reaction: A substance reacts with oxygen, releasing energy.
o Example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O (Methane burns in oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide and water).

5.2 Balancing Chemical Equations

Balancing chemical equations ensures that the same number of atoms of each element is present
on both sides of the equation.

 Example: To balance the reaction 2H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O, make sure there are 4 hydrogen
atoms and 2 oxygen atoms on each side.

6. Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry involves calculating the amounts of reactants and products in chemical reactions.

6.1 Mole Concept

 Mole (mol): A unit that measures the amount of substance. One mole contains 6.022 ×
10²³ particles (Avogadro’s number).
 Molar Mass: The mass of one mole of a substance, measured in grams per mole (g/mol).
o Example: The molar mass of water (H₂O) is approximately 18 g/mol (2×1 + 16).

6.2 Calculating Amounts

Use the mole concept to find the amounts of reactants and products.

 Example: To find how many grams of CO₂ are produced from 5 moles of CH₄, use the
balanced equation and molar masses.

7. Solutions and Concentrations

7.1 Solutions

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of solute (substance dissolved) and solvent (substance

doing the dissolving).

 Example: Saltwater – Salt (solute) dissolved in water (solvent).

7.2 Concentration

Concentration measures how much solute is dissolved in a given amount of solvent.

 Molarity (M): The number of moles of solute per liter of solution.

 o Example: A 1 M NaCl solution has 1 mole of NaCl dissolved in 1 liter of
solution.

8. Acids and Bases

8.1 Properties of Acids and Bases

 Acids: Sour taste, turn blue litmus paper red, and release hydrogen ions (H⁺) in solution.
o Example: Hydrochloric acid (HCl).
 Bases: Bitter taste, turn red litmus paper blue, and release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in
solution.
o Example: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH).

8.2 pH Scale

The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a solution. It ranges from 0 (strongly acidic) to
14 (strongly basic), with 7 being neutral.

 Acidic pH: Less than 7.

 Basic pH: Greater than 7.

8.3 Neutralization

A reaction between an acid and a base to produce water and a salt.

 Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O (Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium
hydroxide to produce sodium chloride and water).

9. Thermochemistry

9.1 Heat and Temperature

 Heat: Energy transferred between substances due to a temperature difference.

 Temperature: A measure of the average kinetic energy of particles.

9.2 Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions

 Endothermic Reactions: Absorb heat from the surroundings.

o Example: Photosynthesis – Plants absorb energy to convert CO₂ and H₂O into
glucose and O₂.
 Exothermic Reactions: Release heat to the surroundings.
o Example: Combustion of fuels – Burning wood releases heat and light.

10. Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium

10.1 Chemical Kinetics

The study of the rate of chemical reactions and the factors affecting them.

 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates:

o Concentration: Higher concentration increases the rate of reaction.
o Temperature: Higher temperature generally increases reaction rates.
o Catalysts: Substances that increase the reaction rate without being consumed.

10.2 Chemical Equilibrium

The state in which the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, and concentrations of
reactants and products remain constant.

 Le Chatelier’s Principle: If a system at equilibrium is disturbed, it will adjust to

counteract the disturbance.