Class Notes on Chemistry

Introduction to Chemistry

Chemistry is the branch of science that studies the composition, structure, properties, and
changes of matter. Everything around us, from the air we breathe to the food we eat, is
made of chemicals. The field of chemistry is fundamental to understanding the natural world,
from how the body functions to the materials we use in technology. Chemistry is often called
the "central science" because it connects physics, biology, medicine, environmental science,
and other areas of science.

1. The Basics of Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. All matter is composed of atoms, and
the way these atoms interact and bond gives rise to the various properties and behaviors we
observe in substances.

●​ Atoms: The basic unit of matter, composed of a nucleus (protons and neutrons)
surrounded by electrons. The number of protons in an atom's nucleus determines its
atomic number, which identifies the element.
●​ Elements: Pure substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical means. Examples include oxygen (O), carbon (C), and hydrogen (H).
●​ Molecules: A molecule is formed when two or more atoms bond together. Molecules
can be made up of the same type of atom, like oxygen (O₂), or different types of
atoms, like water (H₂O).
●​ Compounds: Substances made from two or more different elements that are
chemically bonded. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is a compound made of
sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl).

2. Atomic Structure and Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes all known elements based on their atomic structure and
properties. Elements are arranged in rows (periods) and columns (groups or families).

●​ Subatomic Particles:
○​ Protons: Positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom. The
number of protons determines the element's identity (atomic number).
○​ Neutrons: Neutrally charged particles in the nucleus. They contribute to the
mass of the atom but don't affect its chemical behavior.
○​ Electrons: Negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus in different
energy levels or shells. Electrons are involved in chemical reactions and
bonding.
●​ Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons, leading to different atomic masses. For example,
carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon.
 ●​ Electron Configuration: The arrangement of electrons in an atom’s energy levels.
This configuration influences the atom's chemical behavior. For example, elements in
the same group of the periodic table have similar electron configurations and
therefore similar properties.

3. Chemical Bonds

Atoms combine to form compounds through chemical bonds. There are three primary types
of chemical bonds:

●​ Ionic Bonds: Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another. This
typically occurs between metals and nonmetals. The metal loses electrons to form a
positively charged ion, while the nonmetal gains electrons to form a negatively
charged ion. These oppositely charged ions attract each other to form the bond. For
example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed when sodium (Na) gives up an electron to
chlorine (Cl).
●​ Covalent Bonds: Formed when two atoms share electrons. This usually occurs
between nonmetals. Molecules like water (H₂O) are formed when oxygen shares
electrons with hydrogen atoms. Covalent bonds can be single (one pair of electrons
shared), double (two pairs of electrons shared), or triple (three pairs of electrons
shared).
●​ Metallic Bonds: In metallic bonding, electrons are not shared or transferred but
move freely throughout a lattice of metal atoms. This explains properties like
electrical conductivity and malleability in metals.

4. Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions involve the breaking and forming of chemical bonds to create new
substances. Reactants are transformed into products through these reactions.

●​ Types of Chemical Reactions:

○​ Synthesis (Combination): Two or more reactants combine to form a more
complex product. For example:​
2H2+O2→2H2O2H_2 + O_2 \rightarrow 2H_2O2H2​+O2​→2H2​O (hydrogen +
oxygen → water).
○​ Decomposition: A compound breaks down into simpler substances. For
example:​
2H2O2→2H2O+O22H_2O_2 \rightarrow 2H_2O + O_22H2​O2​→2H2​O+O2​
(hydrogen peroxide decomposes into water and oxygen).
○​ Single Replacement: One element replaces another in a compound. For
example:​
Zn+CuSO4→ZnSO4+CuZn + CuSO_4 \rightarrow ZnSO_4 +
CuZn+CuSO4​→ZnSO4​+Cu (zinc replaces copper in copper sulfate).
 ○​ Double Replacement: Two compounds exchange components to form two
new compounds. For example:​
NaCl+AgNO3→NaNO3+AgClNaCl + AgNO_3 \rightarrow NaNO_3 +
AgClNaCl+AgNO3​→NaNO3​+AgCl (sodium chloride reacts with silver nitrate
to form sodium nitrate and silver chloride).
○​ Combustion: A reaction with oxygen, often releasing energy in the form of
heat and light. For example:​
CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2OCH_4 + 2O_2 \rightarrow CO_2 +
2H_2OCH4​+2O2​→CO2​+2H2​O (methane burning in oxygen to form carbon
dioxide and water).
●​ Balancing Chemical Equations: Chemical reactions must obey the law of
conservation of mass, meaning the number of atoms on both sides of the equation
must be equal. To balance an equation, adjust the coefficients in front of the
molecules, not the subscripts.

5. States of Matter and Solutions

Matter can exist in different states, which include solid, liquid, and gas. The state of matter
depends on the temperature and pressure.

●​ Solid: Particles are closely packed together and vibrate in place. Solids have a
definite shape and volume.
●​ Liquid: Particles are close together but can move past one another, allowing liquids
to flow. Liquids have a definite volume but take the shape of their container.
●​ Gas: Particles are spread far apart and move freely. Gases have neither a definite
shape nor volume.
●​ Plasma: A state of matter where atoms are ionized, meaning electrons are stripped
from atoms. Plasmas are found in stars and lightning.
●​ Solutions: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The substance in
the greatest amount is the solvent, and the substance dissolved in it is the solute. For
example, in a saltwater solution, water is the solvent, and salt is the solute.

6. Acids and Bases

Acids and bases are two important types of compounds that behave differently in water.

●​ Acids: Substances that release hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water. They
have a sour taste, turn blue litmus paper red, and have a pH less than 7. Examples
include hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄).
●​ Bases: Substances that release hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in water. They have a bitter
taste, feel slippery, turn red litmus paper blue, and have a pH greater than 7.
Examples include sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and ammonia (NH₃).
●​ pH Scale: The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a solution. It ranges from
0 (strong acid) to 14 (strong base), with 7 being neutral (pure water).
 ●​ Neutralization: When an acid and a base react to form water and a salt. For
example:​
HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2OHCl + NaOH \rightarrow NaCl +
H_2OHCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2​O (hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium
chloride + water).

7. Thermodynamics in Chemistry

Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its transformations, particularly in chemical

reactions.

●​ First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only

transformed from one form to another. In chemical reactions, energy can be released
(exothermic) or absorbed (endothermic).
●​ Enthalpy (H): A measure of the heat content of a system at constant pressure.
Exothermic reactions release heat, and endothermic reactions absorb heat.
●​ Entropy (S): A measure of the disorder or randomness in a system. Reactions tend
to move toward increasing entropy, meaning that systems naturally progress from
order to disorder.
●​ Gibbs Free Energy (G): A measure of the spontaneity of a reaction. If the change in
Gibbs free energy (ΔG) is negative, the reaction is spontaneous. If ΔG is positive, the
reaction is non-spontaneous.

8. Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds. It plays a major role in

biochemistry, pharmaceuticals, plastics, and fuels.

●​ Carbon Bonding: Carbon can form four covalent bonds with other atoms, allowing it
to create long chains, rings, and complex structures.
●​ Hydrocarbons: Compounds made of only carbon and hydrogen. They can be:
○​ Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons with single bonds (e.g., methane, CH₄).
○​ Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one double bond (e.g.,
ethene, C₂H₄).
○​ Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond (e.g.,
ethyne, C₂H₂).
●​ Functional Groups: Specific groups of atoms within molecules that determine the
chemical properties of the compound. Examples include hydroxyl groups (-OH),
carboxyl groups (-COOH), and amino groups (-NH₂).

Conclusion
Chemistry is a vast and essential field that provides a deeper understanding of the world
around us. From the smallest particles that make up matter to the large-scale reactions that
drive life processes, chemistry plays a key role in shaping our universe. Whether exploring
atoms, molecules, or complex chemical reactions, chemistry helps us comprehend how
substances interact, transform, and contribute to the fabric of existence.