BM3491BIOMEDICALINSTRUMENTATIONLTPC

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COURSEOBJECTIVES:
● Tounderstandtheoriginofvariousbiologicalsignalsandelectrodeconfigurationssp
ecifictobio-potentialmeasurements.
● TounderstandthecharacteristicsofBiosignals.
● Tounderstandthedesignofbio amplifiers
● To explain the different techniques used for measurement of non-
electricalbio-parameters
● To explain the biochemical measurement techniques as applicable for
diagnosis andtreatment.

UNITI ELECTRODE CONFIGURATIONS 9

Bio signals characteristics – Origin of bio potential and its propagation. Frequency and
amplituderanges.Electrodeconfigurations:Electrode-electrolyteinterface,electrode–
skininterfaceimpedance, polarization effects of electrode – non-polarizable electrodes.
Unipolar and bipolarconfiguration,classification ofelectrodes.

UNITII BIOSIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS 9

Biosignalscharacteristics–ECG-frequencyandamplituderanges–
Einthoven’striangle,standard 12 lead system. EEG - EEG – 10-20 electrode system,
unipolar, bipolar and averagemode. EMG– unipolar and bipolar mode. EMG -
Electrode configuration -unipolar and bipolarmode.

UNITIII BIOAMPLIFIERS 9
Need for bio-amplifier - Differential bio-amplifier – Single ended amplifier - Band
pass filtering,isolation amplifiers – transformer and optical isolation - isolated DC
amplifier and AC carrieramplifier.Chopperamplifier.Powerline interference

UNITIV MEASUREMENTOF BIOSIGNALS 9

Temperature, respiration rate and pulse rate measurements. Blood Pressure - indirect
methods:auscultatorymethod,oscillometricmethod,directmethods:electronicmanometer,
Pressureamplifiers - systolic, diastolic, mean detector circuit. Blood flow and cardiac
output measurement:Indicator dilution, thermal dilution and dye dilution method,
Electromagnetic and ultrasound bloodflowmeasurements

UNITV BIOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS 9

Biochemical sensors - pH, pO2 and pCO2, Ion selective Field effect Transistor
(ISFET),ImmunologicallysensitiveFET(IMFET),Bloodglucosesensors.Bloodgasanalyzers,
colorimeter,flamephotometer,spectrophotometer,bloodcellcounter,auto analyzer.

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COURSEOUTCOMES:
Onsuccessfulcompletionof thiscourse,thestudent willbeableto
CO1:Illustratetheoriginof variousbiologicalsignalsandtheir characteristics.
CO2:Gainknowledge oncharacteristicsofbiosignals.
CO3:Gainknowledgeonvariousamplifiersinvolvedinmonitoring andtransmissionof
biosignals
.CO4:Explainthedifferentmeasurementtechniquesfornon-electricalbio-parameters
CO5:Explain the biochemical measurement techniques as applicable for diagnosis and
furthertreatment.

TOTAL:45PERIODS
TEXTBOOKS:
1. LeslieCromwell,“BiomedicalInstrumentationandmeasurement”,2ndeditio
n,Prenticehall ofIndia,NewDelhi,2015.
2. JohnG.Webster,“MedicalInstrumentationApplicationandDesign”,4thediti
on,WileyIndia PvtLtd,NewDelhi,2015.
3. KhandpurR.S,“HandbookofBiomedicalInstrumentation”,TataMcGraw
Hill,NewDelhi,2003.
REFERENCEBOOKS
1. JohnEnderle,SusanBlanchard,JosephBronzino,“IntroductiontoBiomedicalEn
gineering”,secondedition,Academic Press,2005.
2. JosephJ.CarrandJohnM.Brown,“IntroductiontoBiomedicalEquipmentTechnol
ogy”, PearsonEducation,2004.

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UNIT 1 - ELECTRODE CONFIGURATIONS

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Nernst equation
• An equation relating the potential across the membrane and the two
concentrations of ion is called the Nernst equation and can be stated
as follows:

E = - RT/ nF ln C1f1/ C2f2

R = gas constant (8.315×107 degree Kelvin
T= Absolute temperature in Kelvin
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 n = valence of the ion
f = Faraday constant (96500 coulombs)
C1, C2 = two concentrations of the ion on the two sides of the
membrane
f1, f2 = respective activity coefficients of the ion on the two sides of
the membrane

Actionpotential

When a cell membrane is excited by some form of externally applied energy, the
membranechanges its electrical characteristics and begins to allow some of the Na+ ions to enter.
Themovement ofNa+ ions into the cell constitutes ionic current which further reduces the barrier
ofthe membrane to Na+ ions. The net result in Na+ ions rush into the cell and try to balance with
theions outside.
At the same time K+ ions present inside the cell try to leave the cell. But they areunable to move
as rapidly as Na+ ions.
As a result the cell has a slightly positive potential.

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Thispositive potential of the cell membrane during excitation is calledaction potential and is
about20mv,As longas theaction potential exists, the cell issaid to bedepolarized.

 Theprocessofchangingfromrestingstatetoactionpotentialiscalledas“depolarization”.

Action potential Waveform

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C1,C2=Concentration ofthe selectedionontwosides ofthemembrane.

F1,F2=Activitycoefficient ofthe ions ontwo sides ofthe membrane

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polarizable electrodes have a charge separation at the electrode-electrolyte
boundary whereas non-polarizable electrodes have no charge separation at this
electrode-electrolyte boundary

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Unipolar and Bipolar Configurations

A unipolar lead is a single conductor lead with an electrode located at the tip. A bipolar lead has two separate
and isolated conductors within a single-lead; the distal electrode is located at the tip of the lead and the other
one is usually about 2 cm more proximal. In case bipolar electrode , the potential difference difference
between two surface electrodes resting on the skin is measured. In case of unipolar electrode the reference
surface electrode is placed on the skin and the needle electrode which act as active electrode is inserted in to
the muscle , these unipoar electrode have high impedance ranging from 0.5 to 100 MΩ.

monopolar electrode configuration was therefore more sensitive to changes in muscle activity with increases
in isometric force. This is an important consideration because the rate at which muscle electrical activity
develops into a full interference pattern is an important qualitative and quantitative diagnostic measure.

Measurements are made as the difference between the signals of two sensing electrodes, separated by a
known distance. The detected signal is the sum of the action potentials (MUAPs) travelling along the
fibres.

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 UNIT I
PART-A
1. Define half cell potential and how it is generated?
The voltage developed at an electrode and its surrounding electrolyte interface is called as half cell potential
or electrode potential. Since one of the electrodes has a higher tendency to corrode compared to the other,
that electrode (anode) will oxidize and in turn will donate electrons.Half cell potential is formed due to
oxidation and reduction interface .

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2. What are the different types of electrodes used in Bipolar measurement?
Microelectrodes. Needle electrodes. Body Surface electrodes.

3. Name the electrodes used for recording EMG and ECG.

The electrodes used for recording EMG are,
 Surface electrodes like metal disk and disposable electrode.
 Needle electrodes like unipolar and bipolar electrode.

The electrodes used for recording ECG are,

 Surface electrodes like metal disk, suction cup and metal plate electrod

4. Enlist the electrodes used for recording EEG.

Surface electrodes
Needle electrodes,
Active Dry Single Gold Pin-Based Electrodes (BP GoldTraditionalWet Ag/AgCl Electrodes (Wet)
Gold Cup Electrodes allows easy placement of the electrodes on the scalp (EEG)

5. Write down the Nernst equation for resting membrane potential.

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 6. List any two recording problems occur when using bio potential electrode.

1. Electrode-electrolytenoise
2. Noiseattheelectrolyte-skininterface
3. Motionartifact
4. Liquidjunctionpotentialvariationsbyelectrodemovement
5. Electricandmagneticfieldinterference
6. Thermal noise

7. Mention the need of Gel in Bio potential measurement?

Electrode paste(Gel) is used to paste the electrode in our human body. its act as the interface between
electrode and skin.
The gel provides contact between the scalp and each electrode that greatly reduces impedance.
Otherwise, high impedance will impair signal quality and increase vulnerability to electrical artifact, such as
from external devices or movement.

8. Draw action potential wave form.

9. Draw and mark typical cell potential waveform.

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 10. Classify the electrodes based on their reaction when current passes.

polarizable electrodes have a charge separation at the electrode-electrolyte boundary whereas

non-polarizable electrodes have no charge separation at this electrode-electrolyte boundary

11. List the factors that influence the flow of ions across the cell membrane.

The concentration of ions ; 2 The opposing electric field ; 3 Permeability of ions ; 4 Active transport.

12. What is motion Artifact?How do you avoid it?

Motion artifact is a patient-based artifact that occurs with voluntary or involuntary patient movement
during image acquisition.
Minimize the degree of motion.
Suppress signal from moving tissues.
Detect and compensate for motion.
13. Draw an electrical equivalent circuit for a electrode - skin interface.

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14.What is the velocity of propagation of the action potential in the bundle branches following the AV
node?
The impulses then enter the base of the ventricle at the Bundle of His and then follow the left and right
bundle branches along the interventricular septum. These specialized fibers conduct the impulses at a very
rapid velocity (about 2 m/sec).

15.’Ag/AgCl electrodes are preferred more than the other metal electrodes for bio electric
measurements ‘ justify the statement.
One of the main advantages of using Ag/AgCl electrodes is the low noise level it generates during
biological signals recording. Ag/AgCl electrodes generate lower electrode-skin interface impedance and
lower electrode-skin interface impedance value than stainless steel electrodes

16. Define Absolute Refractory Period (ARP).

Following the generation of an action potential, there is a brief period of time during which the cell
cannot respond to any new stimulus this period , called the ABSOLUTE REFRACTORY PERIOD , lasts
about 1 Mille seconds in nerve cells.

17. Define Relative refractory period (RRP).

Following the absolute refractory period, there occurs a relative refractory period, during which another
action potential can be triggered, but a much stronger stimulation is required. In nerve cells, the relative
refractory period lasts several milliseconds
18. Write down the Goldman’s equation.

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 19. What is resting potential?
\The membrane of excitable cells readily permits the entry of K+ ions and Cl- ions, while it effectively
blocks the entry of Na+ ions. Therefore the concentration of Na+ ions inside the cell becomes much lower
than that outside the cell. Since the Na+ ions are positive, the outside cells are more positive than the
inside. Thus the charge balance is not achieved. Thus a potential difference is developed across the
membrane. This membrane potential caused by the different concentration of ions is called the resting
potential of the cell. Range: - 70mV.

20. What is action potential?

When a cell membrane is excited by some form of externally applied energy, the membrane changes its
electrical characteristics and begins to allow some of the Na+ ions to enter. The movement of Na+ ions
into the cell constitutes ionic current which further reduces the barrier of the membrane to Na+ ions. The
net result in Na+ ions rush into the cell and try to balance with the ions outside. At the same time K+ ions
present inside the cell try to leave the cell. But they are unable to move as rapidly as Na + ions. As a result
the cell has a slightly positive potential. This potential is called as action potential.
This is called action potential.Range:20mV.

21. State all or nothing law.

All or none law states that regardless of the method of excitation of cells or by the intensity of stimulus,
the action potential is always the same for any given cell.

22. Give the salient features of needle electrode.

They are of small diameter and Teflon covering allows them to slide in and out of the muscle
easily.
The needle electrode shows high electrical impedance and low signal-to-noise ratio in recordings;
23. Draw equivalent circuit of electrode.

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 24. What is sodium pump?

25. Write the types of Surface electrodes.

25. Define offset potential.

An offset potential is a voltage that is stored by the electrode. This stored voltage will add to the ECG
signal and interfere with it. (The offset potential causes the disappearance of the ECG after
defibrillation.) The amount of offset potential and the length of time required for it to dissipate are
determined by the materials used for the electrode and the gel. Certain combinations of metals and gels
generate large voltages (up to 200 millivolts) with the ability to hold this voltage for long periods of time.
Electrode materials such as silver-silver chloride do not allow significant buildup of offset potential,
whereas stainless steel electrodes have poor offset characteristics.

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 26. Comment on the biopotential electrode impedance as a function of frequency.

As the frequency increasesand the electrode impedance decreases.

27.Write the electrical properties of electrode.

Bioelectrodes should possess the following properties:

They should be good conductors

 They should have low impedance

 They should not polarize when a current flows through them
 They should establish a good contact with the body and not cause motion
 Potentials generated at the metal electrolyte (jelly) surface should be low.
 They should not cause itching, swelling or discomfort to the patient for example the metal should
not be toxic
 They should be mechanically rugged
 They should be chemically inert
 They should be easy clean

PART-B

1. Discuss the different types of Bio-potential electrodes used in measurement of Bio-signals.

2. Discuss the events that generate Half cell potential across an electrode-electrolyte interface. Also,
draw electrical equivalent circuit of the interface.

3.Draw the action potential waveform and explain the following terms. Resting potential; action
potential; refractory period and relative refractory period.
4.Explain the origin of Bio potential with neat diagram.
5. Explain the electrical equivalent circuit diagram for electrode –skin interface for a pair of
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 electrodes in bio potential recording
6. Draw and explain electrical equivalent circuit for a electrode- electrolyte interface.
7.Discuss the polarization effects of Electrode and distinguish between polarizable and Non
polarzsableelectrode .Give example for each.
8. . Explain the different types of surface electrodes with neat diagram.
9.. Explain what are the recording problems and explain motion artifact.
10. Explain the electrical properties of metal electrode and micropipette electrode with its
equivalent circuits

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