CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Reasons why electrical energy is i. Convenient form: can be easily converted into other forms of
superior to all other forms: energy
ii. Easy Control: electrically operated machines have simple
and convenient starting, control and operation
iii. Greater Flexibility: can be easily transported from one place
to another with the help of conductors.
iv. Cheapness: much cheaper than other forms of energy
v. Cleanliness: is not associated with smoke, fumes or
poisonous gases
vi. High transmission Efficiency: can be transmitted
conveniently and efficiently from the centers of generation to
the consumers with the help of overhead conductors known
as transmission lines
Generation of Electrical Energy is the conversion of energy available in different forms in nature
into electrical energy
The sources of energy: i. The Sun: primary source
ii. The Wind
iii. Water: possesses potential energy because of head
created (e.g. water turbine)
iv. Fuels: main source of energy
v. Nuclear Energy: large amount of heat energy is
liberated by the fission of uranium and other fissionable
materials
Water, fuel, and nuclear energy primarily used for the generation of electrical energy
Comparison of Energy Sources

Mechanical Energy the unit of mechanical energy is newton-metre or joule on the M.K.S. or
SI system.
Mechanical energy in joules = Force in newton × distance in metres
Electrical Energy the unit of electrical energy is watt-sec or joule and is defined as follows:
One watt-second (or joule) energy is transferred between two points if a p.d. of 1 volt exists between
them and 1 ampere current passes between them for 1 second i.e.,
Electrical energy in watt-sec (or joules) = voltage in volts × current in amperes × time
in seconds
1 watt-hour = 1 watt × 1 hr
= 1 watt × 3600 sec = 3600 watt-sec
1 kilowatt hour (kWh) = 1 kW × 1 hr = 1000 watt × 3600 sec = 36 x 105 watt-sec.
Heat form of energy which produces the sensation of warmth. The unit*
of heat is calorie, British thermal unit (B.Th.U.) and centigrade heat
units (C.H.U.) on the various systems
Calorie amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gm of water
through 1ºC
1 calorie = 1 gm of water × 1ºC
1 kilocalorie = 1 kg × 1ºC = 1000 gm × 1ºC = 1000 calories
B. Th. U. amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water
through 1ºF
1 B.Th.U. = 1 lb × 1ºF
C. H. U. amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water
through 1ºC
1 B.Th.U. = 1 lb × 1ºF
Electrical and Mechanical 1 kWh = 1 kW × 1 hr
= 1000 watts × 3600 seconds = 36 × 105 watt-sec. or Joules
∴ 1 kWh = 36 × 105 Joules
Heat and Mechanical (a) 1 calorie = 4·18 Joules (By Experiment)
(b) 1 C.H.U. = 1 lb × 1ºC = 453·6 gm × 1ºC
 = 453·6 calories = 453·6 × 4·18 Joules
= 1896 Joules
∴ 1C.H.U. = 1896 Joules
(c) 1 B.Th.U. = 1 lb × 1ºF = 453·6 gm × 5/9 ºC
= 252 calories = 252 × 4·18 Joules = 1053 Joules
∴ 1 B.Th.U. = 1053 Joules
Electrical and Heat (a) 1 kWh = 1000 watts × 3600 seconds = 36 × 105 Joules
36 × 105
= 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = 860 × 103 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
4.18
1 kWh = 860 kcal
(b) 1 kWh = 36 × 105 Joules = 36 × 105/1896 C.H.U. = 1898 C.H.U
[ 1 C.H.U. = 1896 Joules]
∴ 1 kWh = 1898 C.H.U.
36 × 105
(c) 1 kWh = 36 × 105 Joules = 𝐵. 𝑇ℎ. 𝑈. = 3418 B. Th. U.
1053
[1 B.Th.U. = 1053 Joules]
∴ 1 kWh = 3418 B.Th.U
Energy Efficiency The output energy divided by the input energy; or simply
efficiency.
𝐎𝐮𝐭𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫
Efficiency, η =
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓
Calorific Value -amount of heat produced by the complete combustion of a unit
weight of fuel
-indicates the amount of heat available from a fuel. The greater the
calorific value of fuel, the larger is its ability to produce heat.
-(solid and liquid fuels) the calorific value is expressed in cal/gm or
kcal/kg
-(gaseous fuels)
cal/litre or
kcal/litre.

Advantage of Liquid fuels over (a) The handling of liquid fuels is easier and they require less
Solid fuels: storage space.
(b) The combustion of liquid fuels is uniform.
(c) The solid fuels have higher percentage of moisture and
consequently they burn with great difficulty. However, liquid
fuels can be burnt with a fair degree of ease and attain high
temperature very quickly compared to solid fuels.
(d) The waste product of solid fuels is a large quantity of ash and
its disposal becomes a problem. However, liquid fuels leave
no or very little ash after burning.
(e) The firing of liquid fuels can be easily controlled. This permits
to meet the variation in load demand easily.
Advantages of Solid fuels over (a) In case of liquid fuels, there is a danger of explosion.
Liquid fuels (b) Liquids fuels are costlier as compared to solid fuels.
(c) Sometimes liquid fuels give unpleasant odors during burning.
(d) Liquid fuels require special types of burners for burning.
(e) Liquid fuels pose problems in cold climates since the oil
stored in the tanks is to be heated in order to avoid the
stoppage of oil flow.

CHAPTER 2: GENERATING STATIONS

Generating Stations or Power Plants Bulk electric power is produced by special plants
Prime mover converts energy from some other form into mechanical energy
alternator converts mechanical energy of the prime mover into electrical
energy
Classifications of Generating (a) Steam power stations
Stations: (b) Hydroelectric power stations
 (c) Diesel power stations
(d) Nuclear power stations
Steam Power Station (Thermal -generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion
Station) into electrical energy
-basically works on the Rankine Cycle
Advantages and Disadvantages of Advantages:
Steam Power Station (a) The fuel (i.e., coal) used is quite cheap.
(b) Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
(c) It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence
of coal. The coal can be transported to the site of the plant
by rail or road.
(d) It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric
power station.
(e) The cost of generation is lesser than that of the diesel
power station.
Disadvantages:
(a) It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large
amount of smoke and fumes.
(b) It is costlier in running cost as compared to hydroelectric
plant.
Schematic Arrangement of Steam 1. Coal and Ash handling arrangement: The coal is
Power Station transported to the power station by road or rail and is stored
in the coal storage plant. Storage of coal is primarily a
matter of protection against coal strikes, failure of
transportation system and general coal shortages.
2. Steam Generating Plant: consists of a boiler for the
production of steam and other auxiliary equipment for the
utilization of flue gases.
(a) Boiler: heat of combustion of coal in the boiler is utilised
to convert water into steam at high temperature and
pressure. The flue gases from the boiler make their
journey through super heater, economiser, air pre-
heater and are finally exhausted to atmosphere through
the chimney.
(b) Superheater: heat of combustion of coal in the boiler is
utilised to convert water into steam at high temperature
and pressure. The flue gases from the boiler make their
journey through super heater, economiser, air pre-
heater and are finally exhausted to atmosphere through
the chimney. Superheating provides two principal
benefits. Firstly, the overall efficiency is increased.
Secondly, too much condensation in the last stages of
turbine (which would cause blade corrosion) is avoided.
The superheated steam from the superheater is fed to
steam turbine through the main valve.
(c) Economiser: An economiser is essentially a feed water
heater and derives heat from the flue gases for this
purpose. The feed water is fed to the economiser before
supplying to the boiler. The economiser extracts a part
of heat of flue gases to increase the feed water
temperature.
(d) Air Preheater: An air preheater increases the
temperature of the air supplied for coal burn ing by
deriving heat from flue gases. Air is drawn from the
atmosphere by a forced draught fan and is passed
through air preheater before supplying to the boiler
furnace. The air preheater extracts heat from flue gases
and increases the temperature of air used for coal
combustion. The principal benefits of preheating the air
 are: increased thermal efficiency and increased steam
capacity per square metre of boiler surface.
3. Steam Turbine: dry and superheated steam from the
superheater is fed to the steam turbine through main valve.
The heat energy of steam when passing over the blades of
turbine is converted into mechanical energy. After giving
heat energy to the turbine, the steam is exhausted to the
condenser which condenses the exhausted steam by
means of cold water circulation.
4. Alternator: The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator.
The alternator converts mechanical energy of turbine into
electrical energy. The electrical output from the alternator
is delivered to the bus bars through transformer, circuit
breakers and isolators.
5. Feed water: The condensate from the condenser is used
as feed water to the boiler. Some water may be lost in the
cycle which is suitably made up from external source. The
feed water on its way to the boiler is heated by water
heaters and economiser. This helps in raising the overall
effi ciency of the plant.
6. Cooling Arrangement: In order to improve the efficiency
of the plant, the steam exhausted from the turbine is
condensed* by means of a condenser. Water is drawn from
a natural source of supply such as a river, canal or lake and
is circulated through the condenser. The circulating water
takes up the heat of the exhausted steam and itself
becomes hot. This hot water coming out from the
condenser is discharged at a suitable location down the
river. In case the availability of water from the source of
supply is not assured throughout the year, cooling towers
are used. During the scarcity of water in the river, hot water
from the condenser is passed on to the cooling towers
where it is cooled. The cold water from the cooling tower is
reused in the condenser
Schematic of Steam Power Station
 Choice of Site for Steam Power (a) Supply of fuel
Stations: (b) Availability of water
(c) Transportation of facilities
(d) Cost and Type of Land
(e) Nearness to load centres
(f) Distance from populated area
Efficiency of Steam Power Station The overall efficiency of a steam power station is quite low (about
29%) due mainly to two reasons:
-huge amount of heat is lost in the condenser
-heat losses occur at various stages of the plant
i. Thermal Efficiency: The ratio of heat equivalent of
mechanical energy transmitted to the turbine shaft to the
heat of combustion of coal

thermal efficiency of a modern steam power station is about 30%.

ii. Overall Efficiency: The ratio of heat equivalent of electrical
output to the heat of combustion of coal

overall efficiency of a steam power station is about 29%

Overall efficiency = Thermal efficiency × Electrical efficiency
Equipment of Steam Power Station: 1. Steam generating equipment
2. Condenser
3. Prime mover
4. Water treatment plant
5. Electrical equipment
Steam Generating Equipment It is concerned with the generation of superheated steam and
includes such items as :
i. Boiler: closed vessel in which water is converted into
steam by utilising the heat of coal combustion.
ii. Boiler furnace: a chamber in which fuel is burnt to
liberate the heat energy
iii. Superheater: a chamber in which fuel is burnt to
liberate the heat energy
iv. Economizer: device which heats the feed water on its
way to boiler by deriving heat from the flue gases.
v. Air pre-heater: recover some of the heat in the
escaping gases. The function of an air pre-heater is to
extract heat from the flue gases and give it to the air
being supplied to furnace for coal combustion.
Condenser It serves two important functions. Firstly, it creates a very low
*pressure at the exhaust of turbine, thus permitting expansion of
the steam in the prime mover to a very low pressure. Secondly, the
condensed steam can be used as feed water to the boiler.
Prime Mover converts steam energy into mechanical energy. There are two
types of steam prime movers viz., steam engines and steam
turbines.
Water Treatment The water from the source of supply is stored in storage tanks. The
suspended impurities are removed through sedimentation,
coagulation and filtration. Dissolved gases are removed by
aeration and degasification. The water is then ‘softened’ by
removing temporary and permanent hardness through different
chemical processes. The pure and soft water thus available is fed
to the boiler for steam generation.
Electrical Equipment modern power station contains numerous electrical equipment.
However, the most important items are :
 i. Alternators: Each alternator is coupled to a steam
turbine and converts mechanical energy of the turbine
into electrical energy.
ii. Transformers: types- main step-up transformers,
station transformers, auxiliary transformer
iii. Switchgear: houses such equipment which locates the
fault on the system and isolate the faulty part from the
healthy section. It contains circuit breakers, relays,
switches and other control devices.
Hydro-electric Power Station A generating station which utilises the potential energy of water at
a high level for the generation of electrical energy
Schematic Arrangement of Hydro-
electric Power Station

Choice of Site i. Availability of water

ii. Storage of water
iii. Cost and type of land
iv. Transportation facilities
Constituents of Hydro-electric Plant 1. Hydraulic structures
- Dam: barrier which stores water and creates water head.
- Spillways: are used in order to discharge the surplus water from
the storage reservoir into the river on the down-stream side of the
dam
- Headwork: consists of the diversion structures at the head of an
intake.
- Surge Tank: a small res ervoir or tank (open at the top) in which
water level rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings in the con
duit.
- Penstock: open or closed conduits which carry water to the
turbines.
2. Water turbines
-Impulse Turbine: used for high heads; entire pressure of water is
converted into kinetic energy in a nozzle and the velocity of the jet
drives the wheel
-Reaction Turbine: used for low and medium heads. In a reaction
turbine, water enters the runner partly with pressure energy and
partly with velocity head.
(a) Francis Turbine: low to medium heads. It consists of an
outer ring of stationary guide blades fixed to the turbine casing and
an inner ring of rotating blades forming the runner.
(b) Kaplan Turbine: low heads and large quantities of water
3. Electrical Equipment: includes alternators, transformers,
circuit breakers and other switching and protective devices.
Diesel Power Station A generating station in which diesel engine is used as the prime
mover for the generation of electrical energy
Advantages i. The design and layout of the plant are quite simple.
ii. It occupies less space as the number and size of the
auxiliaries is small.
iii. It can be located at any place.
iv. It can be started quickly and can pick up load in a short time.
v. There are no standby losses.
 vi.
It requires less quantity of water for cooling.
vii.
The overall cost is much less than that of steam power
station of the same capacity.
viii. The thermal efficiency of the plant is higher than that of a
steam power station.
ix. It requires less operating staff
Disadvantages i. The plant has high running charges as the fuel (i.e., diesel)
used is costly.
ii. The plant does not work satisfactorily under overload
conditions for a longer period.
iii. The plant can only generate small power.
iv. The cost of lubrication is generally high.
v. The maintenance charges are generally high
Schematic Arrangement i. Fuel Supply System: consists of storage tank, strainers,
fuel transfer pump and all day fuel tank
ii. Air intake System: supplies necessary air to the engine
for fuel combustion
iii. Exhaust System: leads the engine exhaust gas outside
the building and dis charges it into atmosphere
iv. Cooling System: consists of a water source, pump and
cooling towers
v. Lubricating System: minimises the wear of rubbing
surfaces of the engine
vi. Engine starting system: an arrangement to rotate the
engine initially, while starting, until firing starts and the unit
runs with its own power
Schematic Arrangement of Diesel Power Station

Nuclear Power Station - A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted

into electrical energy. e.g. Uranium 𝑈 235, Thorium 𝑇ℎ232
- most important feature of a nuclear power station is that
huge amount of electrical energy can be produced from a
relatively small amount of nuclear fuel as compared to other
conventional types of power stations
Advantages i. The amount of fuel required is quite small. Therefore,
there is a considerable saving in the cost of fuel
transportation.
ii. A nuclear power plant requires less space as compared
to any other type of the same size.
 iii. It has low running charges as a small amount of fuel is
used for producing bulk electrical energy.
iv. This type of plant is very economical for producing bulk
electric power.
v. It can be located near the load centres because it does
not require large quantities of water and need not be
near coal mines. Therefore, the cost of primary
distribution is reduced.
vi. There are large deposits of nuclear fuels available all
over the world. Therefore, such plants can ensure
continued supply of electrical energy for thousands of
years.
vii. It ensures reliability of operation
Disadvantages i. The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover.
ii. The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as
compared to other types of plants.
iii. The erection and commissioning of the plant requires
greater technical know-how.
iv. The fission by-products are generally radioactive and
may cause a dangerous amount of radioactive pollution
Fission The breaking up of nuclei of heavy atoms into two nearly equal
parts with release of huge amount of energy
Schematic Arrangement i. Nuclear reactor: an apparatus in which nuclear fuel
(U235) is subjected to nuclear fission. It controls the
chain reaction*
ii. Heat exchanger: coolant gives up heat to the heat
exchanger which is utilised in raising the steam
iii. Steam turbine
iv. Alternator: steam turbine drives the alternator which
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Selection of Site for Nuclear Power i. Availability of water
Plant ii. Disposal of waste
iii. Distance form populated areas
iv. Transportation facilities
Gas Turbine Power Plant A generating station which employs gas turbine as the prime mover for
the generation of electrical energy; air as working fluid
Advantages It is simple in design as compared to steam power station since no boilers
and their auxilia ries are required. (ii) It is much smaller in size as
compared to steam power station of the same capacity. This is expected
since gas turbine power plant does not require boiler, feed water
arrangement etc. The initial and operating costs are much lower than
that of equivalent steam power station. (iv) It requires comparatively
less water as no condenser is used. (v) The maintenance charges are
quite small. (vi) Gas turbines are much simpler in construction and
operation than steam turbines. (vii) It can be started quickly form cold
conditions. (viii) There are no standby losses. However, in a steam power
station, these losses occur because boiler is kept in operation even when
the steam turbine is supplying no load.
Disadvantages There is a problem for starting the unit. It is because before starting the
turbine, the com pressor has to be operated for which power is required
from some external source. How ever, once the unit starts, the external
power is not needed as the turbine itself supplies the necessary power
to the compressor. (ii) Since a greater part of power developed by the
turbine is used in driving the compressor, the net output is low. (iii) The
overall efficiency of such plants is low (about 20%) because the exhaust
gases from the turbine contain sufficient heat. (iv) The temperature of
combustion chamber is quite high (3000oF) so that its life is compara
tively reduced.
 Schematic Arrangement for Gas i. Compressor
Turbine Power Plant ii. Regenerator
iii. Combustion chamber
iv. Gas turbine
v. Alternator
vi. Starting motor
Schematic Diagram of Gas Turbine Power Plant

CHAPTER 3: VARIABLE LOAD ON POWER STATIONS

Variable Load on Power Stations The load on a power station varies from time to time due to
uncertain demands of the consumers
Effects of Variable Load i. Need of additional equipment
ii. Increase in production cost
Load Curve curve showing the variation of load on the power station with
respect to (w.r.t) time
Connected Load curve showing the variation of load on the power station with
respect to (w.r.t) time
Maximum Demand the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given
period
Average Load average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period
(day or month or year)
Load Factor ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given
period
Diversity Factor ratio of the sum of individual maximum demands to the maximum
demand on power station
Plant capacity factor he ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy
that could have been produced during a given period i.e.,
Plant use factor ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy
that could have been produced during a given period i.e.,
Load Duration Curve When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order
of descending magnitudes, the curve thus obtained
Types of Loads i. Domestic load
ii. Commercial load
iii. Industrial load
iv. Municipal load
v. Irrigation load
vi. Transaction load
Domestic Load consists of lights, fans, refrigerators, heaters, television, small
motors for pumping water etc
 Commercial Load Consists of lighting for shops, fans and electric appliances used in
restaurants etc. This class of load occurs for more hours during
the day as compared to the domestic load.
Industrial Load consists of load demand by industries
Municipal Load consists of street lighting, power required for water supply and
drainage purposes
Irrigation Load electric power needed for pumps driven by motors to supply water
to fields
Transaction Load includes tram cars, trolley buses, railways etc. This class of load
has wide variation.
Base Load The unvarying load which occurs almost the whole day on the
station
Peak Load The various peak demands of load over and above the base load of the
station
Interconnected Grid System i. Exchange peak loads
ii. Use of older plants
iii. Ensures economical operation
iv. Increase diversity factor
v. Reduces plant reserve capacity
vi. Increases reliability of supply

DIESEL POWER PLANT

Used when: - Demand power is less

- Sufficient quantity of coal and water is not available
Application: - 2 to 50 MW capacity
- Can be used as a stand-by plants to hydro-electric power
plants
Diesel Power Station Generating station in which diesel engine is used as the prime
mover for the generation of electrical energy
Mechanism: a. Air charging
b. Compression
c. Ignition
d. Exhaust